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<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Jiang Hao 姜好 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> '''Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay &quot;''Back View''&quot; (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br /> <br /> 通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br /> <br /> 据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''&quot;Report On the Massacre of the Government''&quot;[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br /> <br /> ''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br /> <br /> 我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br /> <br /> ''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> ''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br /> <br /> ''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br /> 经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his &quot;''Ways to die''&quot;[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds &quot;to be shot&quot; the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br /> <br /> The essay &quot;''Facing the New China''&quot;[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> ''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br /> <br /> A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''&quot;Today's duty of the Intellectuals''&quot;[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br /> <br /> “中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br /> <br /> ”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br /> <br /> Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br /> <br /> 我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br /> <br /> 分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br /> <br /> The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> 1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br /> <br /> 2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br /> <br /> 3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> 1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br /> <br /> 2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br /> <br /> 3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br /> <br /> 1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> 2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> 3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br /> <br /> Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br /> <br /> 2、社会政治 在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。 在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。<br /> <br /> 3，个人 在香港 关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。<br /> <br /> 在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> <br /> 政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br /> <br /> 政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;''On dreams''&quot;[ &quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (&quot;''My own garden''&quot;[ 9.1923.], &quot;''The Fly''&quot;[ 1924.], &quot;''Reading on the Toilet''&quot;[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> 非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's &quot;Moon traces&quot;, which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's &quot;''Paradise for Birds''&quot;, which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br /> <br /> 上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br /> <br /> Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, &quot;The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China&quot;, in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi feng huixin 一封回信&quot; (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文&quot; (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: &quot;Duli sikao 獨立思考&quot; (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1962, &quot;Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心&quot; (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: &quot;Wenxue tan 文學談&quot; (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, &quot;Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship),&quot; in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求&quot; (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br /> <br /> Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> '''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br /> <br /> ''吴漠汀''<br /> <br /> 在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> '''1. The unknown genre'''<br /> <br /> The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br /> <br /> 由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。 现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> '''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term &quot;wu yunwen&quot; which corresponds to the term &quot;epic&quot; in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> 在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> &quot;Essay&quot;, Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> “散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br /> 散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br /> 资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> 地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。<br /> <br /> 对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it &quot;Chinese&quot;? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br /> <br /> 除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the &quot;unfinished diary&quot; or the &quot;unfinished letter&quot;. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: &quot;essay in diary form&quot; and &quot;essay in letter form&quot;), they are accepted as essays. <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' &quot;non-rhythmic prose&quot;, which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning &quot;short literary essay pieces&quot;. <br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> '''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br /> <br /> 在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br /> <br /> 更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> '''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br /> 研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br /> 散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br /> <br /> Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br /> <br /> 文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br /> <br /> 感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br /> <br /> Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br /> <br /> - The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection &quot;Modern Chinese Literary Thought&quot; 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br /> <br /> 为什么论文像小说一样丰富？<br /> <br /> 让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：<br /> <br /> -这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现 ）。 对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响， 并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br /> <br /> - The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br /> <br /> - 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> - The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br /> <br /> - The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> - The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> '''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br /> The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br /> <br /> 3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br /> 由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br /> <br /> 3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置<br /> 从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br /> <br /> 关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br /> 在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> <br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> '''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br /> <br /> I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br /> <br /> We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br /> <br /> '''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br /> <br /> How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br /> <br /> 下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br /> <br /> 5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br /> 中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br /> <br /> From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br /> <br /> In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br /> <br /> “詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br /> 在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br /> 在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br /> <br /> In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br /> <br /> During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br /> <br /> Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br /> <br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br /> <br /> Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the &quot;Eight legged essay&quot; as as appealing and intoxicating as the &quot;pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br /> <br /> 目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br /> 现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 &quot;八股文 &quot;的语言节奏看作是 &quot;做鸦片的快感 &quot;一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br /> <br /> 前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br /> <br /> Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br /> <br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br /> <br /> '''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br /> <br /> To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br /> <br /> This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br /> <br /> 以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> for example, Lu Xun with his theory &quot;'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論&quot;&quot; (Theory of &quot;Starting&quot; and &quot;Blossoming&quot;) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his &quot;Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論&quot; (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br /> <br /> 例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the &quot;Fly&quot;, he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins &quot;Thoughts&quot; (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br /> <br /> The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br /> <br /> I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br /> <br /> 除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, &quot;The Fly&quot; 1924, &quot;Reading on the Toilet&quot; 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a &quot;traitor&quot;. Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> ''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br /> <br /> ''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' &quot;The wolves are coming&quot; ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br /> <br /> In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> With these words from the essay &quot;''The aesthetic essay''&quot; this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the &quot;king of essays&quot;. <br /> <br /> In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br /> <br /> “美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br /> <br /> 为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea &quot;l'art pour l'art&quot; , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br /> <br /> &quot;I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless &quot;monsters&quot; and &quot;goblins&quot; are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown.&quot; <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Confronting tradition and progress in the essay &quot;''Ancestor Worship''&quot;, he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br /> <br /> Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: &quot;''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''&quot; 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br /> <br /> 见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br /> <br /> 参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had &quot;duoluo 墮落&quot; (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br /> <br /> On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on &quot;''The Fly''&quot;, where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he &quot;saw only the fly and not the cosmos&quot; , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br /> <br /> His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: &quot;Cangying 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br /> <br /> ''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay &quot;''Cangying'' 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br /> 他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br /> <br /> 他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br /> <br /> '''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> ''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: &quot;''Anxiang'' 安详&quot; (Serene) 1992, &quot;''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事&quot; (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (&quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;, Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (&quot;''The nightmare''&quot;, Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> 这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br /> 从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br /> 从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> - The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br /> <br /> - The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> - A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> - The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> - 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。&quot;[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代&quot;(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br /> <br /> - 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br /> <br /> - 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> - 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> -当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br /> <br /> -对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> - The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br /> <br /> - Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). <br /> <br /> - The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay &quot;''The Back View''&quot;, filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br /> <br /> - ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> ''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br /> <br /> - ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> ''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br /> <br /> - Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot;, written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (&quot;''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''&quot;, Ba Jin 1984).<br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's &quot;''Rain in Kunming''&quot; as well as for Jia Pingwa's &quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;. <br /> 类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br /> <br /> - The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br /> 施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br /> <br /> Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay &quot;The nightmare&quot;, where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong &quot;woman soldier&quot; .（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> '''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br /> <br /> Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br /> <br /> - People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> - If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br /> <br /> - Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> - The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br /> <br /> - 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br /> <br /> '''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br /> <br /> Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> ''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br /> <br /> 红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> <br /> “红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> '''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br /> <br /> To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br /> <br /> However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> '''2. Compatibility<br /> '''<br /> Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br /> <br /> First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br /> <br /> '''2. 兼容性<br /> '''<br /> 为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br /> <br /> 首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> '''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br /> <br /> There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br /> <br /> 然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br /> <br /> '''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br /> --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br /> <br /> '''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br /> <br /> According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br /> <br /> 小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。<br /> <br /> The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br /> <br /> 虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br /> <br /> '''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br /> <br /> Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 &quot;时间精神&quot;(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br /> 这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).<br /> <br /> 德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br /> <br /> '''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br /> <br /> Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6.色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6。色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br /> <br /> According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br /> <br /> The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br /> <br /> In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br /> <br /> Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br /> <br /> 在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br /> <br /> 在第一章中，他说：&quot;年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道&quot;。<br /> <br /> &quot;情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（&quot;云和雨的游戏&quot;），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br /> <br /> <br /> 在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。<br /> <br /> 在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”<br /> <br /> 情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br /> <br /> While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> '''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br /> <br /> A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br /> <br /> 封建社会和奴隶<br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br /> <br /> 另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> '''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br /> <br /> Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as &quot;tragedy of all tragedies&quot;. To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br /> <br /> 在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> '''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br /> <br /> One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br /> <br /> 9. “非二进制小说”<br /> <br /> 可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> “非二元”小说<br /> <br /> 一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br /> According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> '''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br /> <br /> Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br /> <br /> 10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br /> 红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br /> <br /> '''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br /> <br /> Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br /> <br /> Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> '''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br /> '''<br /> <br /> A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br /> <br /> 这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br /> <br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br /> <br /> 研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 &quot;Schufa&quot;，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br /> <br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 &quot;牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上&quot;，到 &quot;老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧&quot;。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br /> 实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> “Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br /> <br /> The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br /> <br /> 当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。&quot;；甚至&quot;利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。&quot;<br /> 目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br /> <br /> 当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br /> <br /> 这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> '''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br /> <br /> 卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br /> 在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br /> <br /> 本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br /> <br /> 虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br /> <br /> The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br /> <br /> 但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br /> 传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br /> <br /> 机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br /> <br /> '''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br /> <br /> 1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br /> <br /> 2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br /> <br /> 3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br /> <br /> 4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br /> 甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br /> <br /> &quot;两种类型的交际行为&quot;<br /> <br /> 1.<br /> 文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br /> <br /> 2.<br /> 上网行为(浏览网站)<br /> <br /> 3.<br /> 消费者行为(购买)<br /> <br /> 4.<br /> 喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.<br /> 持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.<br /> 习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> 7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br /> <br /> 8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br /> <br /> 9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel  Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br /> <br /> <br /> 7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br /> <br /> 8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br /> <br /> 9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> '''3 Types of analysis'''<br /> <br /> 1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br /> <br /> 2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br /> <br /> 3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br /> <br /> 4.Mobility profile/pattern<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> 5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> 7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br /> <br /> 8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the &quot;clickworker&quot; company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br /> <br /> 9.Secrets (like adultery)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> '''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br /> <br /> 1.the human switches from active to passive<br /> <br /> 2.the human switches from subject to object<br /> <br /> 3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br /> <br /> 4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br /> <br /> 5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br /> <br /> 4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 &quot;媒介5.0时代&quot;和 &quot;虚拟通信 &quot;这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br /> <br /> 1.人从主动到被动的转换<br /> <br /> 2.人从主体到客体的转换<br /> <br /> 3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br /> <br /> 4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br /> <br /> 5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> 6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br /> <br /> 7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br /> <br /> 8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br /> <br /> 9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br /> <br /> 6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br /> <br /> 7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br /> <br /> 8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br /> <br /> 9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br /> <br /> '''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br /> <br /> 2.Filter bubbles =&gt; supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br /> <br /> 到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br /> <br /> '''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br /> <br /> 1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br /> <br /> 2.过滤泡沫=&gt;支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> 3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br /> <br /> 4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br /> <br /> 5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br /> <br /> 6.Identity theft<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> <br /> 4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br /> <br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> <br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> 4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> '''6 Consequences'''<br /> <br /> 1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通讯大多是 &quot;隐蔽 &quot;的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 &quot;危险 &quot;而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''6.后果<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> 2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br /> <br /> 3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br /> <br /> 4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br /> <br /> 5.Polarization of Society<br /> <br /> 6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br /> <br /> 7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会的两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 &quot;真实 &quot;的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> 8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br /> <br /> 9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br /> '''<br /> 7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br /> <br /> 1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br /> <br /> 2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted =&gt; simulation<br /> <br /> 8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模8拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模拟迫近的未来<br /> 1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=&gt;模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模8拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> '''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br /> <br /> Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br /> Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''8 结论与展望''' <br /> <br /> 数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br /> <br /> 尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br /> <br /> '''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br /> '''<br /> '''<br /> The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br /> '''<br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> '''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br /> '''<br /> <br /> AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br /> <br /> 人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br /> <br /> 人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> '''9 Outlook'''<br /> <br /> We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br /> <br /> '''References<br /> '''<br /> （参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br /> <br /> Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br /> <br /> Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br /> <br /> Booth, T. &quot;Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics.&quot; ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br /> <br /> Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br /> <br /> Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br /> <br /> Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br /> <br /> Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br /> <br /> https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br /> <br /> Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). &quot;Predicting personality with social media.&quot; ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br /> <br /> Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). &quot;Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students.&quot; Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br /> <br /> Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br /> <br /> Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br /> <br /> https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br /> <br /> Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., &amp; Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br /> <br /> Ruan, Lotus, et al. &quot;One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally.&quot; (2016).<br /> Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). &quot;Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study.&quot; ''Social Science &amp; Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br /> <br /> Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br /> <br /> Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). &quot;The social media disorder scale.&quot; ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br /> <br /> Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. &quot;ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity.&quot; ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br /> <br /> Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> '''Bio'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br /> Woesler has co-edited the books &quot;China's Digital Dream&quot;, &quot;Ethics of Information Society&quot; and Springer has scheduled to publish the book &quot;Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation&quot; including his book chapter &quot;Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids&quot; in February 2021.<br /> <br /> 个人简历<br /> <br /> 自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College &quot;Media Cultures of Computer Simulations&quot; 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=119416 2020-12-27T15:23:57Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> '''Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay &quot;''Back View''&quot; (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br /> <br /> 通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br /> <br /> 据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''&quot;Report On the Massacre of the Government''&quot;[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br /> <br /> ''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br /> <br /> 我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br /> <br /> ''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> ''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br /> <br /> ''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br /> 经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his &quot;''Ways to die''&quot;[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds &quot;to be shot&quot; the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br /> <br /> The essay &quot;''Facing the New China''&quot;[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> ''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br /> <br /> A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''&quot;Today's duty of the Intellectuals''&quot;[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br /> <br /> “中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br /> <br /> ”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br /> <br /> Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br /> <br /> 我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br /> <br /> 分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br /> <br /> The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> 1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br /> <br /> 2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br /> <br /> 3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> 1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br /> <br /> 2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br /> <br /> 3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br /> <br /> 1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br /> <br /> 1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> 2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> 3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br /> <br /> Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br /> <br /> 2、社会政治 在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。 在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。<br /> <br /> 3，个人 在香港 关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。<br /> <br /> 在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> <br /> 政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br /> <br /> 政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;''On dreams''&quot;[ &quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (&quot;''My own garden''&quot;[ 9.1923.], &quot;''The Fly''&quot;[ 1924.], &quot;''Reading on the Toilet''&quot;[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> 非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's &quot;Moon traces&quot;, which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's &quot;''Paradise for Birds''&quot;, which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br /> <br /> 上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br /> <br /> Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, &quot;The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China&quot;, in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi feng huixin 一封回信&quot; (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: &quot;Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文&quot; (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: &quot;Duli sikao 獨立思考&quot; (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br /> <br /> Ba Jin 1962, &quot;Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心&quot; (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: &quot;Wenxue tan 文學談&quot; (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, &quot;Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship),&quot; in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求&quot; (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br /> <br /> Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br /> <br /> Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br /> <br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> '''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br /> <br /> ''吴漠汀''<br /> <br /> 在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀<br /> <br /> 本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> '''1. The unknown genre'''<br /> <br /> The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''1.未知体裁'''<br /> <br /> 20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br /> <br /> 由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。 现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> '''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term &quot;wu yunwen&quot; which corresponds to the term &quot;epic&quot; in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> 在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> &quot;Essay&quot;, Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> “散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br /> 散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br /> 资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> 地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it &quot;Chinese&quot;? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br /> <br /> 除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the &quot;unfinished diary&quot; or the &quot;unfinished letter&quot;. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: &quot;essay in diary form&quot; and &quot;essay in letter form&quot;), they are accepted as essays. <br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' &quot;non-rhythmic prose&quot;, which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning &quot;short literary essay pieces&quot;. <br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> '''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br /> <br /> 在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br /> <br /> 更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br /> <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> '''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br /> <br /> Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br /> 研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br /> 散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br /> <br /> Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br /> <br /> 文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br /> <br /> 感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br /> <br /> Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br /> <br /> - The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection &quot;Modern Chinese Literary Thought&quot; 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br /> <br /> - The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br /> <br /> - 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br /> <br /> -散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> - The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br /> <br /> - The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> - The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> '''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br /> The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br /> <br /> 3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br /> 由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br /> <br /> 3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置<br /> 从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br /> <br /> 在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br /> <br /> 关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br /> 在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br /> <br /> 然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> '''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br /> <br /> I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br /> <br /> We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br /> <br /> '''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br /> <br /> How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br /> <br /> 下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br /> <br /> 5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br /> 中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br /> <br /> From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br /> <br /> In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br /> <br /> “詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br /> 在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br /> 在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br /> <br /> In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br /> <br /> During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br /> <br /> 历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br /> <br /> Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br /> <br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br /> 考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br /> <br /> Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the &quot;Eight legged essay&quot; as as appealing and intoxicating as the &quot;pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br /> <br /> 目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br /> 现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 &quot;八股文 &quot;的语言节奏看作是 &quot;做鸦片的快感 &quot;一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br /> <br /> 前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br /> <br /> Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br /> <br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br /> <br /> 理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br /> <br /> '''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br /> <br /> To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br /> <br /> This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br /> <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br /> <br /> 以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> for example, Lu Xun with his theory &quot;'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論&quot;&quot; (Theory of &quot;Starting&quot; and &quot;Blossoming&quot;) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his &quot;Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論&quot; (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br /> <br /> 例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the &quot;Fly&quot;, he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins &quot;Thoughts&quot; (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br /> <br /> The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br /> <br /> I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br /> <br /> 除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be &quot;art pourt l'art&quot;.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (&quot;Shuo meng 說夢&quot; On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, &quot;The Fly&quot; 1924, &quot;Reading on the Toilet&quot; 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br /> <br /> 一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a &quot;traitor&quot;. Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> ''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br /> <br /> ''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' &quot;The wolves are coming&quot; ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br /> <br /> In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> With these words from the essay &quot;''The aesthetic essay''&quot; this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the &quot;king of essays&quot;. <br /> <br /> In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br /> <br /> “美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br /> <br /> 为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea &quot;l'art pour l'art&quot; , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br /> <br /> &quot;I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless &quot;monsters&quot; and &quot;goblins&quot; are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown.&quot; <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Confronting tradition and progress in the essay &quot;''Ancestor Worship''&quot;, he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br /> <br /> Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br /> <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept &quot;Kunst um der Kunst willen&quot; zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: &quot;''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''&quot; 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br /> <br /> 见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br /> <br /> 参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had &quot;duoluo 墮落&quot; (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br /> <br /> On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br /> <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on &quot;''The Fly''&quot;, where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he &quot;saw only the fly and not the cosmos&quot; , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br /> <br /> His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br /> <br /> Siehe Zhou Zuoren: &quot;Cangying 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br /> <br /> ''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay &quot;''Cangying'' 蒼蠅&quot; (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br /> 他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br /> <br /> 他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br /> <br /> '''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> ''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: &quot;''Anxiang'' 安详&quot; (Serene) 1992, &quot;''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事&quot; (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (&quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;, Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (&quot;''The nightmare''&quot;, Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> 这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br /> 从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br /> 20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br /> 从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> - The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br /> <br /> - The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> - A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> - The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> - 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。&quot;[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代&quot;(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br /> <br /> - 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br /> <br /> - 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> - 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> -当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br /> <br /> -对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br /> <br /> -通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br /> <br /> -日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> - The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br /> <br /> - Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: &quot;readers&quot;). <br /> <br /> - The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay &quot;''The Back View''&quot;, filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous &quot;''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''&quot;, both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in &quot;''Wild vegetables of my home region''&quot; by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br /> <br /> - ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> ''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br /> <br /> - ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> ''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br /> <br /> - Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot;, written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (&quot;''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''&quot;, Ba Jin 1984).<br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's &quot;''Rain in Kunming''&quot; as well as for Jia Pingwa's &quot;''Shanxi opera''&quot;. <br /> 类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br /> <br /> - The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br /> 施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br /> <br /> Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay &quot;The nightmare&quot;, where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong &quot;woman soldier&quot; .（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> '''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br /> <br /> Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br /> <br /> - People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> - If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br /> <br /> - Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> - The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br /> <br /> - 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br /> <br /> '''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br /> <br /> 吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br /> <br /> Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br /> <br /> 在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> ''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br /> <br /> 红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> <br /> “红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改&lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;）<br /> <br /> 多元一体<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br /> --[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> '''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br /> <br /> To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br /> <br /> However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> '''2. Compatibility<br /> '''<br /> Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br /> <br /> First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br /> <br /> '''2. 兼容性<br /> '''<br /> 为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br /> <br /> 首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br /> <br /> '''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br /> <br /> There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br /> <br /> 然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br /> <br /> '''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br /> --[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br /> <br /> '''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br /> <br /> According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br /> <br /> 小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。<br /> <br /> The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br /> <br /> 《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br /> <br /> 虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br /> <br /> '''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br /> <br /> Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> 然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 &quot;时间精神&quot;(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).<br /> <br /> 德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br /> <br /> '''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br /> <br /> Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6.色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br /> “6。色情与真爱，女性对手&quot;<br /> 性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br /> <br /> According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br /> <br /> The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br /> <br /> In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br /> <br /> Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br /> <br /> 在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br /> <br /> 在第一章中，他说：&quot;年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道&quot;。<br /> <br /> &quot;情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（&quot;云和雨的游戏&quot;），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br /> <br /> <br /> 在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。<br /> <br /> 在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”<br /> <br /> 情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br /> <br /> While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> '''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br /> <br /> A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br /> <br /> 封建社会和奴隶<br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> 一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br /> <br /> 另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> 2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> '''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br /> <br /> Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br /> <br /> 亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as &quot;tragedy of all tragedies&quot;. To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br /> <br /> 在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> <br /> '''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br /> <br /> One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br /> <br /> 9. “非二进制小说”<br /> <br /> 可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> “非二元”小说<br /> <br /> 一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br /> According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> '''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br /> <br /> Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br /> <br /> 10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br /> 红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br /> <br /> '''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br /> <br /> Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br /> <br /> Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br /> <br /> Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> '''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br /> '''<br /> <br /> A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br /> <br /> Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br /> <br /> 算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br /> <br /> 这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ----<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br /> <br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br /> <br /> 研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 &quot;Schufa&quot;，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br /> <br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br /> --[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br /> <br /> 引言<br /> <br /> 在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 &quot;牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上&quot;，到 &quot;老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧&quot;。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br /> 实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> “Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br /> <br /> The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br /> <br /> 当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。&quot;；甚至&quot;利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。&quot;<br /> 目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br /> <br /> “让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br /> <br /> 当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br /> <br /> 这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> '''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br /> <br /> Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br /> <br /> This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br /> <br /> 卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br /> 在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br /> <br /> 本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br /> <br /> 虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br /> <br /> The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br /> <br /> 但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br /> <br /> 传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br /> 传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br /> <br /> 机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br /> <br /> '''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br /> <br /> 1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br /> <br /> 2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br /> <br /> 3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br /> <br /> 4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br /> 甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br /> <br /> &quot;两种类型的交际行为&quot;<br /> <br /> 1.<br /> 文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br /> <br /> 2.<br /> 上网行为(浏览网站)<br /> <br /> 3.<br /> 消费者行为(购买)<br /> <br /> 4.<br /> 喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br /> <br /> 5.<br /> 持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br /> <br /> 6.<br /> 习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> 7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br /> <br /> 8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br /> <br /> 9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel  Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br /> <br /> <br /> 7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br /> <br /> 8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br /> <br /> 9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> '''3 Types of analysis'''<br /> <br /> 1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br /> <br /> 2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br /> <br /> 3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br /> <br /> 4.Mobility profile/pattern<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> 5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br /> <br /> 6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> 7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br /> <br /> 8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the &quot;clickworker&quot; company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br /> <br /> 9.Secrets (like adultery)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> '''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br /> <br /> 1.the human switches from active to passive<br /> <br /> 2.the human switches from subject to object<br /> <br /> 3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br /> <br /> 4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br /> <br /> 5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br /> <br /> 4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 &quot;媒介5.0时代&quot;和 &quot;虚拟通信 &quot;这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br /> <br /> 1.人从主动到被动的转换<br /> <br /> 2.人从主体到客体的转换<br /> <br /> 3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br /> <br /> 4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br /> <br /> 5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> 6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br /> <br /> 7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br /> <br /> 8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br /> <br /> 9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br /> <br /> 6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br /> <br /> 7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br /> <br /> 8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br /> <br /> 9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br /> <br /> '''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br /> <br /> 2.Filter bubbles =&gt; supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br /> <br /> 到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br /> <br /> '''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br /> <br /> 1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br /> <br /> 2.过滤泡沫=&gt;支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> 3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br /> <br /> 4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br /> <br /> 5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br /> <br /> 6.Identity theft<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> <br /> 4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br /> <br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> <br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br /> 4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br /> 5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br /> 6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> '''6 Consequences'''<br /> <br /> 1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通讯大多是 &quot;隐蔽 &quot;的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 &quot;危险 &quot;而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 6.后果<br /> <br /> 1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''6.后果<br /> '''<br /> <br /> 1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> 2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br /> <br /> 3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br /> <br /> 4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br /> <br /> 5.Polarization of Society<br /> <br /> 6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br /> <br /> 7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会的两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 &quot;真实 &quot;的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br /> <br /> 3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br /> <br /> 4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br /> <br /> 5.社会两极分化<br /> <br /> 6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br /> <br /> 7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> 8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br /> <br /> 9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br /> '''<br /> 7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br /> <br /> 1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br /> <br /> 2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted =&gt; simulation<br /> <br /> 8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模8拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模拟迫近的未来<br /> 1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=&gt;模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br /> 9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br /> '''<br /> 7模8拟即将到来的未来<br /> 1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br /> 2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=&gt;模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> '''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br /> <br /> Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br /> Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''8 结论与展望''' <br /> <br /> 数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br /> <br /> 尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br /> <br /> '''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br /> '''<br /> '''<br /> The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br /> '''<br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br /> <br /> '''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br /> <br /> 所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> '''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br /> '''<br /> <br /> AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br /> <br /> 人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br /> <br /> 人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> '''9 Outlook'''<br /> <br /> We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br /> <br /> '''References<br /> '''<br /> （参考文献不用翻译）<br /> <br /> AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br /> <br /> Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br /> <br /> Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br /> <br /> Booth, T. &quot;Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics.&quot; ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br /> <br /> Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br /> <br /> Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br /> <br /> Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br /> <br /> Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br /> <br /> https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br /> <br /> Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). &quot;Predicting personality with social media.&quot; ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br /> <br /> Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). &quot;Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students.&quot; Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br /> <br /> Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br /> <br /> Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br /> <br /> https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br /> <br /> Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., &amp; Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br /> <br /> Ruan, Lotus, et al. &quot;One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally.&quot; (2016).<br /> Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). &quot;Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study.&quot; ''Social Science &amp; Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br /> <br /> Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br /> <br /> Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). &quot;The social media disorder scale.&quot; ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br /> <br /> Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. &quot;ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity.&quot; ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br /> <br /> Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> '''Bio'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br /> Woesler has co-edited the books &quot;China's Digital Dream&quot;, &quot;Ethics of Information Society&quot; and Springer has scheduled to publish the book &quot;Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation&quot; including his book chapter &quot;Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids&quot; in February 2021.<br /> <br /> 个人简历<br /> <br /> 自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College &quot;Media Cultures of Computer Simulations&quot; 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=118965 2020-12-21T16:20:37Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking Between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of cultural identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his cultural identity. While each culture also has its own peculiarities and can throw influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking is the brain’s generalized and indirect reflecting process of the general characteristics and laws of objective things.” (Liu Kuilin, 1989:9) It is a dynamic process of reflecting the objective facts and worlds. Hence it is largely influenced by the outside cultures. In general, different culture leads to different thinking patterns which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related like three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people to develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates the “subject-object dichotomy” and then explains the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logical conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationships between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. (1994: 84)<br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some Chinese works, writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stresses the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the severe natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, the Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human beings are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked that authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority use of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used to show their objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” patterns are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often uses the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tends to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be demonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully exemplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。— 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。—杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself views the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction have been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison of four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two languages. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Reference===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> *Bao Huinan. 包惠南. (2001)【M】文化语境与语言翻译 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation. 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching. 外语与外语教学.<br /> *Liu Kuilin. 刘奎林. (1989) 《思维、思维科学导论》【M】 Introduction to Thinking and Thinking Science. Beijing: Workers publishing House 工人出版社. <br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 江西教育出版社.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD. 台北东大图书公司.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. (1994) 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. (2003) 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学, Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. Changchun: Jilin Education Press. 吉林教育出版社.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 08:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory (Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field (Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language (Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level (Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot; (Nida 1993, 118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida 1995, 224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898) （Zhang Xi 2014, 1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so (Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance. (Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics (Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately (Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure (Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information (Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation (Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning (Zhu Haotong 2006, 65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods (Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty (Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters (Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods (Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works (Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation (Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels (Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again (Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time (Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness (Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943, 89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on (Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗? (杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences. Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence (Nida 1946, 55). He thinks there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences (Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text (Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> (Thackeray 2016, 75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013, 76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences (Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence (Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty? (Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？ (杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis (Guo Dingju 2013, 40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent (Nida &amp; Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty (Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information (Nida 1969, 30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely (Guo Dingju 2013, 44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence (Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class (Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper (Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu 202070080618 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; ''2019 Government Work Report''; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the State Council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the Prime Minister of State Court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the ''2019 Government Work Report'' is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of ''Government Work Report'', which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the ''Government Work Report''. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of ''Government Work Report'' at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Rhetorical Level ====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of ''Government Work Report'' vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The ''Government Work Report'' is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese ''Government Work Report'' from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the ''Government Work Report'' translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) <br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. 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Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 20207080605&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, but also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, study the human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable that knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:22)<br /> <br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:197).<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:198-200).<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself(Yi Jing, 2009:200-215).<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.(Yi Jing, 2009:215-268).<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. (Yi Jing, 2009:268-281).<br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:281-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive.<br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> <br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukan陈福康.(2000)中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China]].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> [2]Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2016)当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起[The Pattern of Translation Studies in the World -- On the Rise of Chinese Translation Studies in the 21st Century] 外语教学理论与实践. Foreign Language Learning Theory and Pactice（3):55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]Lan Hongjun蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究[From Subject Consciousness to Theoretical Construction: A Study of Chinese Translation Theory (1987-2017).]中国翻译.Chinese Translation(39):7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1987)必须建立翻译学[Translatology muct be Established].中国翻译.Chinese Translation.(b3): 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2005)翻译学[A Series of Translation Studies in China].Wu Han:Hu Bei Education Press 武汉:湖北教育出版社,.<br /> <br /> [6]Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009)翻译学概论[An Introduction to Translation Studies].Nan Jing:Yi Lin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br /> <br /> [7]Yi Jing易经.(2009)试论翻译学体系的构建[On the Construction of the System of Translatology].Hu Nan Normal University 湖南师范大学.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 翻译学 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) <br /> <br /> ST:<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However, the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton. <br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103) <br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171) <br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which both affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. <br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is put into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era. <br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to weaken the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 16:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> &lt;center&gt;Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社<br /> <br /> Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou 202070080597&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promote Sino-foreign friendship and enhance the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation; Hunan Scenic Spots Names; the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译;湖南旅游景点;文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year(Xin Xin, 2012). Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardizing the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the beauty of Hunan culture to foreign tourists(Xiao Fuliang, 2016).<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive (Pan Hong, 2016).<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. <br /> <br /> But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”(Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11). <br /> <br /> She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures(Bassnett Susan, 1990). <br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. <br /> <br /> It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text(Bassnett Susan, 1990).<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposes that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content(Bassnett Susan, 1990). <br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> .<br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs(Bassnett Susan, 1990).<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history(Chen Jiao, 2013). In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”(Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng. It is also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and ranks the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. <br /> <br /> However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. <br /> <br /> Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember(Xin Xin, 2012). <br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture(Jia Wenbo, 2004). The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation.They should try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and make it easy to understand for the target readers to accept at the same time.<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability(Xin Xin, 2012). <br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. <br /> <br /> If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not &quot;evening&quot; but &quot;late autumn&quot;. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> <br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang River) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> <br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils)(Xin Xin, 2012). In order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. <br /> <br /> In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly(Chen Jiao, 2013). <br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. <br /> <br /> For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus(Chen Jiao, 2013). Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Reference ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan.(1992) Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan.(1990) Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社 10-11．<br /> <br /> *Huang Yanjiao 黄艳娇.(2018).浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论 [A Brief Discussion on Basnnet's Cultural Translation Theory].佳木斯职业学院学报(11) 356-357 <br /> <br /> *Xiao Fuliang 肖付良.(2016).湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究. 英语教师 (06)43-45<br /> <br /> *Pan Hong 潘虹.(2016)，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响. 艺术文化交流 (1)310<br /> <br /> *Chen Jiao 陈娇.(2013).从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译.西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）(11)101-102<br /> <br /> *Xin Xin 辛欣.(2012).论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译. 长春教育学院学报 (02)43-44<br /> <br /> *Chen Gang 陈刚.(2004)旅游翻译与涉外导游［M] 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司 59<br /> <br /> *Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong王再玉，蒋柿红. (2012).从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例 [On Translation of Names of Scenic Spots from the Perspective of Cross-culture Consciousness]. 北京城市学院学报 (03)80-82<br /> <br /> *Lin Yuhua 林玉华. (2008). 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译［J］．重庆交通大学学报 (02)105 <br /> <br /> *Xiong Lin 熊玲. (2013). 对张家界景点名称英译的探析.长春教育学院学报 (08)67-68<br /> <br /> *Jia Wenbo贾文波．(2004)应用翻译功能论[M]．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 134－156<br /> <br /> *Huan Provincial Department of Culture and Tourism 湖南省文化和旅游厅.湖南文物名胜概览 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 15:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Viktor Shklovsky, 1990, 35-38)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(什克洛夫斯基, 1990, 35-38)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. (Victor Shklovsky , 1990, 57)<br /> <br /> The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录). (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic in itself and must be prolonged”. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity.(Victor Shklovsky, 1991, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation, they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization.( Chen Lin, Zhang Chunbai, 2006:93)<br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, there are many ways towards this end. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky, 1990).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem. (Deng Hongmei, 2000, 34)<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style.(Deng Hongmei, 2000, 56)<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s. Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000,79)<br /> <br /> At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000, 90)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 34)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.(Schulte, R.and John Biguenet, 1992, 34)<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. <br /> <br /> Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. <br /> <br /> Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.<br /> <br /> No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.<br /> <br /> Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise. No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 79)<br /> <br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. <br /> <br /> Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. <br /> <br /> From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. (Victor Shklovsky, 1979, 106)<br /> <br /> And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Victor Shklovsky. Theory of Prose [M]. Dalkey Archive Press,1991<br /> <br /> * Victor Shklovsky. Για τον φορμαλισμό (Η Ανάσταση της Λέξης - Η Θεωρία της &quot;Φορμαλιστικής Μεθόδου&quot;) [M], 1979<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. 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Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳 Chen Lin.论陌生化翻译 On Strange Translation[J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳 Chen Lin.文学翻译审美的陌生化性 The Aesthetic Strangeness of Literary Translation[D].清华大学学报 Journal of Tsinghua University, 2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园 Fang Xiaoyuan,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读 Li Qingzhao:A word of flowers and wine that is difficult to finish--Individual interpretation of &quot;Two Songs of Li Qingzhao&quot;[J].语文教学之友 Language Teaching Friends,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰 Ge Yunfeng, 季淑凤 Ji Shufeng.中国典籍英译的风格再现 Stylistic reproduction of English translation of Chinese canonical texts, a case study of English translation of Yi'an' Ci [J].Journal of Foreign Languages, Huabei Coal Teachers College，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根 Hu Yinguan.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究 A Comparative Study of the Translation of Eight Lyrics of Li Qingzhao from the Perspective of Cultural Context[D].湖南工业大学 Hunan University of Technology，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰 Liu Xi.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向 Embracing Differences: The Orientation of &quot;Strangeness&quot; in Poetry Translation[J].淮南师范学院学报 Journal of Huainan Normal College,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣Li Xuexin.易安词作中叠词的美感传译Aesthetic translation of superimposed words in Yi'an's works[J].作家杂志 Writers's Magazine，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕Li Ruijie, 张轶前 Zhang Yizhian.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现 Xu Yuanchong's translator's subjectivity in the English translation of Li Qingzhao's &quot;The Sound of the Voice&quot;.[J].河北联合大学学报Journal of Hebei United University，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华Sun Guohua.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象The phenomenon of unfamiliar language in Lu Xun's works[J].无锡高等师范学校Wuxi Higher Teacher Training School，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰Zhang Bing.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究The Poetics of Strangeness: A Study of Russian Formalism[M].北京师范大学出版社Beijing Normal University Press，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深Zhu Chunshen.宋词英译English translation of Song lyrics (2)[J].中国翻译Chinese Translation,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳Zheng Engyue,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究A study of the English translation of the words of Li Qingzhao's &quot;Sound Slow&quot;[J].浙江教育学院学报Journal of Zhejiang Education College，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同 Zhang Jintong.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》 How can a word of sorrow be described&quot; - Reading Li Qingzhao's &quot;Drunken Flowers&quot; and &quot;Sounding Slow&quot;[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版)Journal of Guyuan Teachers College (Social Science Edition),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993） <br /> <br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）<br /> <br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> ==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: <br /> First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?<br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> ==== 2.1 Classification====<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> <br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> <br /> When used as a verb:<br /> a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial Internet<br /> <br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> <br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> <br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> <br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> <br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.2 Mode====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====<br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> <br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> <br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> <br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> <br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> <br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> <br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> <br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> <br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====<br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> <br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> <br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> <br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> <br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> <br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage.<br /> <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, &quot;all of us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.3 Conversion====<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> For example:<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Nominalization=====<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> <br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the Covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> <br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Active to passive=====<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> <br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> <br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> <br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> <br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> <br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Insufficient data support====<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> <br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> <br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> <br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> <br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> <br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> <br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> <br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> <br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (ibid: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peiji’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English mainly include conjugation, declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the original sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference in inflection between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible to the target reader.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to objective description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（&quot;homework&quot; in English） who performs the action “写”(&quot;writing&quot; in English). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, where the subject is given priority to, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority to in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（&quot;it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...&quot;） is “I” (&quot;我&quot; in Chinese), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> much sadness to other people<br /> In this example, “这种死亡”（&quot;This kind of death&quot; in English） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（&quot;causes... much pain to the writer himself&quot; in English) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（&quot;much sadness to other people&quot; in English） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (&quot;这种死亡&quot; in Chinese) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related to each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (&quot;借来的书&quot; in Chinese) and “books bought” (&quot;自己买的&quot; in Chinese). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English transaltion compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the source text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” (&quot;a writer&quot; in English) and “适当的社会活动和文学活动” (&quot;gets properly involved with social and literary activities&quot; in English). Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (&quot;a writer&quot; in English) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. <br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (&quot;书&quot; in Chinese) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (&quot;看&quot; in Chinese) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> <br /> *Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版*社.<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=118961 2020-12-21T16:17:25Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking Between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of cultural identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his cultural identity. While each culture also has its own peculiarities and can throw influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking is the brain’s generalized and indirect reflecting process of the general characteristics and laws of objective things.” (Liu Kuilin, 1989:9) It is a dynamic process of reflecting the objective facts and worlds. Hence it is largely influenced by the outside cultures. In general, different culture leads to different thinking patterns which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related like three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people to develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates the “subject-object dichotomy” and then explains the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logical conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationships between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. (1994: 84)<br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some Chinese works, writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stresses the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the severe natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, the Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human beings are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked that authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority use of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used to show their objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” patterns are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often uses the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tends to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be demonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully exemplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。— 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。—杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself views the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction have been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison of four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two languages. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Reference===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> *Bao Huinan. 包惠南. (2001)【M】文化语境与语言翻译 Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation. 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching. 外语与外语教学.<br /> *Liu Kuilin. 刘奎林. (1989) 《思维、思维科学导论》【M】 Introduction to Thinking and Thinking Science. Beijing: Workers publishing House 工人出版社. <br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 江西教育出版社.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD. 台北东大图书公司.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. (1994) 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. (2003) 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学, Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. Changchun: Jilin Education Press. 吉林教育出版社.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 08:46, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory (Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field (Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language (Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level (Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot; (Nida 1993, 118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida 1995, 224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898) （Zhang Xi 2014, 1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so (Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' (Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance. (Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics (Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately (Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure (Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information (Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation (Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning (Zhu Haotong 2006, 65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods (Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty (Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation (Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters (Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance (Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods (Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works (Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation (Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels (Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition (Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again (Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time (Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness (Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers (Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943, 89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on (Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗? (杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences. Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence (Nida 1946, 55). He thinks there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences (Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text (Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> (Thackeray 2016, 75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013, 76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences (Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence (Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty? (Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？ (杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation (Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis (Guo Dingju 2013, 40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent (Nida &amp; Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty (Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating (Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information (Nida 1969, 30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely (Guo Dingju 2013, 44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics (Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence (Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class (Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given (Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper (Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu 202070080618 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; ''2019 Government Work Report''; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the State Council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the Prime Minister of State Court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the ''2019 Government Work Report'' is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of ''Government Work Report'', which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the ''Government Work Report''. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of ''Government Work Report'' at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Rhetorical Level ====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of ''Government Work Report'' vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The ''Government Work Report'' is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese ''Government Work Report'' from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the ''Government Work Report'' translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) <br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> <br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 20207080605&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, but also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, study the human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21)<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable that knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:22)<br /> <br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:197).<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology(Yi Jing, 2009:198-200).<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself(Yi Jing, 2009:200-215).<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.(Yi Jing, 2009:215-268).<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. (Yi Jing, 2009:268-281).<br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:281-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive.<br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> <br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukan陈福康.(2000)中国译学理论史稿[A History of Translation Theory in China]].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海:上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> [2]Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2016)当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起[The Pattern of Translation Studies in the World -- On the Rise of Chinese Translation Studies in the 21st Century] 外语教学理论与实践. Foreign Language Learning Theory and Pactice（3):55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]Lan Hongjun蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究[From Subject Consciousness to Theoretical Construction: A Study of Chinese Translation Theory (1987-2017).]中国翻译.Chinese Translation(39):7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1987)必须建立翻译学[Translatology muct be Established].中国翻译.Chinese Translation.(b3): 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2005)翻译学[A Series of Translation Studies in China].Wu Han:Hu Bei Education Press 武汉:湖北教育出版社,.<br /> <br /> [6]Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009)翻译学概论[An Introduction to Translation Studies].Nan Jing:Yi Lin Press 南京:译林出版社.<br /> <br /> [7]Yi Jing易经.(2009)试论翻译学体系的构建[On the Construction of the System of Translatology].Hu Nan Normal University 湖南师范大学.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) <br /> <br /> ST:<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However, the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton. <br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103) <br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171) <br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which both affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. <br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is put into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era. <br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to weaken the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 16:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> &lt;center&gt;Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社<br /> <br /> Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou 202070080597&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promote Sino-foreign friendship and enhance the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation; Hunan Scenic Spots Names; the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译;湖南旅游景点;文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year(Xin Xin, 2012). Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardizing the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the beauty of Hunan culture to foreign tourists(Xiao Fuliang, 2016).<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive (Pan Hong, 2016).<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. <br /> <br /> But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”(Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11). <br /> <br /> She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures(Bassnett Susan, 1990). <br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. <br /> <br /> It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text(Bassnett Susan, 1990).<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposes that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content(Bassnett Susan, 1990). <br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> .<br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs(Bassnett Susan, 1990).<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history(Chen Jiao, 2013). In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”(Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012). <br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng. It is also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and ranks the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. <br /> <br /> However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. <br /> <br /> Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember(Xin Xin, 2012). <br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture(Jia Wenbo, 2004). The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation.They should try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and make it easy to understand for the target readers to accept at the same time.<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability(Xin Xin, 2012). <br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. <br /> <br /> If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not &quot;evening&quot; but &quot;late autumn&quot;. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> <br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang River) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> <br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils)(Xin Xin, 2012). In order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. <br /> <br /> In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly(Chen Jiao, 2013). <br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. <br /> <br /> For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus(Chen Jiao, 2013). Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. <br /> <br /> Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Reference ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan.(1992) Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan.(1990) Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社 10-11．<br /> <br /> *Huang Yanjiao 黄艳娇.(2018).浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论 [A Brief Discussion on Basnnet's Cultural Translation Theory].佳木斯职业学院学报(11) 356-357 <br /> <br /> *Xiao Fuliang 肖付良.(2016).湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究. 英语教师 (06)43-45<br /> <br /> *Pan Hong 潘虹.(2016)，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响. 艺术文化交流 (1)310<br /> <br /> *Chen Jiao 陈娇.(2013).从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译.西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）(11)101-102<br /> <br /> *Xin Xin 辛欣.(2012).论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译. 长春教育学院学报 (02)43-44<br /> <br /> *Chen Gang 陈刚.(2004)旅游翻译与涉外导游［M] 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司 59<br /> <br /> *Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong王再玉，蒋柿红. (2012).从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例 [On Translation of Names of Scenic Spots from the Perspective of Cross-culture Consciousness]. 北京城市学院学报 (03)80-82<br /> <br /> *Lin Yuhua 林玉华. (2008). 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译［J］．重庆交通大学学报 (02)105 <br /> <br /> *Xiong Lin 熊玲. (2013). 对张家界景点名称英译的探析.长春教育学院学报 (08)67-68<br /> <br /> *Jia Wenbo贾文波．(2004)应用翻译功能论[M]．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 134－156<br /> <br /> *Huan Provincial Department of Culture and Tourism 湖南省文化和旅游厅.湖南文物名胜概览 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 15:50, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Viktor Shklovsky, 1990, 35-38)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(什克洛夫斯基, 1990, 35-38)<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. (Victor Shklovsky , 1990, 57)<br /> <br /> The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录). (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic in itself and must be prolonged”. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity.(Victor Shklovsky, 1991, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation, they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization.( Chen Lin, Zhang Chunbai, 2006:93)<br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, there are many ways towards this end. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky, 1990).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem. (Deng Hongmei, 2000, 34)<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style.(Deng Hongmei, 2000, 56)<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s. Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000,79)<br /> <br /> At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. (Wang Zhongwen, 2000, 90)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 34)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.(Schulte, R.and John Biguenet, 1992, 34)<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. <br /> <br /> Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. <br /> <br /> Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.<br /> <br /> No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.<br /> <br /> Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise. No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 79)<br /> <br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. <br /> <br /> Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. <br /> <br /> From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> ====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. (Victor Shklovsky, 1979, 106)<br /> <br /> And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Victor Shklovsky. Theory of Prose [M]. Dalkey Archive Press,1991<br /> <br /> * Victor Shklovsky. Για τον φορμαλισμό (Η Ανάσταση της Λέξης - Η Θεωρία της &quot;Φορμαλιστικής Μεθόδου&quot;) [M], 1979<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. 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Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳 Chen Lin.论陌生化翻译 On Strange Translation[J].中国翻译 Chinese Translation，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳 Chen Lin.文学翻译审美的陌生化性 The Aesthetic Strangeness of Literary Translation[D].清华大学学报 Journal of Tsinghua University, 2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园 Fang Xiaoyuan,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读 Li Qingzhao:A word of flowers and wine that is difficult to finish--Individual interpretation of &quot;Two Songs of Li Qingzhao&quot;[J].语文教学之友 Language Teaching Friends,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰 Ge Yunfeng, 季淑凤 Ji Shufeng.中国典籍英译的风格再现 Stylistic reproduction of English translation of Chinese canonical texts, a case study of English translation of Yi'an' Ci [J].Journal of Foreign Languages, Huabei Coal Teachers College，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根 Hu Yinguan.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究 A Comparative Study of the Translation of Eight Lyrics of Li Qingzhao from the Perspective of Cultural Context[D].湖南工业大学 Hunan University of Technology，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰 Liu Xi.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向 Embracing Differences: The Orientation of &quot;Strangeness&quot; in Poetry Translation[J].淮南师范学院学报 Journal of Huainan Normal College,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣Li Xuexin.易安词作中叠词的美感传译Aesthetic translation of superimposed words in Yi'an's works[J].作家杂志 Writers's Magazine，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕Li Ruijie, 张轶前 Zhang Yizhian.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现 Xu Yuanchong's translator's subjectivity in the English translation of Li Qingzhao's &quot;The Sound of the Voice&quot;.[J].河北联合大学学报Journal of Hebei United University，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华Sun Guohua.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象The phenomenon of unfamiliar language in Lu Xun's works[J].无锡高等师范学校Wuxi Higher Teacher Training School，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰Zhang Bing.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究The Poetics of Strangeness: A Study of Russian Formalism[M].北京师范大学出版社Beijing Normal University Press，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深Zhu Chunshen.宋词英译English translation of Song lyrics (2)[J].中国翻译Chinese Translation,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳Zheng Engyue,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究A study of the English translation of the words of Li Qingzhao's &quot;Sound Slow&quot;[J].浙江教育学院学报Journal of Zhejiang Education College，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同 Zhang Jintong.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》 How can a word of sorrow be described&quot; - Reading Li Qingzhao's &quot;Drunken Flowers&quot; and &quot;Sounding Slow&quot;[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版)Journal of Guyuan Teachers College (Social Science Edition),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993） <br /> <br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）<br /> <br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> ==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: <br /> First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?<br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> ==== 2.1 Classification====<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> <br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> <br /> When used as a verb:<br /> a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial Internet<br /> <br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> <br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> <br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> <br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> <br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.2 Mode====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====<br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> <br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> <br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> <br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> <br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> <br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> <br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> <br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> <br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====<br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> <br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> <br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> <br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> <br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> <br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage.<br /> <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, &quot;all of us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.3 Conversion====<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> For example:<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Nominalization=====<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> <br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the Covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> <br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Active to passive=====<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> <br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> <br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> <br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> <br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> <br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Insufficient data support====<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> <br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> <br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> <br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> <br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> <br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> <br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> <br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> <br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (ibid: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peiji’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English mainly include conjugation, declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the original sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference in inflection between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible to the target reader.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to objective description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（&quot;homework&quot; in English） who performs the action “写”(&quot;writing&quot; in English). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, where the subject is given priority to, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority to in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（&quot;it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...&quot;） is “I” (&quot;我&quot; in Chinese), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> much sadness to other people<br /> In this example, “这种死亡”（&quot;This kind of death&quot; in English） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（&quot;causes... much pain to the writer himself&quot; in English) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（&quot;much sadness to other people&quot; in English） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (&quot;这种死亡&quot; in Chinese) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related to each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (&quot;借来的书&quot; in Chinese) and “books bought” (&quot;自己买的&quot; in Chinese). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English transaltion compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the source text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” (&quot;a writer&quot; in English) and “适当的社会活动和文学活动” (&quot;gets properly involved with social and literary activities&quot; in English). Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (&quot;a writer&quot; in English) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. <br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (&quot;书&quot; in Chinese) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (&quot;看&quot; in Chinese) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> <br /> *Lian Shuneng 连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版*社.<br /> <br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> <br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=117614 2020-12-21T07:49:15Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- The Old Man and the Sea */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> (1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> （Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> <br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot;(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br /> (Thackeray 2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection&quot;. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br /> --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) <br /> <br /> ST:<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However, the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton. <br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103) <br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171) <br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which both affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. <br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is put into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era. <br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to weaken the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> &lt;center&gt;Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社<br /> <br /> Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt; 专业&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;promote&lt;/span&gt;)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;enhance&lt;/span&gt;)the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;semicolon should be added.&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;时态要统一。&lt;/span&gt;)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;第一句话语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;举例较少，没有分析。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;前半部分语法有错误&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;主谓不一致。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;最后一句话语法错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> <br /> *黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> <br /> *肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> <br /> *潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> <br /> *陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> <br /> *辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> <br /> *王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> <br /> *林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> <br /> *熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> <br /> *湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;参考文献格式错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> ==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: <br /> First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?<br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> ==== 2.1 Classification====<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> <br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.2 Mode====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====<br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> <br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====<br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, &quot;all of us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.3 Conversion====<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> For example:<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Nominalization=====<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Active to passive=====<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Insufficient data support====<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> <br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> <br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> <br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> <br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> <br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> <br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> <br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> <br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''(要加引号). He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” （句子不通）(Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s (Peiji) English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English include mainly (mainly 是否要提到动词前)conjugation（这里应有逗号断开） and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences （改为sentence） into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference (是否指明是什么区别)between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible（是否加to the target reader）.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object (应和前面用词保持一致) description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（是否要在作业后加注homework） who performs the action （这里是否要加个of）“写”(是否要在在后面加注英语writing). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, with the subject given priority in （介词用错） a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in (介词用错) a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（是否提供一个直译） is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with（短语搭配错误） English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> <br /> In this example, “这种死亡”（提供翻译） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（提供翻译) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（提供翻译） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.（这个段落里的中文是否同时提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related with （应该改成to） each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the (去掉the,或者后面改为sentence) English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour (是source）text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.（是否给中文提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. （是否给中文提供英语翻译）<br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward （是否改为of）implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text. --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br /> <br /> (引用格式错误)中间隔一行就不会连在一起<br /> * Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> <br /> * Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> <br /> --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=117609 2020-12-21T07:46:35Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> (1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> （Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> <br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot;(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br /> (Thackeray 2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection&quot;. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br /> --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) <br /> <br /> ST:<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton. However-However, the boat along- no verb<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103) <br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171) <br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which both affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. <br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is put into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era. <br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to weaken the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> &lt;center&gt;Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社<br /> <br /> Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt; 专业&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;promote&lt;/span&gt;)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;enhance&lt;/span&gt;)the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;semicolon should be added.&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;时态要统一。&lt;/span&gt;)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;第一句话语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;举例较少，没有分析。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;前半部分语法有错误&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;主谓不一致。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;最后一句话语法错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> <br /> *黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> <br /> *肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> <br /> *潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> <br /> *陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> <br /> *辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> <br /> *王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> <br /> *林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> <br /> *熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> <br /> *湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;参考文献格式错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> ==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: <br /> First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?<br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> ==== 2.1 Classification====<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> <br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.2 Mode====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====<br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> <br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====<br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, &quot;all of us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.3 Conversion====<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> For example:<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Nominalization=====<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Active to passive=====<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Insufficient data support====<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> <br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> <br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> <br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> <br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> <br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> <br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> <br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> <br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''(要加引号). He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” （句子不通）(Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s (Peiji) English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English include mainly (mainly 是否要提到动词前)conjugation（这里应有逗号断开） and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences （改为sentence） into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference (是否指明是什么区别)between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible（是否加to the target reader）.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object (应和前面用词保持一致) description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（是否要在作业后加注homework） who performs the action （这里是否要加个of）“写”(是否要在在后面加注英语writing). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, with the subject given priority in （介词用错） a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in (介词用错) a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（是否提供一个直译） is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with（短语搭配错误） English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> <br /> In this example, “这种死亡”（提供翻译） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（提供翻译) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（提供翻译） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.（这个段落里的中文是否同时提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related with （应该改成to） each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the (去掉the,或者后面改为sentence) English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour (是source）text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.（是否给中文提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. （是否给中文提供英语翻译）<br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward （是否改为of）implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text. --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br /> <br /> (引用格式错误)中间隔一行就不会连在一起<br /> * Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> <br /> * Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> <br /> --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=117599 2020-12-21T07:42:22Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> (1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> （Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> <br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot;(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br /> (Thackeray 2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection&quot;. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br /> --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) <br /> <br /> ST:<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton. However-However, the boat along- no verb<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103) <br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171) <br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. is-are all-both<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> taken-put while-and<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era. potential-delet <br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12) soft-weaken --[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> &lt;center&gt;Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社<br /> <br /> Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt; 专业&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;promote&lt;/span&gt;)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;enhance&lt;/span&gt;)the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;semicolon should be added.&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;时态要统一。&lt;/span&gt;)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;第一句话语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;举例较少，没有分析。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;前半部分语法有错误&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;主谓不一致。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;最后一句话语法错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> <br /> *黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> <br /> *肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> <br /> *潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> <br /> *陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> <br /> *辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> <br /> *王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> <br /> *林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> <br /> *熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> <br /> *湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;参考文献格式错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> ==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: <br /> First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?<br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> ==== 2.1 Classification====<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> <br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.2 Mode====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====<br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> <br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====<br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, &quot;all of us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.3 Conversion====<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> For example:<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Nominalization=====<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Active to passive=====<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Insufficient data support====<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> <br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> <br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> <br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> <br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> <br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> <br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> <br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> <br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''(要加引号). He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” （句子不通）(Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s (Peiji) English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English include mainly (mainly 是否要提到动词前)conjugation（这里应有逗号断开） and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences （改为sentence） into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference (是否指明是什么区别)between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible（是否加to the target reader）.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object (应和前面用词保持一致) description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（是否要在作业后加注homework） who performs the action （这里是否要加个of）“写”(是否要在在后面加注英语writing). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, with the subject given priority in （介词用错） a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in (介词用错) a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（是否提供一个直译） is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with（短语搭配错误） English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> <br /> In this example, “这种死亡”（提供翻译） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（提供翻译) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（提供翻译） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.（这个段落里的中文是否同时提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related with （应该改成to） each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the (去掉the,或者后面改为sentence) English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour (是source）text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.（是否给中文提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. （是否给中文提供英语翻译）<br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward （是否改为of）implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text. --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br /> <br /> (引用格式错误)中间隔一行就不会连在一起<br /> * Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> <br /> * Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> <br /> --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=117597 2020-12-21T07:40:13Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> (1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> （Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> <br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot;(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br /> (Thackeray 2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection&quot;. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br /> --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) <br /> <br /> ST:<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton. However-However, the boat along- no verb<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103) <br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171) characteristics-special/unique <br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. is-are all-both<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> taken-put while-and<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era. potential-delet <br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12) soft-weaken --[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> &lt;center&gt;Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社<br /> <br /> Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt; 专业&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;promote&lt;/span&gt;)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;enhance&lt;/span&gt;)the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;semicolon should be added.&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;时态要统一。&lt;/span&gt;)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;第一句话语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;举例较少，没有分析。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;前半部分语法有错误&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;主谓不一致。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;最后一句话语法错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> <br /> *黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> <br /> *肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> <br /> *潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> <br /> *陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> <br /> *辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> <br /> *王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> <br /> *林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> <br /> *熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> <br /> *湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;参考文献格式错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> ==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: <br /> First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?<br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> ==== 2.1 Classification====<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> <br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.2 Mode====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====<br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> <br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====<br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, &quot;all of us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.3 Conversion====<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> For example:<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Nominalization=====<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Active to passive=====<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Insufficient data support====<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> <br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> <br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> <br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> <br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> <br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> <br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> <br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> <br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''(要加引号). He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” （句子不通）(Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s (Peiji) English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English include mainly (mainly 是否要提到动词前)conjugation（这里应有逗号断开） and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences （改为sentence） into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference (是否指明是什么区别)between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible（是否加to the target reader）.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object (应和前面用词保持一致) description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（是否要在作业后加注homework） who performs the action （这里是否要加个of）“写”(是否要在在后面加注英语writing). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, with the subject given priority in （介词用错） a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in (介词用错) a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（是否提供一个直译） is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with（短语搭配错误） English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> <br /> In this example, “这种死亡”（提供翻译） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（提供翻译) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（提供翻译） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.（这个段落里的中文是否同时提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related with （应该改成to） each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the (去掉the,或者后面改为sentence) English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour (是source）text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.（是否给中文提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. （是否给中文提供英语翻译）<br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward （是否改为of）implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text. --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br /> <br /> (引用格式错误)中间隔一行就不会连在一起<br /> * Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> <br /> * Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> <br /> --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=117562 2020-12-21T07:24:44Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> (1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> （Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> <br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot;(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br /> (Thackeray 2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection&quot;. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br /> --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) <br /> <br /> ST:<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton. However-However, the boat along- no verb<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk, to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103) of-full of--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171) characteristics-special/unique <br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. is-are all-both<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> taken-put while-and<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era. potential-delet <br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12) soft-weaken --[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> &lt;center&gt;Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社<br /> <br /> Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt; 专业&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;promote&lt;/span&gt;)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;enhance&lt;/span&gt;)the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;semicolon should be added.&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;时态要统一。&lt;/span&gt;)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;第一句话语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;举例较少，没有分析。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;前半部分语法有错误&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;主谓不一致。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;最后一句话语法错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> <br /> *黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> <br /> *肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> <br /> *潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> <br /> *陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> <br /> *辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> <br /> *王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> <br /> *林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> <br /> *熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> <br /> *湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;参考文献格式错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> ==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: <br /> First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?<br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> ==== 2.1 Classification====<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> <br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.2 Mode====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====<br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> <br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====<br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, &quot;all of us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.3 Conversion====<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> For example:<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Nominalization=====<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Active to passive=====<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Insufficient data support====<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> <br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> <br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> <br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> <br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> <br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> <br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> <br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> <br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''(要加引号). He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” （句子不通）(Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s (Peiji) English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English include mainly (mainly 是否要提到动词前)conjugation（这里应有逗号断开） and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences （改为sentence） into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference (是否指明是什么区别)between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible（是否加to the target reader）.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object (应和前面用词保持一致) description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（是否要在作业后加注homework） who performs the action （这里是否要加个of）“写”(是否要在在后面加注英语writing). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, with the subject given priority in （介词用错） a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in (介词用错) a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（是否提供一个直译） is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with（短语搭配错误） English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> <br /> In this example, “这种死亡”（提供翻译） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（提供翻译) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（提供翻译） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.（这个段落里的中文是否同时提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related with （应该改成to） each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the (去掉the,或者后面改为sentence) English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour (是source）text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.（是否给中文提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. （是否给中文提供英语翻译）<br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward （是否改为of）implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text. --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br /> <br /> (引用格式错误)中间隔一行就不会连在一起<br /> * Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> <br /> * Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> <br /> --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=117558 2020-12-21T07:21:04Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> (1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> （Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> <br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot;(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br /> (Thackeray 2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986). ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等 [On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects (236) 94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史 [History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究 [A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''青年作家'' Young Writers (1) 43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编 [A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言 [Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》 [''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译 [A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南 [A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等 [A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House (2) 180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考 [Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University (3) 62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection&quot;. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br /> --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) <br /> <br /> ST:<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton. However-However, the boat along- no verb<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, t[[he old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.]] no verb and subject--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:17, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103) of-full of--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:19, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171) characteristics-special/unique <br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:21, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. is-are all-both<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> taken-put while-and<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:28, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era. potential-delet <br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12) soft-weaken --[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 06:35, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> &lt;center&gt;Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> Luo Xianfeng 骆贤凤. (2009).中西翻译伦理研究述评[A Review of the Research on Chinese and Western Translation Ethics].《中国翻译》''Chinese Translation'' 3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> Lv Jun 吕俊. (2001).《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》[''Cross cultural barriers--Reconstruction of Barbita''] Nanjing: Southeast University Press 南京：东南大学出版社<br /> <br /> Sun Zhhili 孙致礼.(2007).译者的职责 [Responsibilities of the translator]《中国翻译》''Chinese Tranlation''，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen 沈从.(1981).《边城》[''The Frontier City''] Nanchang: Jiangxi People Press 南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> Xiang Rendong 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究 [Interpretation of Two English Version of BIancheng in Light of Translation ethics][J].语文学刊. Language and literature Learning(2019). 39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> Tong qingbin 童庆炳.(1998).《文学理论教程》[''Literary Theory Course''] Beijing: Higher Education Press 北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> Wang Weiping 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of ''Biancheng''—from the Perspective of Translation Ethics] [D]. Nanjing Normal University 南京师范大学,2012.--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 06:58, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt; 专业&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;promote&lt;/span&gt;)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;enhance&lt;/span&gt;)the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;semicolon should be added.&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;时态要统一。&lt;/span&gt;)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;第一句话语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;举例较少，没有分析。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;前半部分语法有错误&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;主谓不一致。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;最后一句话语法错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> <br /> *黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> <br /> *肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> <br /> *潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> <br /> *陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> <br /> *辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> <br /> *王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> <br /> *林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> <br /> *熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> <br /> *湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;参考文献格式错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632 Major: MTI 英语笔译== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies====<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression=====<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> ==== 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application====<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: <br /> First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?<br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> ==== 2.1 Classification====<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> <br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.2 Mode====<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 Modal verbs=====<br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> <br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Personal pronouns=====<br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p.22)<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, &quot;all of us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> ==== 2.3 Conversion====<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> For example:<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Nominalization=====<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Active to passive=====<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Insufficient data support====<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Insufficient theoretical support====<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> <br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> <br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> <br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> <br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> <br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> <br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> <br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> <br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> <br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''(要加引号). He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” （句子不通）(Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s (Peiji) English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English include mainly (mainly 是否要提到动词前)conjugation（这里应有逗号断开） and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences （改为sentence） into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference (是否指明是什么区别)between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible（是否加to the target reader）.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object (应和前面用词保持一致) description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业”（是否要在作业后加注homework） who performs the action （这里是否要加个of）“写”(是否要在在后面加注英语writing). That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, with the subject given priority in （介词用错） a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in (介词用错) a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候”（是否提供一个直译） is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with（短语搭配错误） English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> <br /> In this example, “这种死亡”（提供翻译） serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦”（提供翻译) as well as “别人看了心里也很难受”（提供翻译） serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.（这个段落里的中文是否同时提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related with （应该改成to） each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the (去掉the,或者后面改为sentence) English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour (是source）text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.（是否给中文提供翻译）<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. （是否给中文提供英语翻译）<br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward （是否改为of）implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text. --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br /> <br /> (引用格式错误)中间隔一行就不会连在一起<br /> * Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> <br /> * Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> <br /> --[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 05:49, 21 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=117328 2020-12-21T04:46:17Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- Jinsuo Ji */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> (1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> （Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> <br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot;(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br /> (Thackeray 2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986) ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等[On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;].''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;].''青年作家'' Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言[Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》[''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection&quot;. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br /> --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it by herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is ended by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. <br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passiveness and helplessness of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) <br /> <br /> ST:<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 03:04, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> <br /> 桂一枝 202070080587<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as cross-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生进行跨文化行为，就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo, 2009 61)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym, 2001 129-138)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman, 1992 3)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti, 2004 page missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances(Pym, 2001129-138).--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman, 2001 139-153)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu, 2001 272)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. (quoteing missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun, 2007 14-18)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu, 1998 49-54)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis chooses these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman, 2001139) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman, 2001 140)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman, 2001 141) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman, 2001 142)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman, 2001 147)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang, 2019 92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong, 1998 194)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman, 2001 39-154)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang, 2012 34)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> After the theoretical study of translation ethics and practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. 1992. The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany [M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. 2004. The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. 2001. The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. 2001. Proposal for a hieronymic oath [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. 1982. The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen [M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. 1981. The Border Town and Other Stories [M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> 骆贤凤（2009）。中西翻译伦理研究述评。《中国翻译》。3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> 吕俊，2001,《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》Mo南京：东南大学出版社。<br /> <br /> 孙致礼（2007）。译者的职责。《中国翻译》，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> 沈从文，1981,《边城》Mo南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究[J].语文学刊,2019,39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> 童庆炳，1998,《文学理论教程》Mo北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究[D].南京师范大学,2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt; 专业&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;promote&lt;/span&gt;)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;enhance&lt;/span&gt;)the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;semicolon should be added.&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;时态要统一。&lt;/span&gt;)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;第一句话语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;举例较少，没有分析。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;前半部分语法有错误&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;主谓不一致。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;最后一句话语法错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> <br /> *黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> <br /> *肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> <br /> *潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> <br /> *陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> <br /> *辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> <br /> *王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> <br /> *林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> <br /> *熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> <br /> *湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;参考文献格式错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ===1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies===<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> ===1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression===<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> === 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application===<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: <br /> First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.-<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way?<br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> === 2.1 Classification===<br /> <br /> ''According to the CDA, for the variations of &quot;categories&quot; in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the &quot;categories&quot; in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of &quot;categories&quot;, and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, promote means &quot;to advance&quot;, while support means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both “promote” and “support the growth” signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word “develop” is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.'<br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) ''In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> Example (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> Example(3) The English version of &quot;促进祖国和平统一&quot;: The word &quot;统一&quot; in &quot;促进统一&quot;（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country&quot;, a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> Example(4)&quot;提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准&quot; is translated as &quot;We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.&quot;The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;And &quot;将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障&quot; is translated as &quot;We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living.&quot;&quot;农民工&quot; is translated as “rural migrant workers&quot;. Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> A critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> === 2.2 Mode===<br /> <br /> ===2.2.1 Modal verbs===<br /> <br /> ''Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.<br /> In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including &quot;能、可以、会、可能、得、敢、肯、愿意、情愿、乐意、想、要、应、应该、应当、该、值得、配、别、甭、好、一定、得、必须&quot;.Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb “must” to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of “must” in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb “should”. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb “will”, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs “should” and “may” in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in I, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject “we” and the modal verb “need to” are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also<br /> expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are pretty close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators have to chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.2.2 Personal pronouns===<br /> <br /> ''The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader. <br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 “we” in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns “we” are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns I, all of us, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in other cases. <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, all of &quot;us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Under most circumstances, “we” is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of “we” is more authoritative than I. This usage is called &quot;loyal we&quot;.'' (A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of “we” also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of “we” instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, “we” is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> === 2.3 Conversion===<br /> <br /> ''Traditionally, &quot;transformation&quot; refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of &quot;transformation&quot; should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose&quot;'' (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995). This lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> For example: <br /> ===2.3.1 Nominalization===<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> It can be shown from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is much higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but due to the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text can be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into consideration the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 Active to passive===<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter. In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> From the veiw of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> (1) In terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements, soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, While God is also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report reflects China's own ideology. The reasons are also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but the translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ===4.1 Insufficient data support===<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020.<br /> Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> I envisaged to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can get a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.<br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> However, since it is necessery to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, and to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then it is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Insufficient theoretical support===<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> The author does not have a profound understanding on critical discourse analysis, nor does she expound the Introduction clearly. Her knowledge of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author's understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''(要加引号). He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” （句子不通）(Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s (Peiji) English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English include mainly conjugation and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业” who performs the action “写”. That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, with the subject given priority in a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候” is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> <br /> In this example, “这种死亡” serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦” as well as “别人看了心里也很难受” serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related with each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. <br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=117319 2020-12-21T04:42:42Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 2. Gender and Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> (1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> （Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> <br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot;(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br /> (Thackeray 2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986) ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等[On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;].''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;].''青年作家'' Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言[Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》[''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection&quot;. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br /> --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminism translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when it is developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences that different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).herself-by herself<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> put to an end to-ended<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. live -live in<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) passive and helpless-passiveness and helplessness<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 03:04, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> <br /> 桂一枝 202070080587<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as cross-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生进行跨文化行为，就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo, 2009 61)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym, 2001 129-138)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman, 1992 3)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti, 2004 page missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances(Pym, 2001129-138).--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman, 2001 139-153)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu, 2001 272)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. (quoteing missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun, 2007 14-18)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu, 1998 49-54)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis chooses these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman, 2001139) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman, 2001 140)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman, 2001 141) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman, 2001 142)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman, 2001 147)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang, 2019 92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong, 1998 194)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman, 2001 39-154)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang, 2012 34)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> After the theoretical study of translation ethics and practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. 1992. The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany [M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. 2004. The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. 2001. The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. 2001. Proposal for a hieronymic oath [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. 1982. The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen [M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. 1981. The Border Town and Other Stories [M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> 骆贤凤（2009）。中西翻译伦理研究述评。《中国翻译》。3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> 吕俊，2001,《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》Mo南京：东南大学出版社。<br /> <br /> 孙致礼（2007）。译者的职责。《中国翻译》，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> 沈从文，1981,《边城》Mo南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究[J].语文学刊,2019,39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> 童庆炳，1998,《文学理论教程》Mo北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究[D].南京师范大学,2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt; 专业&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;promote&lt;/span&gt;)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;enhance&lt;/span&gt;)the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;semicolon should be added.&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;时态要统一。&lt;/span&gt;)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;第一句话语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;举例较少，没有分析。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;前半部分语法有错误&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;主谓不一致。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;最后一句话语法错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> <br /> *黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> <br /> *肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> <br /> *潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> <br /> *陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> <br /> *辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> <br /> *王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> <br /> *林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> <br /> *熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> <br /> *湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;参考文献格式错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ===1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies===<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> ===1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression===<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> === 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application===<br /> <br /> ''Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines’ research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.'' (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, proving the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ''In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:<br /> the First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media’s role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.<br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton's assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair's period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media's discourse practice on the North Korea's image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media's context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after &quot;9·11&quot;, reflecting the changes in attitude.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports. (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> === 2.1 Classification===<br /> <br /> ''According to the CDA, for the variations of &quot;categories&quot; in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the &quot;categories&quot; in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of &quot;categories&quot;, and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, promote means &quot;to advance&quot;, while support means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both “promote” and “support the growth” signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word “develop” is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.'<br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) ''In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> Example (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> Example(3) The English version of &quot;促进祖国和平统一&quot;: The word &quot;统一&quot; in &quot;促进统一&quot;（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country&quot;, a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> Example(4)&quot;提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准&quot; is translated as &quot;We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.&quot;The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;And &quot;将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障&quot; is translated as &quot;We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living.&quot;&quot;农民工&quot; is translated as “rural migrant workers&quot;. Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> A critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> === 2.2 Mode===<br /> <br /> ===2.2.1 Modal verbs===<br /> <br /> ''Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.<br /> In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including &quot;能、可以、会、可能、得、敢、肯、愿意、情愿、乐意、想、要、应、应该、应当、该、值得、配、别、甭、好、一定、得、必须&quot;.Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb “must” to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of “must” in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb “should”. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb “will”, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs “should” and “may” in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in I, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject “we” and the modal verb “need to” are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also<br /> expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are pretty close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators have to chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.2.2 Personal pronouns===<br /> <br /> ''The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader. <br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 “we” in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns “we” are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns I, all of us, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in other cases. <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, all of &quot;us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Under most circumstances, “we” is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of “we” is more authoritative than I. This usage is called &quot;loyal we&quot;.'' (A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of “we” also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of “we” instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, “we” is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> === 2.3 Conversion===<br /> <br /> ''Traditionally, &quot;transformation&quot; refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of &quot;transformation&quot; should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose&quot;'' (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995). This lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> For example: <br /> ===2.3.1 Nominalization===<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> It can be shown from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is much higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but due to the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text can be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into consideration the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 Active to passive===<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter. In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> From the veiw of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> (1) In terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements, soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, While God is also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report reflects China's own ideology. The reasons are also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but the translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ===4.1 Insufficient data support===<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020.<br /> Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> I envisaged to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can get a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.<br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> However, since it is necessery to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, and to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then it is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Insufficient theoretical support===<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> The author does not have a profound understanding on critical discourse analysis, nor does she expound the Introduction clearly. Her knowledge of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author's understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''(要加引号). He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” （句子不通）(Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s (Peiji) English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English include mainly conjugation and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业” who performs the action “写”. That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, with the subject given priority in a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候” is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> <br /> In this example, “这种死亡” serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦” as well as “别人看了心里也很难受” serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related with each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. <br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=117315 2020-12-21T04:39:20Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 1. Introduction */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;Yi Huan 易欢 202020080663&lt;/center&gt;<br /> (1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> （Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> <br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot;(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br /> (Thackeray 2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986) ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等[On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;].''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;].''青年作家'' Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言[Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》[''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection&quot;. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br /> --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 202020080604==<br /> <br /> 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang 20202008060<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> <br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( Yang Liu， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (Jin Ti,,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (Jin Ti,, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 01:07, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and proses have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone who has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking back the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so many Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, proses and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations that will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1) <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought is profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as an author or a translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) Feminist-feminism <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity. when developed-when it developed<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46) influence-influence that--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).herself-by herself<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son's marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> put to an end to-ended<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation. live -live in<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch'i-ch'iao's situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch'i-ch'iao's hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145) passive and helpless-passiveness and helplessness<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 03:04, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> <br /> 桂一枝 202070080587<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as cross-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生进行跨文化行为，就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo, 2009 61)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym, 2001 129-138)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman, 1992 3)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti, 2004 page missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances(Pym, 2001129-138).--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman, 2001 139-153)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu, 2001 272)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. (quoteing missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun, 2007 14-18)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu, 1998 49-54)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis chooses these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman, 2001139) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman, 2001 140)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman, 2001 141) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman, 2001 142)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman, 2001 147)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang, 2019 92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong, 1998 194)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman, 2001 39-154)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang, 2012 34)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> After the theoretical study of translation ethics and practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. 1992. The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany [M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. 2004. The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. 2001. The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. 2001. Proposal for a hieronymic oath [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. 1982. The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen [M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. 1981. The Border Town and Other Stories [M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> 骆贤凤（2009）。中西翻译伦理研究述评。《中国翻译》。3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> 吕俊，2001,《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》Mo南京：东南大学出版社。<br /> <br /> 孙致礼（2007）。译者的职责。《中国翻译》，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> 沈从文，1981,《边城》Mo南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究[J].语文学刊,2019,39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> 童庆炳，1998,《文学理论教程》Mo北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究[D].南京师范大学,2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt; 专业&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;promote&lt;/span&gt;)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;enhance&lt;/span&gt;)the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;semicolon should be added.&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;时态要统一。&lt;/span&gt;)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;第一句话语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;举例较少，没有分析。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;前半部分语法有错误&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;主谓不一致。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;最后一句话语法错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> <br /> *黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> <br /> *肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> <br /> *潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> <br /> *陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> <br /> *辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> <br /> *王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> <br /> *林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> <br /> *熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> <br /> *湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;参考文献格式错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu 202070080649==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities.<br /> <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book ''The Translator’s Invisibility'' called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》[M],合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》[M],长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> --[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 02:20, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology====<br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> ===1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies===<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies=====<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> ===1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression===<br /> <br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> === 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application===<br /> <br /> ''Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines’ research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.'' (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, proving the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ''In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:<br /> the First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media’s role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.<br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton's assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair's period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media's discourse practice on the North Korea's image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media's context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after &quot;9·11&quot;, reflecting the changes in attitude.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports. (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> === 2.1 Classification===<br /> <br /> ''According to the CDA, for the variations of &quot;categories&quot; in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the &quot;categories&quot; in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of &quot;categories&quot;, and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, promote means &quot;to advance&quot;, while support means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both “promote” and “support the growth” signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word “develop” is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.'<br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) ''In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> Example (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> Example(3) The English version of &quot;促进祖国和平统一&quot;: The word &quot;统一&quot; in &quot;促进统一&quot;（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country&quot;, a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> Example(4)&quot;提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准&quot; is translated as &quot;We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.&quot;The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;And &quot;将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障&quot; is translated as &quot;We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living.&quot;&quot;农民工&quot; is translated as “rural migrant workers&quot;. Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> A critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> === 2.2 Mode===<br /> <br /> ===2.2.1 Modal verbs===<br /> <br /> ''Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.<br /> In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including &quot;能、可以、会、可能、得、敢、肯、愿意、情愿、乐意、想、要、应、应该、应当、该、值得、配、别、甭、好、一定、得、必须&quot;.Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb “must” to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of “must” in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb “should”. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb “will”, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs “should” and “may” in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in I, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject “we” and the modal verb “need to” are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also<br /> expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are pretty close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators have to chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.2.2 Personal pronouns===<br /> <br /> ''The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader. <br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 “we” in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns “we” are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns I, all of us, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in other cases. <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, all of &quot;us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Under most circumstances, “we” is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of “we” is more authoritative than I. This usage is called &quot;loyal we&quot;.'' (A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of “we” also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of “we” instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, “we” is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> === 2.3 Conversion===<br /> <br /> ''Traditionally, &quot;transformation&quot; refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of &quot;transformation&quot; should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose&quot;'' (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995). This lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> For example: <br /> ===2.3.1 Nominalization===<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> It can be shown from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is much higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but due to the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text can be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into consideration the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 Active to passive===<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter. In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> From the veiw of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> (1) In terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements, soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, While God is also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report reflects China's own ideology. The reasons are also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but the translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ===4.1 Insufficient data support===<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020.<br /> Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> I envisaged to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can get a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.<br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> However, since it is necessery to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, and to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then it is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Insufficient theoretical support===<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> The author does not have a profound understanding on critical discourse analysis, nor does she expound the Introduction clearly. Her knowledge of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author's understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work ''Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays''(要加引号). He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” （句子不通）(Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s (Peiji) English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts.<br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English include mainly conjugation and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业” who performs the action “写”. That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, with the subject given priority in a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候” is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> <br /> In this example, “这种死亡” serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦” as well as “别人看了心里也很难受” serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related with each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. <br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=116888 2020-12-20T15:40:05Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Abstract */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan <br /> 易欢 202020080663<br /> (1.between should be Between; 2. Please add your student number and major here)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC) ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, makes a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 the both should be both; Sentence 4 beween should be between --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 07:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC))<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显然，语言，文化与思维之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. That is to say, language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921:12)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, language is part of culture. And language, as a system of signs with its own cultural substances and values, may be viewed as a symbol of culture identity. For example, a person who moves from his or her speech community to another one, will easily exposes himself or herself as a newcomer in communication since the language he uses may betray his culture identity. Also each culture has its own peculiarities and throws influence on the language system. Hence, language is the carrier and the representation of culture, and as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> （Sentence 2 culture identity should be cultural identity, same mistake in Sentence 3; exposes should be expose )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properties and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 is known as should be are known as)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 13:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. And in different countries, there exist different thinking patterns, then it is going to illustrate four types of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present the reflection upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. <br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> When Premier Zhou and Secretary of State Kissinger drafted “Shanghai Sino-US Communique,” Kissinger once said that the thought of Oriental is to seek the common ground among differences, while the thought of the Occidental are accustomed to seeking differences among the similarities. To some extent, it shows that Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical. Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 are accustomed to should be is accustomed to )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, the formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. Then such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 the nature——nature ; Sentence 5 towards——of; Sentence 6 develop——to develop)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analyzing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 “subject-object~”——the “subject-object~”; explain ——explains; Sentence 3 logic——logical)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relatiobnships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 wrong spelling of relationships)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis, is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. <br /> <br /> Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> (2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face.(Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one prominent feature is the abundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. <br /> <br /> Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 some of——some)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:08, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> <br /> It is well known that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the opposite side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” (Tao Te Ching, chapter 25) Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” (Mencius, chapter 1)<br /> <br /> (Sentence 1stress——stresses; Sentence 2 sever——severe; think——think of; Sentence 3 Chinese Confucian school——the Chinese Confucian school)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1971: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 is——are)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature. On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conquer nature. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 has looked upon at—— have looked upon )--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism advocates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974: 25 ) <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 truth ——the truth)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 used of ——used)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 show——to show; its——their; Sentence 2 are ——is)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 pattern——patterns)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by) “为人所骗” (be cheated by). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> (Sentence 3 use ——uses)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> <br /> Thinking in images and thinking in notions are two forms of thought activities. Generally speaking, Chinese people are well good at thinking in images, while English–speaking people are well developed in thinking in notions. These two tendencies are rooted in their own cultures (包惠南, 2001: 26). Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration. As we all know Chinese language is vivid and full of images and the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. <br /> <br /> Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgment and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences.<br /> <br /> Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. <br /> <br /> Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M.Young once pointed，“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end, detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” <br /> <br /> (Sentence 2 tend to——tends to)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” (1946: 15-16) The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> Sentence 2 devices——device; Sentence 3 medonstrated ——demonstrated; Sentence 4 examplify ——exemplify)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to govern the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> <br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analyzes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. <br /> <br /> And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging.<br /> <br /> While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotelian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. <br /> <br /> (Sentence 4 view——views ; superior ——as superior)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (Sentence 1 has——have)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 14:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delight in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of Composition above Middle School, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 1 comparison on——comparison of)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, and we can not lump together under one head. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people view about the world around them, and then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> ( Sentence 3 about——of; two language——two languages ; Sentence 4 view about——view)--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 15:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 MTI 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; similarities and differences; ''Vanity Fair''<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His &quot;Functional equivalence&quot; theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reaching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; was superseded by &quot;functional equivalence&quot; in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined &quot;in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). &quot;<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). It is impossible to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translators can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it&quot;. The maximal level is stated as &quot;The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did&quot;(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ideal. According to Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as the essential criteria for understanding translation since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> &quot;Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).&quot;<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of Chinese translation theory in the 20th century (Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. &quot;Faithfulness&quot; emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. &quot;Elegance&quot; reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> &quot;Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also added, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for translators. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek for elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)&quot;<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticism comes from the denial of standard &quot;elegance&quot;. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese characters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons. Firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. &quot;Elegance&quot; now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard &quot;elegance&quot;, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic===== <br /> <br /> Based on modern linguistic, functional equivalence has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64).<br /> <br /> According to Nida, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and the target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original text for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34).<br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> &quot;Faithfulness&quot; means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. &quot;Expressiveness&quot; means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. &quot;Elegance&quot; refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. &quot;Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is the body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered around the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of criticism functions. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism, Lu Xun being one of the representative. The second type aims at the independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism serving politics, which works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the stories of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at that time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveals the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, he doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation versions of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of ''Vanity Fair'' was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957, then re-published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of the original text appropriately to Chinese readers, hence having a great response from Chinese readers.(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator when translating. When comparing the English and Chinese version of ''Vanity Fair'', it’s easy to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1) entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3) states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4) characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5) processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6) links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7) deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1: ……痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;痴情男子&quot; and &quot;美貌佳人&quot; to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate &quot;Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; into &quot;爱情&quot; and &quot;美人&quot;, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1) subject + predicate + adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2) subject + predicate + object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3) subject + predicate + object + object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4) subject + be + subject complement, such as, John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5) subject + be + attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6) subject + be + indefinite article + noun, such as, John is a man;<br /> <br /> (7) subject + be + pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. <br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2: His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. <br /> (Thackeray 2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2: 他第一次结婚的时候,奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐,是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> (Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1) 他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2) 他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3) 她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4) 她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5) 他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6) 妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7) 他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good command of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: …for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3: ……痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words &quot;prettier&quot;, &quot;an image of Love&quot; and &quot;Beauty&quot; are translated into &quot;更好看&quot; &quot;爱情形象&quot; &quot;美人&quot; respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, &quot;痴情男子&quot; &quot;美貌佳人&quot; and &quot;赏心悦目&quot; reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4: The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley. (Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4: 布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words &quot;behavior&quot; and &quot;reception&quot; are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into &quot;克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……&quot; without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> ===== Similarities =====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers. The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> ===== Differences =====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two thoeries, there are still some differences because of the different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence, which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of &quot;elegance&quot;. What’s more, the concrete explanation of &quot;faithfulness&quot; is not clear. Whether the target text should only be &quot;faithful&quot; to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as the translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of the differences between these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translation. <br /> <br /> From the comparison above, it is known that there are some similarities and differences between these two thoeries. It is believed that these two translation theories both play an important role in translation, guiding us to better understand different cultures. <br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill Archive.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert, and Jan de Waard. (1986) ''From One Language to Another''. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert. (1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press. <br /> <br /> Thackeray, William. (2006）. ''Vanity Fair''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie 陈岷婕. (2013). 浅谈严复的信达雅与奈达的功能对等[On Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;].''科教文汇'' The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju 郭丁菊. (2013). 功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance]. Harbin: Northeast Forestry University 东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong 李建中. (2009). 中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Beijing: Peking University Press 北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai 谭凯. (2011). 严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s &quot;Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance&quot; and Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;].''青年作家'' Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi 王运熙, Gu Yisheng 顾易生. (2007). 中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism]. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House 上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu 严复 (2009). 《天演论》译例言[Preface to ''Evolution and Ethics'']. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi 杨必. (2013)《名利场》[''Vanity Fair'']. Beijing: People’s Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei 张妍梅. (2019). 功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory]. Lanzhou: Lanzhou Jiaotong University 兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi 张曦. (2014). 翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI]. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press 上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei 张忆美. (2020). 对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on &quot;Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Functional Equivalence]. ''中国学术期刊电子出版社'' China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤. (2006). 奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot;]. ''福建医科大学学报'' Journal of Fujiann Medical University(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 15:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the Government Work Report has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of 2019 Government Work Report .--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> <br /> 近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。 --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The ''Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the ''National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference'', including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> The Government Work Report of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the National People's Congress on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China.Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, the essay interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials. In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. （Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）<br /> <br /> In order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. The essay includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology.（Cheng Zhenqiu，2003）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />  <br /> ===1.Introduction of Government Work Report===<br /> <br /> ''Government Work Report'' has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, ''Government Work Report'' manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, using the data to tell the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.(Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Lexical Level ====<br /> For ''Government Work Report'' has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.1Formal and Concise Words=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many kinds of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics=====<br /> As the ''Government Work Reports'' involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment. (Zhou Ji,2006) (什么是elcological environment？上文应先简单介绍一下)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.1.3 New and Popular Words=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Syntactic Level====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. (Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> <br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.) It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. (Zhou Ji,2006) （GWR斜体）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.(Zhou Ji,2006)<br /> <br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently adopted. (Zhou Ji,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) <br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) <br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) <br /> <br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> <br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)<br /> <br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have reinforced that makes the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure. （GWR斜体）<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two. Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )“在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)“放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.（Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> <br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks translation as a brandnew perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed. （Hu Gengshen，2001）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology====<br /> =====2.2.1 Adaption and Selection=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection&quot;. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid literal translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Cultural dimension is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so as various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）<br /> <br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.(Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text. In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be. (Hu Gengshen，2013）--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> <br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Linguistic Dimension====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) <br /> <br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports(Tong Xiaohua,2006) --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear(Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)<br /> <br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers. (Tong Xiaohua,2006)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Cultural Dimension====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural forms. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.) It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public into the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.) In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.) “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers(Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Communicative Dimension====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”) For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication. --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> <br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.) “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be.(Tong Xiaohua,2014)<br /> <br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1] In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. (Tong Xiaohua,2014)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention<br /> <br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report (斜体)in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention. (Yang Guang,2017)--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay. In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation. (Yang Guang,2017) GWR都要斜体--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report. (Yang Guang,2017)基于不足分析上再增加一个与其他著名理论对比的part会更好<br /> --[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> <br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> <br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> <br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> <br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> <br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> <br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> <br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> <br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 MTI英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspectives. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. <br /> <br /> Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。<br /> <br /> 另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed out the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. The two approaches were put forward to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure. And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' that the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated from his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory( Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistics was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible, the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible(Nida, 1984: 14).<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar. Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language, and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language. To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process, and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement(Li Yang, 2014: 94).<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40).<br /> <br /> He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable(Li Zhidan, 2014:93). <br /> <br /> Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language, which means, in a sense, he wanted to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above(Catford, 1965: 73).<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42).<br /> <br /> Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factor to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). <br /> <br /> By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence. And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods(Catford, 1965: 22). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented in front of its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response. These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. (Munday, 2008: 42)<br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to be achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49).<br /> <br /> In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings. To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made(Catford, 1965: 49). <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence. These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation. Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts(Munday, 2008: 43). <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language(Catford, 1965: 20).<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approaches=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was defined by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). <br /> <br /> Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language. In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework(Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspectives. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics. Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages(Tan, 2017: 132). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect. This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators.Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence have offered a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language(Nida, 1964: 159). <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully. Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory(Munday, 2008: 38). <br /> <br /> What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors. However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators(Munday, 2008: 42). <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved, he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature wayCaford, 1965:22).<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials. Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators(Wang, 2008: 166). <br /> <br /> Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinguish linguistic untranslatability from cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language. This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete(Catford, 1965: 101).<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence. The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possessing many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27).<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ====Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====The Similarities between the Two systems====<br /> <br /> =====Both deem translatology as an independent discipline=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> =====Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> =====Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====The differences between the Two Translation Systems====<br /> <br /> =====Different structures of translation system=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on the study of translation history=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> =====Different views on translation process=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Two Systems===<br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> =====My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System====<br /> <br /> =====Contributions of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> =====Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> =====My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Refrences===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida was a renowned American translator, translation theorist, and Ph.D. student in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. He earned a doctorate in linguistics in 1943 under the tututions of Bloomfield and others. He was a longtime executive secretary of the Translation division of the American Bible Society and, in 1968, president of the Linguistic Society of America.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. <br /> <br /> In addition to translation theory, Nida has also studied linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He also worked for a long time as a bible translator and studied many languages, especially minor ones in Africa and Latin America. . Nida has studied translation and written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and edited works), including 16 monographees on translation and linguistics, the most important of which was &quot;Towards the Science of Translation&quot;. Translation Theory and Practice, etc.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> <br /> His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader response theory&quot; translation standards have not only exerted great influence on the Western translation circle, but also promoted the transformation of Chinese translation theory circle. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasizes static analysis in traditional translation theory research, and put forward a new thinking of open translation theory research, which provides enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in the field of translation theory in China.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> <br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, author and Courier at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation at the University of Warwick, United Kingdom. As a leading figure in the school of Translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> There are some similarities between Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Barnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;, but there are also many differences. This paper starts with the &quot;similarities and differences&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; between the two, in order to have a more comprehensive understanding of these two theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to deepen the understanding and understanding of their translation purposes. Theory.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. <br /> <br /> Before the birth of the school of cultural translation, the linguistic school, the functional school and the structuralist school were the main schools in the field of translation theory in the West. The representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Barton, Catford and Nida, paid more attention to translation. They hold that translation is to replace one language material with the same language material; Les Nord and Mantari, representatives of functional schools, believe that translation studies should focus on the target text rather than the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> <br /> However, no matter the linguistic school, functional school or structuralist school, they more or less try to realize language equivalence from all aspects of text content and form in the process of research. [Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of cultural connotation of text. As a result, these researchers had a lot of trouble when they encountered environments that were completely different from their own cultural backgrounds. Cultural translation schools were born to better solve these problems.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from the perspective of linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of the dissemination of information and the diversification of communication methods brought languages and cultures closer together. In the process of information transmission, language differences become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multi-cultural concepts and values, translation theorists in line with the trend of The Times are paying more and more attention to the multi-cultural values embodied in translated texts.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. <br /> <br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory is influenced by his time. It was in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that language studies in the United States really began. It was not until the early 20th century that American linguists, who had studied and been influenced by Europe, began to study American linguistics. They developed descriptive and structural linguistics in the United States. From the 1940s, American linguistics began to exert a great influence on the world's linguistic research. During this period, the representative figures in the field of American linguistics were Boas, Sabir and Bloomfield.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research.<br /> <br /> Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew during this time. In 1943, under the tutelage of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Frith, he received his doctorate in linguistics. As a result, his thinking was deeply influenced by the American structuralist Bloomfield and the anthropologist Sapir, and he emphasized the collection and analysis of linguistic materials in linguistic studies.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> Since the 1950s, Nida has been the executive secretary of the Translation Department of the American Bible Society for many years. Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the practical work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. In translation projects organized by the American Bible Society since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the theory of dynamic equivalence (Tan Zaixi, 1991).--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative figures in the school of cultural translation, Susan Bassnet's concept of translation centered on the theory of cultural translation has exerted a great influence on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culture&quot; (Translation, History and Culture), Andre, Lefevre and Susan Bassinet put forward the term &quot;Culural&quot; lurn, which is the concept first proposed here.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the linguistics of translation faces the following problems: Machine translation method is an effective method, but it is not applicable to literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett points out that translation research methods should undergo a cultural turn (cultural turn). In her opinion, translators must carry out their translation activities in a specific cultural context, and they should not carry out their translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's view of cultural translation is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, but is rooted in and influenced by linguistic culture.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:14, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> &quot;Dynamic equivalence&quot; is the core concept of Nida's translation theory. Its essence is a receptor-centered translation theory, which aims to achieve the &quot;dynamic&quot; equivalence between the effect obtained from the original text readers and the translated version, which requires the translator to observe from the perspective of the meaning and spirit of translation. Rather than strictly following the structure of the original language. In other words, formal equivalence is not strictly observed. The theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most famous and frequently discussed theory, and the focus of this discussion may be attributed to different interpretations of the word &quot;equivalence&quot;.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation, because it involves the essence of translation, translation norms, quality and translation evaluation and other key issues. &quot;Mathematical equivalence&quot; is the relationship between absolute symmetry and equivalence in mathematics. But in many English dictionaries it has an obscure meaning that something is similar or essentially the same. So, does the concept of equivalence in translation theory derive from its absolute mathematical reference, or is it borrowed from its vague meaning as a word in general linguistics? According to many translation theorists, including Nida, the latter may mean more than the former.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. <br /> <br /> &quot;Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive concept. In the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;belief&quot;, &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;belief&quot; refers to the attitude of the translator, while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation, which is objective. But &quot;equivalence&quot; does not involve the attitude of the translator, so we get a clearer concept. &quot;Equivalence&quot; in translation is a comprehensive influence, not a mechanical synthesis of linguistic, semantic and pragmatic equivalents, but a consideration of different levels of factors as well as artistic viewpoints and achievements of different cultures and languages.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> The historical contribution of Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the literal translation and free translation debate that has been going on for about 2000 years for many Western translation theorists. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language form, while the effect of translation is neglected, while free translation pays more attention to the &quot;beauty&quot; of translation effect without considering equivalence. Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. However, the equivalence of the two effects is emphasized, and then the contradiction is resolved.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> <br /> Nida is very interested in dynamic equivalence, &quot;where receptors in both languages (SL and TL) have approximately similar responses and achieve substantially equivalent effects (Willow, 2006). Source language and target language text to compare the two communication processes involved. (Jin Ti, 1998:231) Therefore, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot;mainly focuses on the relative aspects of&quot; equivalence &quot;rather than absolualizing the term, which may mean that equivalence theory in translation actually means relative, vague and vague things.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching.<br /> <br /> As a relative concept, the target of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; is that the translation of the readers can get smoothly from the translated text in much the same message, like the readers of the original from the original text, including their main nature, the understanding of specific facts and artistic conception, although the two text there may be large or completely different in form. This goal can be applied to almost any type of translation. For all these views, Nida and his theory have been constantly criticized and criticized.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. <br /> <br /> To sum up, those who oppose the theory believe that the equivalence in translation is impossible forever, because the translation involves at least two different languages, cultures, etc., it is rather difficult for the locals, while in favor of people think equivalence can be realized on the senses and style not only, and in effect can be achieved. Nida made it very clear that &quot;reactions can never be the same,&quot; but that &quot;a high degree of reaction equivalence&quot; is required and possible; As for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, Nida explained that no translation can be completely equivalent.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. <br /> <br /> In fact, different translations represent different degrees of equivalence, that is to say, &quot;equivalence&quot; does not imply identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to emphasize the concept of functionality while avoiding misunderstanding, Nida believes that &quot;functional equivalence&quot; is more satisfying in describing the appropriateness of translation (Nida, 2001:91). Therefore, Nida, as clearly stated in his work, does not prescribe &quot;identical&quot; or exactly equivalent words between the original text and the translated text, but rather expects a high degree of intimacy and reproduces the most recent translated information to the primitive. Information.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a relative conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> He urged translators to strive for identity rather than identity.&quot; Idea professor's stance and nida's views, he thinks that nida's theory of &quot;equivalent&quot; shows that the concept of a language that is different from the &quot;identity&quot; and &quot;equivalence&quot; is a relative concept, it does not require exactly the same effect, but should strive to within the scope of the possible, such as by ST's influence on readers of the original text, as far as possible to make the most direct impact on translation (gold, 1998:44).--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> If this example is translated literally as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot;, in many cases it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot;, thus making the translator appear rigid and the translation traces too obvious. Yang xianyi and his wife translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; directly, which was in line with the native language habits of foreigners and avoided the appearance of the translator's accent. This translation realizes the functional equivalence of individual word translation in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old account books&quot; here are the characteristic terms of China's old social period, meaning &quot;old account books&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;geriatric news&quot;, there was clearly no better &quot;old ledger&quot; for the time.<br /> Time background. The translation of Yangs handles the translation of characteristic nouns well and achieves the result of information equivalent translation.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> &quot;Wolfson village&quot; is a local term. It is obviously inappropriate to translate it simply as &quot;Wolf Children's village&quot;. Such a translation is not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the young couple's &quot;Wolf pup&quot; in the &quot;Wolf pup village&quot; is very vivid and accurate expression. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;Cub,&quot; and in this case, it has the same original meaning. Yang Xianyi has made some achievements in the translation of Chinese place-name nouns and conveyed Chinese culture well in the process of translation.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:25, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> According to Bassnett, the goal of translation should be to shift from the generally accepted text to culture, which is called cultural transformation. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. The mind, language and body coordinate with each other to maintain vitality and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must consider the patient's overall physical condition. The same is true of translation practice. In the process of translating a target language into a target language, parliamentarians must consider double standards of linguistic accuracy and cultural adaptation, and must not deprive cultures and treat translations separately.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> <br /> As for translation methods, Bassnett believes that languages and written materials in different cultural backgrounds should have different translation requirements, so different translation methods should be adopted. For example, for descriptive, culture-specific or essentially technical texts, translators should try to translate literally from a cultural perspective. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of text, the translator can play with relative freedom in the translation and use more translation skills with less consideration for the restrictions on translation activities imposed by the original text culture. It can be said that the freedom of translation activities is relatively high.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> As for translation strategies, Bassnett believes that translators' translation activities are the process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors that are different from the target language in the original text, and then make an in-depth understanding of these factors, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy can help readers in other countries to better understand the meaning of the original text and give them a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content.<br /> <br /> In terms of the content and form of translation, Bassnett believes that cultural communication is the focus of translation, and she believes that the original style of the original language text should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not only a translation of the original content of poetry, but also a new understanding and innovation of translation. Translators must use their own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. <br /> Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of syllables and the distribution of rhymes in form also convey content. The information of The Times is revealed behind the scenes.<br /> Therefore, if the original form of poetry is abandoned in translation, it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhymes for example. As the Tang's prosperity turned from peak to decline, the strict flattening of correspondence and cohesion was not only pleasing, but the pursuit of form suggested that the literati of that era were remembering the dead Tang dynasty and its descendants. A strong unsatisfied political demand.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> Before the rise of the school of cultural Translation, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into simple and clear language so that readers could better understand the translation and thus remove the metaphor and association in the literature. In this way, the translation will indeed become easier to understand, but the literariness of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth of the work cannot achieve the effect of the original text. Therefore, According to Bassnett, the &quot;intelligibility&quot; of translation should not be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but on striving to maintain the original style.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> As for the evaluation criteria of translation, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translation are not unique. The translation standards of academic papers and practical papers are different from those of literary papers. When reviewing and evaluating translation standards, the translation should be judged from the target translation and whether the translation meets the target requirements. In short, translation should start from the needs of readers in different cultural backgrounds and use appropriate translation languages to meet this need.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> Both translators are right to translate &quot;four horses&quot; as &quot;four horses&quot;. In ancient China, the number of carriages was used to reflect status, such as driving two horses as parallel, three as stallions and four as parcels. In general, the emperor drove six, the prince five, the Qing court four, the doctor three, the scholar two, and the scholar four. In war there were also horse-drawn chariots, usually a carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> <br /> Nida's translation thought is mainly influenced by the structuralist translator, which is reflected in his use of syntactic structure analysis method, the semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core ideas similar to Chomsky's deep structure syntactic analysis. From the perspective of language translation (interlingual translation), this paper makes a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation programs. However, the essence of Nida's translation thoughts lies not only in his view of language structuralism, but also in &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contributions to translation theory, especially to Bible translation theory, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> But Bassinet's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchange, first of all, cultural exchange, then information exchange. The translation introduces the unique culture of each country and explains the similarities and differences between each other, thus promoting the comparative study of the two languages and cultures. Bassnett also points out that culture imposes various requirements on translation that are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, translators should show the unique charm of different cultures through translation so that people with different cultural backgrounds can communicate with each other with real cultural significance.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that the target of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of translation. Not only do you need to compare the linguistic form of the translation to the original text, but you also need to understand how the recipient responds to the translation. Only when translated works are easy to understand and in correct format can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett's view of cultural translation also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, translators must find the appropriate translation language in terms of function. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the needs of different levels of translation recipients.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the process of translation, form should give way to content. Bethnet also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, translators will not be limited by literary images. It can be seen that two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of translation.--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> Nida points out that the world's languages and cultures are 90 percent alike and only 10 percent different. Bassnett also argues that translators should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture according to the target language; The object of reading and the function of the original language in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that source language and target language can communicate in cultural aspects. Despite the cultural loss in translation, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarity or similarity (that is, the common core of culture).--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 12:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 MTI ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating. The theory holds the idea that translating and interpreting should primarily take the function of target text into full consideration. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. (Dun Guangang 2011, 248) <br /> <br /> In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (that are Xin, Da, Ya in Chinese), which has an influence on the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107）With the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their similarities, differences and influences, so as to deepen our understanding of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”. (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work and the production of the target text. All translation behaviours should take purpose into consideration.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 255) Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation for Skopos theory.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 257)<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Functional Equivalence, thought that “translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose.” According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. It is readers that determine translation purpose. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the “skopos rule”, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> Whether the function of the source text or passages of the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. <br /> <br /> The last rule, fidelity rule, is also called as inter-textual rule which means the ‘inter-textual coherence’ should exists between the source text and target text. Just like Nord (2001) said a translation is an “offer of information”about “a preceding offer of information”, it is expected to bear some kind of relationship with the corresponding source text. It means that the source text and target text should be coherent with each other, and the coherent aspects between them including special collocations, sentence length, grammatical features, or even rhetorical devices, in style, in function, etc. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose. (Dun Guangang 2011,251) <br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. From the three basic rules above mentioned we can see that the fidelity rule is considered subordinate to the coherence rule, and the both of rules are subordinated to skopos rule. (Vermeer, Hans J. 1989,187) From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard —rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. (Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 113）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. <br /> <br /> The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> <br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. (Chen Fukang 2000, 108) Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it, while there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made. (Chen Fukang 2000, 112)<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor.(Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. (Yan Fu, 1987)<br /> <br /> And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory.<br /> <br /> Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 256)<br /> <br /> In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 107) In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. <br /> <br /> In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) <br /> <br /> Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. <br /> <br /> At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. (Yan Fu, 1987) Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. <br /> <br /> The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. (Dun Guangang 2011. 242) Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. <br /> <br /> Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 257) Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity. (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156) This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. <br /> <br /> As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach .(Tan Zaixi 2004, 242) <br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation. ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. <br /> <br /> More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the function of translated work and translators’ subjectivity. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. (Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. <br /> <br /> In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”.(Shen Suru 2001,7)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory. (Pym Anthony, 1996) <br /> <br /> Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. (Dun Guangang 2011, 247) Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable. <br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced.<br /> <br /> In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Andrew Chersterman: ''The Translation Studies Reader'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Dun Guangang 顿官刚.（2011). ''西方翻译理论文献宣读'' [Selected Readings in Western Translation Theory]. Hunan: Hunan Normal University Press 湖南师范大学出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West]. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 15:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it is also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and [[prose]] have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)1.proses<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in [[that]] she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone [[has]] talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and [[looking through]] the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so [[much]] Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. 1.which 2.who has 3.looking back 4.many<br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, [[prose]] and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)1.proses 2. the translations will-the translations that will <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)1. profoundly embodied-is profoundly embodied 2. an author or a translator--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23) Feminist-feminism <br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity. when developed-when it developed<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46) influence-influence that--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics Gui Yizhi 桂一枝 202070080587==<br /> <br /> 桂一枝 202070080587<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as cross-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works ''Bian Cheng'' has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of ''Bian Cheng'' translated by Gladys Yang and Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, ''Bian Cheng'', Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生进行跨文化行为，就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文将从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——戴乃迭和金堤与白英的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research Background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. <br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo 2009: 61)<br /> <br /> From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the &quot;cultural turn&quot;. (Luo, 2009 61)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym 2001:129-138)<br /> <br /> With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the &quot;cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.(Pym, 2001 129-138)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===2. Literature Review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman 1992: 3)<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.(Berman, 1992 3)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti 2004)<br /> <br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication&quot; and &quot;resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.(Venuti, 2004 page missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (Pym 2001:129-138). <br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman's theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about &quot;how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other's work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances(Pym, 2001129-138).--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman 2001:139-153)<br /> <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman published a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath&quot; in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics&quot;. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.(Chesterman, 2001 139-153)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu 2001: 272)<br /> <br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book ''Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel'' written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. (Lu, 2001 272)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. <br /> <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics. (quoteing missing)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun 2007: 14-18)<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.(Sun, 2007 14-18)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu 1998: 49-54)<br /> <br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article ''essay on three levels of translation activities'' in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, &quot;reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level&quot;.(Xu, 1998 49-54)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of ''Bian Cheng''====<br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel ''Bian Cheng'' owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as &quot;one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature&quot; (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the &quot;Nobel Literature Prize&quot; in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> There are four English version of ''Bian Cheng''. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled ''Green Jade and Green Jade'' translated by Xing Molei (the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girlfriend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled ''The Frontier City'' contained in T''he Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen'' translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Bian Cheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included ''The Border Town and Other Stories'' translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature. quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics. <br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis chooses these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Chesterman's five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.quote missing--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman 2001: 139) <br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman's words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author's intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text.(Chesterman, 2001139) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 140)<br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator&quot;, and the translator should be &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer&quot;.(Chesterman, 2001 140)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman 2001: 141) <br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding&quot;.(Chesterman, 2001 141) --[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman 2001: 142)<br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of &quot;descriptive translation studies&quot;. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like &quot;the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations&quot;. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.(Chesterman, 2001 142)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman 2001: 147)<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.(Chesterman, 2001 147)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Comparison of the Two English Versions of ''Bian Cheng''===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Different Translator Focuses on Different Translation Ethics====<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Ching &amp; Payne's translation was published in ''The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen The Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen'' in 1947 by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd in London, England. The author aims to introduce Chinese novels to English readers, making the Border Town known to readers in Western countries. Since then, western readers have gradually know Shen Congwen. The translation was republished by Columbia University Press in 1982. After the founding of New China, Shen Congwen's works were once banned. It was not until the 1980s that his books returned to people's vision. Gladys 's translation is contained in ''Border Town and Other Stories'', published by China Literature Publishing House in 1981, which aims to promote representative Chinese literary works to the world.(Xiang 2019:92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang 2019:92)<br /> <br /> Different translations deal with the frame structure of the original work differently. The Ching &amp; Payne translation adds an 8-page translation preface to the front of the text. In the translation preface, the translator first explains the reason and importance of adding the preface to the translation. Furthermore, the translator introduced the writing styles of Shen Congwen and Lu Xun; third, the translator introduced Shen Congwen’s life and his position in the Chinese literary world; finally, the translator analyzed the theme and content of ''Border Town''. However, Gladys 's version only has a short preface about brief introduction of Shen Congwen. The Ching &amp; Payne translation was published in 1947. In order to meet the needs of translation service ethics and communication ethics, based on the fact that Western world and western readers did not know much about Chinese culture as well as Shen Congwen, so the translator gave a lot of introduction Shen Congwen and Border Town. Gladys’s version was published in 1981. Before this time, Shen Congwen’s works were once listed as banned books. During this period, overseas research on Shen Congwen has never stopped. In the 1980s, there was even Overseas Shen Congwen Craze. So based on the relationship between the translator, the sponsor and the readers, different translator will focus on different translation ethics during their translation activities.(Xiang, 2019 92)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Places and Culture-loaded Words Translation====<br /> <br /> Table1 comparison of places names in two versions <br /> <br /> 源语/金白译/戴译 <br /> <br /> 四川/ Szechuan/ Szechuan <br /> <br /> 辰州/ Chenshow/ Chenshow <br /> <br /> 桃源/ Taoyuan/ Taoyuan <br /> <br /> 沅水/ Yua Sui/ River Yuan <br /> <br /> 白河/ White Stream/ White River <br /> <br /> 湖南/ Hunan/ Hunan<br /> <br /> 秀山/ Hsiushan Mountain/ Mount Xiu<br /> <br /> 茶峒/ Ch’a-t’ung/ Chatong<br /> <br /> 酉水/ Yu Sui/ The You<br /> <br /> 洞庭湖/ T-ung-ting Lake/ Lake Dongting<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication believes that translation is a cross-cultural and cross-language communication activity. The translator should first be faithful to the translation ethics in the &quot;cultural communication space&quot;, not the source or target culture. The ultimate goal of translation is promoting communication and cooperation between the two parties. Therefore, the two translators followed different communicative ethics in different times. In order to effectively achieve the purpose of communication, Ching &amp; Payne adopted Wade-Giles Romanization, which was acceptable to the English world. This way is easy to be taken by readers and promotes effective communication. At that time, Gladys was commissioned by the magazine Chinese Literature at the time, and her translation had to serve as her &quot;patron&quot;. For the translation of place names, Gladys 's translation used the phonetic system which was the standard rules for translating names of places and persons at that time. When personal ethics conflict with social ethics, the subjectivity of the translator will be controlled by the &quot;patron&quot;. Ching &amp; Payne translated earlier, and their version was published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. Therefore, compared to Gladys, the &quot;patron&quot; of the Ching &amp; Payne’s version are themselves.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Table 2 comparison of culture-loaded words in two versions<br /> <br /> 源语/ 金白译/ 戴译 <br /> <br /> 油坊/ Oilshops/ Tung oil presses <br /> <br /> 桐油/ Wood-oil/ Tung oil <br /> <br /> 唢呐/ Flute/ Trumpet <br /> <br /> 糍粑/ Cake/ Ciba <br /> <br /> 纤夫/ Haulers/ Towman <br /> <br /> 上帝/ God/ Jade Emperor <br /> <br /> 蓬船/ Junk/ Craft<br /> <br /> 青盐/ Green salt/ Rock salt <br /> <br /> 法器/ Musical instrument/ Stock-in-trade<br /> <br /> 粉条/ Rice noddles/ Bean-vermicelli<br /> <br /> 喽啰/ bandit/ Whirligig <br /> <br /> 陀螺/ Delicate silk gowns/ Dark satin jackets over long gowns<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang 2019:93)<br /> <br /> From Table2 we can see that Gladys's translation adopts the strategy of foreignization, preserving Chinese culture and following the ethic of representation. It also contains serving factors for the &quot;patron&quot;. In a sense, it unifies the ethics of representation and service. While Ching &amp; Payne’s version focuses more on the target language readers’ understanding, and give up to represent the culture-loaded words that are unfamiliar to target language readers by using the translation strategy of domestication. Its aim is to entertain the readers. In order to effectively achieve better communication with target language readers, he mainly follows the communication ethics in translation ethics.(Xiang, 2019 93)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Representation of the Aesthetic Prospect====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong 1998: 194)<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Bian Cheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Contemporary literary theorist Tong Qingbing defines the aesthetic prospect as “an image system of a fusion of feelings with the scenery depicted represented in the lyrical works, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.” So, it's the translators’ responsibility to represent the aesthetic prospect of the source text. Now, let’s take a look at the following examples.(Tong, 1998 194)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶峒”的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文，1981:1)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys, 1981:5)<br /> <br /> [TT-2] From Szechuan there is a highway running east to Hunan. When the road reaches the small mountain city of Ch'a-t'ung, just inside the border of Hunan, it crosses a river, near the river you will find a white pagoda and a small isolated cottage, where there once lived a family which consisted of an old man, a girl and a yellow dog. (Ching, 1982:190)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Bian Cheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images -- &quot;官路&quot;, &quot;小山城&quot;，&quot;小溪&quot;, &quot;白色&quot;, &quot;小塔七&quot;, &quot;单独的人家&quot;, &quot;老人&quot;, &quot;女孩子&quot; and &quot;黄狗&quot;, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character &quot;一&quot;. The character &quot;一&quot; embodies the &quot;blue&quot; aesthetic mentality and literary creation view of Shen Congwen, who once said: I feel so lonely, perhaps from which I hope to be close to the beauty still left in my impression? Here in the beginning of the novel, by using his usual simple and plain writing style, the author successfully fuses his feelings with the natural setting to convey his deep love and concern towards the characters and what will happen next. (Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> In Gladys Yang’s version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an)&quot; and one &quot;the&quot; to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates &quot;单独&quot; (的人家)into a &quot;solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone&quot; and &quot;lonely&quot;，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> Compared with Gladys Yang's version, Ching Ti's also fully represents the eight images of the original. But with the translation of &quot;单独&quot;(的人家)into an &quot;isolated&quot; cottage which conveys less emotional overtones than &quot;solitary&quot; and the use of complicated and rambling sentences with nearly five verbs, the original aesthetic connotations are involuntarily broken by him. To sum up, Gladys’s translation better represents the aesthetic prospect of the original than Ching Ti's.(Wang 2012: 25)<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Conflict between the Ethics of Representation and the Norm-based Ethics====<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman 2001:39-154)<br /> <br /> As Chesterman argues: &quot;the representation model is vulnerable to arguments about the impossibility of totally true representation, about the relative status of the original and translations, about the illusion of perfect equivalence&quot;. Accordingly, the ethics of representation can easily conflict with other models of translation ethics, especially the norm-based ethics.(Chesterman, 2001 39-154)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From the linguistic point of view, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang 2012: 34)<br /> <br /> From the perspective of linguistics, the vital difference between Chinese and English lies in parataxis and hypotaxis which are two different devices that help realize the cohesion in language. Chinese prefers parataxis which depend coherence in meaning and sentences are organized in a topic-comment structure without overt logical markers in many cases. While English favors hypotaxis which lays great emphasis on logical relation and sentences are organized in the S-P (subject-predicate) patterns with various explicit logical markers of overt cohesion. Inevitably translators have to notice and deal with such a difference between Chinese and English.(Wang, 2012 34)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's look at the following examples:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [STI] 话虽轻轻的，那男的却听得出，且从声音上听得出翠翠年纪，便带笑道：“怎么， 你骂人！你不愿意上去，要呆在这儿，回头水里大鱼来咬了你，可不要叫喊！”<br /> 翠翠说：“鱼咬了我也不管你的事。” (沈从文，1981:24)<br /> <br /> [TTl-l] Low as the words were, he caught them, and realized that she was no more than a girl. &quot;Such language from a child!&quot; he teased, chuckling, &quot;you stay here, mind a big fish doesn't bite you—don't expect me to rescue you!&quot;<br /> &quot;Whether it bites me or not, that's none of your business!&quot; (Gladys, 1981:26)<br /> <br /> [TTl-2] She spoke under her breath, but the man heard her. He guessed her age from her voice, and answered laughingly: &quot;So you like cursing, eh? Wbll if you don't want to go, you can wait here、 but don't be surprised if a fish comes out of the water and bites you.&quot;<br /> <br /> &quot;Eyen if a fish does bite me, I'll never have anything to do with you!&quot; the girl retorted. (Ching, 1982: 211)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang 2012: 35)<br /> <br /> Under such conflict, taking the target readers’ maximum acceptability into consideration, Gladys Yang has adopted relatively flexible translation strategies to try to retain the linguistic feature of Chinese by using as less overt logical markers as possible. While Ching Ti chooses to meet target readers, expectations by fully employing the hypotactic structure of the English language, for he exchanges the original diffusive structure into long and complicated sentences with logical markers.(Wang, 2012 35)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> After a theoretical study of translation ethics and a practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.<br /> <br /> After the theoretical study of translation ethics and practical analysis of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' within the framework of Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics, we 'can conclude that the present study of translation ethics, with Chesterman's five models as its representative, does open a new perspective for not only translation studies but also for the translation practice and evaluation. This chapter mainly deals with the major findings as well as some limitations and suggestions for further study.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of the two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.<br /> <br /> This thesis focuses on the comparison of two English versions of ''Bian Cheng'' under Chesterman's five models of ethics namely the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, and the ethics of communication, norm-based ethics and the ethics of professional commitment.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.<br /> <br /> It mainly applies the ethics of representation into evaluation from the aspects of the representation of the aesthetic prospect, the ethnological color, the character images through dialogues, and the cultural-specific of the original, based on which the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics at certain linguistic and cultural levels and the mediation by the ethics of service &amp; communication under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole are also examined carefully. Generally speaking, both of the translators put the ethics of representation in an important position, though Gladys Yang has done better jobs in representing the original, both in form and spirit, than Ching Ti. It's not only because Gladys Yang is more highly skilled in translating than Ching Tii but also because they put different factors into first consideration in translation with the former being faithful and loyal to the original and the latter meeting the target readers' expectations.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.<br /> <br /> And when the conflict between the ethics of representation and norm-based ethics emerges, the ethics of service &amp; communication will serve as mediators to guide their translation, generally, Gladys Yang chooses to preserve the original to a maximum, that is to say, she prefers to take the ethics of representation into first consideration, based on which she will adopt relatively flexible translation strategies to make her translation acceptable by conforming to norm-based ethics to some extent. While Ching Ti lays primary emphasis on norm-based ethics, always putting target readers' expectations first by violating the ethics of representation. But both of their coordination or mediation is under the guidance of the ethics of professional commitment as a whole from a higher level, instead of abusing their professional power to mediate arbitrarily.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> In a word, with different ethics influencing the translators most, the two English versions possess different characteristics. Guided mainly by the norm-based ethics, Ching Ti tends to take the strategy of &quot;domestication&quot; to make his version colloquial, smooth and simple for the target public to get amusement. While Gladys Yang highlights the ethics of representation to adopt the strategy of foreignization mostly to make her version formal, exquisite, serious and academic to some extent, which mainly appeal to those target readers who are interested in Chinese culture.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Berman, A. 1992. The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany [M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. 2004. The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. 2001. The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. 2001. Proposal for a hieronymic oath [J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. 1982. The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen [M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. 1981. The Border Town and Other Stories [M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.<br /> <br /> 骆贤凤（2009）。中西翻译伦理研究述评。《中国翻译》。3，13-17。 <br /> <br /> 吕俊，2001,《跨越文化障碍一巴比塔的重建》Mo南京：东南大学出版社。<br /> <br /> 孙致礼（2007）。译者的职责。《中国翻译》，4, 14-18。<br /> <br /> 沈从文，1981,《边城》Mo南昌：江西人民出版社<br /> <br /> 向仍东.翻译伦理视角下《边城》英译研究[J].语文学刊,2019,39(04):91-95.<br /> <br /> 童庆炳，1998,《文学理论教程》Mo北京：高等教育出版社。<br /> <br /> 王卫萍. 翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究[D].南京师范大学,2012.<br /> <br /> <br /> Berman, A. (1992). ''The Experience of the Foreign: Cultural and Translation in Romantic Germany''[M], Trans. S. Heyvaert. Albany: State University of New York Press.<br /> <br /> Venuti, L. (2004). ''The Translator Invisibility: A History of Translation''[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Pym, A. (2001). ''The Return to Ethics in Translation Studies''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Chesterman, A. (2001). ''Proposal for a hieronymic oath''[J]. The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication .<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1982). ''The Frontier City in the Chinese Earth: Stories by Shen Tsfung wen''[M], trans. Ching Ti &amp; R. Payne. New York: Columbia University Press.<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen. (1981). ''The Border Town and Other Stories''[M]. Translated by Gladys Yang. Beijing: Chinese Literature Press.--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597 (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt; 专业&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘欧 Liu Ou&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to witness the world, meanwhile, an increasing number of foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Culture Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;promote&lt;/span&gt;)Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;enhance&lt;/span&gt;)the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;semicolon should be added.&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of Culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of scenic spots names is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;) --[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)(Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> ==== The Purpose of Translation ====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;时态要统一。&lt;/span&gt;)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;efficient can be deleted&lt;/span&gt;)that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;第一句话语法有错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;举例较少，没有分析。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;前半部分语法有错误&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC), the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;主谓不一致。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 09:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;最后一句话语法错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）.<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,“爱晚亭”, the name was originated from a famous poem written by Du Mu (803-853) in Tang dynasty. But the official translation in the scenic spot was “the Lovely Evening Pavilion”. However, the real meaning of “晚” in the name was not evening but late autumn. Hence some scholars translate it as “the Autumn-Admiring Pavilion” and “the Maple-leaves Admiring Pavilion”.(Chen Jiao, 2013).<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, &quot;南岳庙&quot; (Nanyue Temple), &quot;洞庭湖&quot; (Dongting Lake), &quot;岳麓山&quot;(Yuelu Mountain),&quot;崀山&quot; (Langshan Mountain), &quot;湘江&quot;(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,&quot;柳浪闻莺&quot;liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), &quot;鬼见愁&quot;gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing &quot;吊脚楼&quot;, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> <br /> *Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> <br /> * Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> <br /> *黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> <br /> *肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> <br /> *潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> <br /> *陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> <br /> *辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> <br /> *王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> <br /> *林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> <br /> *熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> <br /> *贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> <br /> *湖南文物名胜概览.湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;参考文献格式错误。&lt;/span&gt;)--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasure of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’ consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, and her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by a Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Alienization is the similarity amid defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, which has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural turn proposed by Susan Bassinet against the culture invasion, and this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new expression or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influences on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---''Zuihuayin'', is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and status quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poems in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, words are of greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character twice or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heartbroken feeling and her worry about her convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrased them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. --[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu used drizzles to describe the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> In the original, hyperbaton was used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by the poet, which slashed the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refers to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised as the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and casual as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different words to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore it can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> After studying some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is a more blurred one, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of its terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulates the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> （少了学号）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces main functons and types of texts. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis explores the translation strategies that suits for the two types based on different characteristics, including domestication, foreignization, omission,restructure and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> （Key Words）注意大小写--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍主要的文本功能以及文本类型，然后探讨新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的语言特点及翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译，重构等翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles that have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.<br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discusses the development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics.From the perspective of language characteristics,literary style texts are vivid,full of feelings and connotation-contained, while journalistic style texts are new, objective,true and political-related. From the perspective of translation principles, literary style texts are based on equivalence priciple and accuracy,while journalistic style texts are based on accuracy,purpose and readability. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively and the analysis of examples, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restructure, amplification and imitation in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis.--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> ===Theoretical Framework===<br /> ====Background and development of Texts’ styles====<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts mean a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. <br /> We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules.<br /> （段落过长 建议分成两段） （存在单复数语法错误）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 13:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> ====Main functions of texts==== <br /> <br /> =====The Referential Function=====<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Function=====<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> =====The Appellative Function=====<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ====Main Text - types====<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> =====The Expressive Texts=====<br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Informative Texts=====<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===== The Vocative Texts=====<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ====Language Characteristics====<br /> <br /> =====For literary style=====<br /> ======Vividness======<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ======Emotional expression======<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ======Connotation======<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===== For journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ======Truthfulness======<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ======Newness======<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ======Objectivity======<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ======Political Relevance======<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ====Translation principles==== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original.<br /> <br /> ===== For literary style=====<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles.<br /> <br /> ======Equivalence-based principle======<br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle======<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> =====For Journalistic style=====<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability.<br /> <br /> ======Purpose-based principle======<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” <br /> As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.（建议截成两段，段落过长）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 12:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> <br /> ======Accuracy-based principle====== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ======Readability-based principle======<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ====Translation strategies in literary style====<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===== Domestication=====<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br /> Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br /> of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book T《he Translator’s Invisibility》 called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br /> Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br /> of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.（书籍需要加书名号）--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 13:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Wei yafei<br /> ======paraphrasing======<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ======Adaptation======<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ======Replacement======<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric.<br /> <br /> =====Foreignization=====<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ======phonetic compensation======<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> ======Transliteration======<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> ======Amplification======<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lunyu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> ==== Translation strategies in journalistic style====<br /> <br /> ===== Amplification=====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> =====Omission=====<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> =====Imitation=====<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> =====Restructure=====<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily.<br /> <br /> ===== Adaptation=====<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1] McNair, Brain. ''The sociology of Journalism'' [M]. A Hodder Arnold Publication,1998.<br /> <br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M]. London and New York: Routledge,2001.<br /> <br /> [3] Newmark, P. ''Approaches to Translation'' ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. ''Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained'' [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6.<br /> <br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. ''Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> <br /> [6] Venuti, L. ''The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation''[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge,1995.<br /> <br /> [7] 黄瑞红.新闻英语的词汇特色和语法特征[J],《陕西广播电视大学学报》,2004 年第 6 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [8] 刘殿爵. 论语[M]. 北京:中华书局,2011.<br /> <br /> [9] 穆诗雄.《跨文化传播——中国古典诗歌英译论》,合肥:中国科学技术大学出版社,2004.<br /> <br /> [10]王应麟.《三字经》,长沙:岳麓书社,1986.<br /> <br /> [11]许明武.新闻英语与翻译 [M],北京:中国对外翻译出版公司,2003.<br /> <br /> [12]邹爽.浅谈英语新闻标题的翻译 [J],《湖北财经高等专科学校学报》,2005 年第 17 卷第 2 期.<br /> <br /> [13]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/27/content_13797729.htm <br /> <br /> [14]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-11/30/content_14191000.htm <br /> <br /> [15]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-10/24/content_13962189.htm <br /> <br /> [16]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-12/29/content_14347771.htm <br /> <br /> [17]http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/language_tips/news/2011-09/16/content_13712704.htm<br /> <br /> ==Study on the Ideology of 2020 Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis 李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;李泳珊 Li Yongshan 202020080614&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies always attract the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. <br /> <br /> Ideology and translation studies has attracted the attention of scholars in the field of translation studies for a long time. Nowadays, the empirical research method combining corpora and critical discourse analysis has provided more intuitive and convincing argument support for researches in this area. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies so as to substantially discuss the controlling role of ideology in the translation of Government Work Report. Due to limited time and energy, the author has not set up his/her own corpora and failed in applying SPSS, CiteSpace, NoteExpress, EmEditor and other statistical software to collect and analyze corpus. However, this research is carried out from the perspective of critical discourse analysis and solid evidence will be provided as much as possible. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Critical Discourse Analysis; Government Work Report,;Ideology<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 意识形态与翻译研究一直在翻译研究领域受到学者关注。今天，以语料库和批评话语分析结合的实证研究方法更是为此方面的研究提供了更直观、更有考证依据的论据支撑。本文将批评性话语分析与翻译研究结合起来，重点探讨了意识形态对《政府工作报告》翻译的操控作用。但受限于时间和能力，笔者未能建立起自己的语料库，利用科学的统计软件如SPSS、CiteSpace、NoteExpress、EmEditor等进行语料收集和分析。本文将仅从批评话语分析视角进行研究，并尽可能地提供足够的实证。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 批评话语分析；政府工作报告；意识形态<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===1.1 The Interpretation of Ideology===<br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple. As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, ''Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.'' <br /> <br /> The meaning of ideology is multiple.A lot of people have tried to explain it.As mentioned by L.Althusser in Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, &quot;Ideology equals Illusion/Hint, (L.Althusser, Lenin and Philosophy, London: Monthly Review Press, 1971, p.162) meaning that the essence of the reality could be cracked by following the hint of illusion.&quot;--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ''Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is &quot;a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot; that refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute &quot;common sense&quot; and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot;'' (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).<br /> <br /> &quot;Kress and Hodge define ideology by depicting the ideological properties of language. They argue that ideology is a systematic body of thought organized in a particular point of view&quot; (Kress &amp; Hodge, 1979: 6). While they lay stress on the relation between language and ideology, Fowler defines ideology as &quot;something neutral&quot;which refers to the general view and ideas of how people understand the world and their experiences and how they organize their lives. He adds that &quot;these implicit beliefs constitute 'common sense' and provide the normative basis for discourse&quot; (Fowler, 1996: 10-11).--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ''However, according to Fairclough, ideology is &quot;the result of power relations and power struggles&quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot;'' (Fairclough , 1989: 2). <br /> However, according to Fairclough, &quot;ideology is the result of power relations and power struggles &quot; that are &quot;implicit in the conventions with which people interact linguistically and of which they are often unaware&quot; (Fairclough , 1989: 2). --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chenhui<br /> <br /> ''Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) broadens the definition of ideology, which includes three main elements, namely society, cognition and discourse. Among that, society refers to power relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology, but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects and hides or constructs ideology.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> &quot;Furthermore, VanDijk (1993) expands the definition of &quot;ideology&quot;, which includes three main elements, which are society, cognition and discourse. Among them, society refers to powerful relations and the interests of certain groups, cognition is in relation to beliefs and values in life, and discourse deals with the relationship between language use and ideology, involving concealment and manipulation. It is clear from the above description that critical discourse analysts disagree on the scope of ideology,but they still share a common rationale in the relationship between language and ideology. Ideology uses language as a vehicle to express itself, and language as a return reflects hides or constructs ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Rhetorically, ideology realizes its natural status via the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)<br /> <br /> &quot;Rhetorically, ideology achieves its natural status through the mutual interference between denotation and connotation. If denotation equals the first meaning, connotation is the second implication. However, the signifier of connotation (the second implication) is denotation. Hence, a complete sentence can embody the ideology.&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 15)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ''In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. “Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article’s ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).”'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)<br /> <br /> &quot;In S/Z, Roland Barthes divided articles into Articles Inspiring People to Write and Articles, Attracting People to Read, and then made corresponding assessment. &quot;Yet, the fundamental evaluation on articles could neither be carried out from the perspective of sciences because sciences were not applied for measurement, nor derive from ideology because an article's ideological value (involving morality, aesthetics, politics and truth) is a kind of value of representation rather than value of production (ideology is “Reflection” rather than Creation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 16)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through such fiction, ideology can naturally form and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. “The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence’s effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).” From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).'' (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)<br /> <br /> &quot;Barthes and Nietzsche held that the subject is a kind of fiction. Through this kind of fiction, ideology can naturally come and hide. Language structure and ideological structure penetrate each other and establish a seamlessly intimate relationship. 'The role of a complete sentence is to push the story forward while explanatory codes act in contravention, cut off, interrupt and suspend the sentence and delay the disclosure of truth. Seemingly, explanatory codes curb the natural extension of sentence, but the sentence's effective composition is enhanced to play a stronger part. Nevertheless, the truth (predicate and object) is the completer and terminator and appears to terminate the narration (sentence).' From the perspective of sentence patterns, diverse and complicated narrations are exactly the embodiment of ideology. Also, continuous innovation of narration modes can be regarded as a breakthrough from the conventionalized ideology (pushing the limit and recognizing the generation).&quot; (Tu Youxiang, Rhetoric and Ideology, Page 17)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===1.2 Ideology and Translation Studies===<br /> <br /> ===1.2.1 Brief Introduction of Development Process of Ideology and Translation Studies===<br /> <br /> ''In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the “Cultural Turn” of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics rules), contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc..'' (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)<br /> <br /> &quot;In 1980s and 1990s, as the emergence of Manipulation School and the &quot;Cultural Turn&quot; of translation studies, scholars began to pay attention to the role played by ideology and other factors beyond the text in manipulating translation. From the publishing of The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans,1985), a work making the Manipulation School known to the world (Lefevere et. al. first pointed out that translation as a kind of rewriting would be restricted by the target language ideology and poetics<br /> rules),contemporary ideology and translation studies have developed a history of about 40 years. In two decades (from 1985 to 2005), many western and Chinese scholars published their works on this research subject, including Lefevere,1992, Hermans, 1999, Benjamin, 2004, Wang Xiaoyuan (1999), Yang Liu (2001), Sun Yifeng (2003), Zha Jianming (2004) and Fang Kaiduan (2005) etc...&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.71)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ''In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of “Translation is a rewriting” (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated “Two Key Elements” influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).'' (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> &quot;In the aspect of theoretical innovation, Lefevere, a representative figure of western manipulation school, first put forward the idea of 'Translation is a rewriting' (Hermans, 1985) and then elaborated 'Two Key Elements' influencing translations: Ideology (External Mechanism) and Poetics (Internal Mechanism). He further held that as the sponsor controlled ideology, professionals manipulated poetics (Lefevere, 1992a:14-15).&quot; (Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ''Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization. (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> &quot;Venuti, a structuralist, defined translation as the initiative restructuring of foreign text so as to reflect the difference between the target language and the original language in ideology, culture, language and politics. In the meantime, he appealed that translators should adopt the resistant translation strategy and translate by means of foreignization.&quot; (Venuti, 1992: 10-14)''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ''Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).''(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)<br /> <br /> &quot;Bassnett, another supporter of Manipulation School, indicated that restrained by ideology and certain cultural factors, original text sometimes was presented to readers in the form of translated version. Such translation could be pseudo-translation, and “collusion” existed between the author/translator and readers (Lefevere&amp;Bassnett, 1998: 25-40).&quot;(Wang Dongfeng,Ideology and the Study of Translation,p.72)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===1.2.2 Government Work Report Translation’s Requirements and Limitations on Ideological Expression===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year’s tasks, which can intensively reflect the government’s priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China’s situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.<br /> <br /> Government Work Report is the most representative literary form in the international publicity translation. In essence, it possesses distinctive political characteristics and sets extremely high requirements on translation language proficiency. Government Work Report (hereinafter refer to as GWR), as a typical political text, is mainly applied to summarize works completed last year and emphasize the next year's tasks, which can intensively reflect the government's priority of work during a certain period. As the institutional discourse, GWR largely reflects the then ideology and social development track. Since English Version of GWR serves as an important approach for the world to know China's situation, the translation of GWR plays a vital role. In this paper, critical discourse analysis is combined with translation studies to emphatically discuss the role of ideology in manipulating the GWR translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> === 1.3 The Definition of Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Current Research and Application===<br /> <br /> ''Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines’ research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.'' (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)<br /> <br /> &quot;Originating from critical linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis (hereinafter referred to as CDA) has absorbed many disciplines'research results including linguistics, sociology and psychology and achieved a development at the end of 1970s, aiming at revealing the hidden ideology by analyzing the linguistic form and exploring the relationship between language/ideology and rights.&quot; (Fowler R., E. Hodge., E． Kress., Trew T. Language and control［M]., London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, proving the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.<br /> <br /> CDA has been widely applied to study the meaning of ideology in mass media discourse such as advertising, news report, political oration, official documents and laws and regulations, which has laid a foundation for this research. Besides, the impact of ideology is a main issue in GWRs translation and involves two different languages and ideologies, which proves the availability of CDA in GWR translation. In this paper, the author has compared and at the same time analyzed the English Version and Chinese Version of GWR from the perspective of CDA, and further discussed the relationship between ideology and translation.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ''In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects:<br /> the First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media’s role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.<br /> <br /> In recent two decades, more and more foreign scholars have applied the corpora technology to CDA and corresponding research content mainly involves the following four aspects: First is News Media Discourse Studies: For example, Baker and McEnery adopted the corpora method to analyze the British media's role in the refugee discourse construction and further investigated characteristics of British newspapers in reporting Muslim and Islam. Through making a comparison between English newspapers and French newspapers in Canada, Vessey analyzed and elaborated the ideology and national identity in different languages.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> The Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton’s assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair’s period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media’s discourse practice on the North Korea’s image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media’s context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after “9·11”, reflecting the changes in attitude.<br /> <br /> Second is Political Discourse and War Discourse Studies. For example, Partington surveyed President Clinton's assistants and wolf pack press corps in the white house during his early ruling. Jeffries &amp; Walker revealed the ideological characteristics during the new labour period through analyzing key words of newspapers during Blair's period. Similarly, through analyzing CNN, News Week and New York Times, Kim researched American Media's discourse practice on the North Korea's image. Bevitori conducted a diachronic study on presidential speeches and analyzed the discourse construction of presidential speeches. Salama researched the phenomena of American media's context restructuring of Wahabee Religion before and after &quot;9·11&quot;, reflecting the changes in attitude.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> The Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.<br /> <br /> Third is Legal Discourse Studies. Potts and Kjur (2016) established their own corpora and analyzed the legal discourse construction made by the International Criminal Court of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> The Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports.'' (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)<br /> <br /> Fourth is Climatic Discourse Studies. Nerlichet al. (2012) conducted a contrastive analysis of climatic discourse in The Times and Time and further probed into similarities and differences between British climate reports and American climate reports. (Kang Jiaping, Jiang Zhanhao, Study on the Ideology of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Corpora and Critical Discourse Analysis, Journal of Heilongjiang College of Education, March 2020, P123)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? <br /> <br /> This paper has chosen the English Version and Chinese Version of 2020 Government Work Report issued by Premier Li Keqiang as the research object and made a comparative analysis of GWRs and corresponding translated versions in the aspect of Classification, Mode and Conversion so as to conclude answers for the following questions: <br /> 1. Compared with the original text, which are changes in Classification, Mode and Conversion in the translated text? <br /> 2. From the perspective of CDA, what has triggered these changes? How can translators explain GWR from the perspective of CDA? As the relationship between ideology and translation is the research priority, answers to the following questions will be self-evident: <br /> 1) How does ideology control the translation process of GWRS? <br /> 2) Why are some parts of the original text altered and translated in another way? --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.Critical Discourse Analysis===<br /> <br /> === 2.1 Classification===<br /> <br /> ''According to the CDA, for the variations of &quot;categories&quot; in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the &quot;categories&quot; in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of &quot;categories&quot;, and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) <br /> <br /> &quot;According to the CDA, for the variations of 'categories' in GWRs translation, the addressers intentionally or unintentionally incorporate their ideology into discourse at all levels of linguistic form, including lexical choice. A comparative analysis of the 'categories' in GWRs and their translations reveals the variations of 'categories', and the author will explain them from an ideological point of view.'(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Example (1): The same one Chinese character &quot;发展&quot; in the Chinese version of GWR is translated differently in English. Different words denote different ideological meanings. A basic reason for this is that &quot;发展&quot; can be used as both a noun and a verb in Chinese. Therefore, there are different words used in English for a Chinese character with different parts of speech.<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun: a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.<br /> <br /> When used as a verb: a).发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet<br /> b).发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions<br /> c).发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment<br /> <br /> For example, when used as a noun:<br /> a). 优化民营经济发展环境——We will foster an enabling environment for the development of the private sector.<br /> b).推动制造业升级和新兴产业发展。——We will encourage the upgrading of manufacturing and the growth of emerging industries.When used as a verb: 1)发展工业互联网——We will promote the industrial internet.2) 发展社会研发机构——develop private R&amp;D institutions. 3) 发展创业投资——We will support the growth of venture capital investment--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, promote means &quot;to advance&quot;, while support means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both “promote” and “support the growth” signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word “develop” is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.'<br /> <br /> In the three examples of the verb, &quot;promote&quot; means &quot;to advance&quot;, while &quot;support&quot; means &quot;to back up and give aid to&quot;. In these two examples, both &quot;promote&quot; and &quot;support the growth&quot; signify assisting, weakening the role and status of the government in economic development, in a bid to express the idea that &quot;support the free development of the market, and the government will also take the initiative &quot;to provide assistance&quot;. In the second example, in &quot;develop private R&amp;D institutions&quot;, the word &quot;develop&quot; is used to express a strong subjective initiative, which indicates that the state or the government will play a dominant role in the establishment and development of private R&amp;D institutions, implying the national conditions and ideology of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (2) ''In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> <br /> Example (2) &quot;In the GWR translation, different lexical choices reveal different ideological meanings of the source, which is achieved due to the translators' accurate understanding of the source ideology.&quot;(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22) Such translation makes it easier for foreign readers to understand the context and policies of China.<br /> For example, &quot;四风&quot; in the source is translated as &quot;formalities for formalities'sake, bureaucratism, hedonism, and extravagance&quot;.&quot;四风&quot; is a policy related to rectifying the discipline of Party members and cadres, but foreign readers do not know if it is translated literally. Therefore, a specific description is required so as to take care of foreign readers in a better way. It is obvious that a general character in Chinese is translated into a specific illustration in English.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.<br /> The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.<br /> <br /> However, the translation technique for &quot;四风&quot; is not an one-off. For other expressions, such as the translation for “放管服”改革——reforms to streamline administration and delegate power, improve regulation, and upgrade services.The translators changes the choice of words out of consideration for the ideology of the readers, in a bid to take into account the ideological differences between the source readers and the target readers of the paper.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) The English version of 促进祖国和平统一: The word &quot;统一&quot; in 促进统一（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. <br /> <br /> Example(3) The English version of &quot;促进祖国和平统一&quot;: The word &quot;统一&quot; in &quot;促进统一&quot;（2020年） is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; in English. As we all know, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; means unification in English, but in this case, the prefix &quot;re-&quot; is added to it. According to Longman's Dictionary of Contemporary English, &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;again&quot; and the word “unification” with a prefix &quot;re-&quot; means &quot;back to the previous country&quot;. Thus, the Chinese character &quot;统一&quot; here refers to reunite to the previous country. The purposeful addition of &quot;re-&quot; implies a different ideological meaning. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country,&quot; a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.<br /> <br /> For the Chinese people, there is no doubt that Taiwan has always been a part of China, even though it has been separated from the motherland for historical reasons and has not yet returned. However, since foreign readers may not know the history of China, and some Western countries even consider Taiwan as an &quot;independent country&quot;, a word-for-word translation may lead to misunderstandings, so &quot;reunification&quot; is employed to emphasize the fact that Taiwan and the motherland belong to one China. In this case, the variation of lexical choice is explained in different socio-historical contexts of the source and the translated text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (4)“提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准 ” is translated as We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.”<br /> The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;<br /> And “将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障” is translated as “We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living. ”<br /> “农民工” is translated as “rural migrant workers”. <br /> Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.<br /> <br /> Example(4)&quot;提高城乡居民基础养老金最低标准&quot; is translated as &quot;We will increase the minimum basic old-age pension for rural and non-working urban residents.&quot;The Chinese phrase “城乡居民” in this context is translated as &quot;rural and non-working urban residents &quot;And &quot;将参保不足 1 年的农民工等失业人员都纳入常住地保障&quot; is translated as &quot;We will see that rural migrant workers and others out of work who are in the scheme less than a year are covered in the locality where they are living.&quot;&quot;农民工&quot; is translated as “rural migrant workers&quot;. Through the change in lexical choice, the target reader can acquire the information more easily than through word-by-word translation. This case demonstrates that the variation of lexical choice in translated texts is vital for illustrating their meaning.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> A critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.<br /> <br /> Above all are critical analysis of the variations in lexical choice which reveals the ideological impact on lexical choice in GWRS translation, despite the fact that some variations may occur due to Chinese-English language diversity. For example, some different lexical choices disclose different ideological meanings of the source text, some variations indicate ideological considerations for the target readers, while other variations may expose the influence of different historical contexts between China and Western countries.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> === 2.2 Mode===<br /> <br /> ===2.2.1 Modal verbs===<br /> <br /> ''Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.<br /> In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. <br /> <br /> &quot;Modal verbs and personal pronouns are bound up with an addressor's or writer's attitude and ideological implication in the discourse and will be used to analyze the potential ideological implications in the GWRS and their translation. As a direct grammatical means of representing &quot;mood&quot;, modal verbs often denote a specific and important interpersonal meaning in discourse.In English modal verbs, such as &quot;can, could, may, might, must, will, shall, should, need to, ought to&quot;, imply different meanings and degrees of ability, probability, willingness and obligation. Modal verbs also exist in Chinese to convey the attitude of the addressor or writer. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including “能，可以，会，可能，得，敢，肯，愿意，情愿，乐意，想，要，应，应该，应当，该，值得，配，别，甭，好，一定，得，必须&quot;.<br /> Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> Zhang Guanming counted 25 modal auxiliary verbs in Chinese, including &quot;能、可以、会、可能、得、敢、肯、愿意、情愿、乐意、想、要、应、应该、应当、该、值得、配、别、甭、好、一定、得、必须&quot;.Different modal verbs express different degrees of attitude and implication to the addressor or writer. Therefore, an analysis of the use of modal verbs helps us perceive the meaning of the addressor or writer.''(Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> A).我们要更加紧密地团结在以习近平同志为核心的党中央周围，——We must rally more closely around the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core.<br /> B)各国应携手共进。——all countries should work together<br /> C)中国坚定不移走和平发展道路——China will continue to pursue peaceful development,<br /> D)各级政府必须真正过紧日子——Governments at all levels must truly tighten their belt.<br /> E)出台的政策既保持力度又考虑可持续性，根据形势变化还可完善——the policies we adopt should be both forceful and sustainable, and they may be adjusted as called for.<br /> F)我们一定能开创民族复兴的美好未来。——With these efforts, we can surely create a beautiful future for the rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.<br /> G)创新直达实体经济的货币政策工具——As we work to develop new monetary policy instruments that can directly stimulate the real economy.<br /> H)要用改革开放办法，稳就业、保民生、促消费，拉动市场、稳定增长,——We need to pursue reform and opening up as a means to stabilize employment, ensure people's well-being, stimulate consumption, energize the market, and achieve stable growth. <br /> I）走出一条有效应对冲击、实现良性循环的新路子。——We need to blaze a new path that enables us to respond effectively to shocks and sustain a positive growth cycle.<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb “must” to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.<br /> The use of “must” in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.<br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example A, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;must&quot; to show the central government's resolute attitude toward adhering to Xi Jinping's leadership, as well as a strong call and implication to the people. It reflects the ideology and collectivist spirit of showing loyalty to the paramount leader of the CPC Central Committee that is unique to China.The use of &quot;must&quot; in Example D also demonstrates the Chinese government is demanding in implementing initiatives for combating corruption and building a clean government.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb “should”. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.<br /> The translation of Example C uses the modal verb “will”, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.<br /> <br /> As can be seen in Example B, the translation uses the modal verb &quot;should&quot;. It shows a tone of hope and appeal, which is a weaker tone of suggestion rather than a demanding tone of command as that in Example A. It expresses the wish of the Chinese government represented by the addressor.The translation of Example C uses the modal verb &quot;will&quot;, which expresses a firm determination and the action to be taken, indicating the Chinese government's impregnable belief in the peaceful rise of China.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs “should” and “may” in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.<br /> <br /> Example E employs the modal verbs &quot;should&quot; and &quot;may&quot; in a slightly weaker tone, because the context of economic and social development under the epidemic prevention and control is mentioned in the preceding sentence. Alongside that, since specific local policies for epidemic prevention and control and economic recovery are set by local governments individually, the central government uses a suggestive tone here.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.<br /> Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.<br /> <br /> Examples F and G both use “can”, indicating a possible situation and a capability of achieving the goal.Example H uses the modal verb “need to”, conveying an urgent need, a call for urgency.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in I, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject “we” and the modal verb “need to” are added to the question, and the modal verb here also expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.<br /> <br /> Modal verb variations can also be manifested in being added to the source text. For example, in &quot;I&quot;, the source text does not use the modal verb, but the subject &quot;we&quot; and the modal verb &quot;need to&quot; are added to the question, and the modal verb here also<br /> expresses the urgent desire to achieve the goal mentioned in the source sentence.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.<br /> <br /> The different use of modal verbs may also imply different attitudes toward these policies. The social contexts in which they are produced and interpreted may provide some clues to the variation and change of modal verbs. Both the author and the translators are pretty close to the Chinese, so that the modal meaning expressed in the Chinese version can be agreed with the readers.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.<br /> <br /> However, due to the distance from the foreign readers and their receptivity, the translators have to chose different expressions with less initiative and more objectivity. But in general, in the choice of modal verbs, the translators mainly chose auxiliary verbs that can convey the attitude of the source text, from which the ideology of their own side can be better interpreted, and taking care of the ideology of foreign readers is a secondary consideration.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.2.2 Personal pronouns===<br /> <br /> ''The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader. <br /> <br /> &quot;The use of personal pronouns is another way to show modal meaning. According to systematic functional grammar, personal pronouns have interpersonal and attitudinal functions in addition to their cohesion functions. Generally speaking, the choice of personal pronouns is influenced by concerns including power relations, social status, and the degree of intimacy between the participants involved in the communication. Different choices of personal pronouns reveal different attitudes of the speaker or writer toward the target audience or reader.&quot;--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.'' (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)<br /> <br /> &quot;From the perspective of critical discourse analysis, personal pronouns are not used in a random way, but are linked to certain ideological meanings. For example, the use of certain personal pronouns may have a certain political effect and produce a specific relationship between the addressor and the listener. This paper focuses on the analysis of the personal pronouns GWR and their translation from the viewpoint of critical discourse analysis, as a way to perceive the attitude and interpersonal meanings that the addressors or writers are trying to convey.&quot; (Gao Yuan,A Study on the C-E Translation of Government Work Report from the Perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis,p22)--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> （1）Translated Personal Pronouns ：<br /> A).我们要坚持对台工作大政方针——We will adhere to the major principles and policies on work related to Taiwan<br /> B).我们要全面准确贯彻“一国两制”、“港人治港”、“澳人治澳”、高度自治的方针——We will fully and faithfully implement the policy of One Country, Two Systems, under which the people of Hong Kong govern Hong Kong and the people of Macao govern Macao, with a high degree of autonomy for both regions. <br /> <br /> <br /> （2）Added Personal Pronouns：<br /> A).支持港澳发展经济——We will support Hong Kong and Macao in growing their economies,<br /> B).完善促进两岸交流合作、深化两岸融合发展、保障台湾同胞福祉的制度安排和政策措施——We will improve institutional arrangements, policies, and measures to encourage exchanges and cooperation between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, further cross-Strait integrated development, and protect the wellbeing of our fellow compatriots in Taiwan. <br /> C).需要说明的是，我们没有提出全年经济增速具体目标——I would like to point out that we have not set a specific target for economic growth this year.<br /> D).加强监管，防止资金“空转”套利。——We should tighten regulation and prevent funds from simply circulating in the financial sector for the sake of arbitrage. <br /> E）为把我国建设成为富强民主文明和谐美丽的社会主义现代化强国、实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦不懈奋斗！——Let all of us work together with perseverance to build China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and realize the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation.<br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 “we” in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns “we” are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns I, all of us, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in other cases. <br /> <br /> According to statistics, there are 308 &quot;we&quot; in the English translation. From the above examples, we can see that most of the personal pronouns &quot;we&quot; are used by the technique of amplification, including other personal pronouns &quot;I&quot;, all of &quot;us&quot;, etc. This is because in the Chinese version which is the source, there are mostly impersonal subjects, noun subjects, or imperative sentences that denote calls or orders. However, in English, except for the imperative sentences where the personal pronoun subject can be missing, generally it can not be omitted in any other cases. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Under most circumstances, “we” is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of “we” is more authoritative than I. This usage is called &quot;loyal we&quot;.'' (A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. <br /> <br /> &quot;Under most circumstances, 'we' is the top priority in translation, because in political reports, the use of 'we' is more authoritative than 'I'. This usage is called 'loyal we'.&quot;(A Study of the Ideology of the &lt;Government Work Report&gt; under the Visual Threshold of Corpus and Critical Discourse Analysis, Kang Jiaping and Jiang Zhanyao, Journal of Heilongjiang Teachers' Development Institute, March 2020, p. 126) The Reports represents the Central People's Government, which is itself &quot;authoritative&quot;. The &quot;we&quot; in the translation also naturally reflects &quot;authority&quot; correspondingly. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of “we” also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of “we” instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, “we” is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.<br /> <br /> Secondly, most of the actions in the government work report are issued by the Chinese government, and the use of &quot;we&quot; also reflects the collectivist spirit of unified action of the government from top to bottom. Thirdly, although the Chinese government is the originator of most of the actions in the report, sometimes different departments are responsible for the implementation of specific measures; therefore, the use of &quot;we&quot; instead of &quot;Chinese government&quot; or &quot;so-and-so department&quot; is also slightly more colloquial and approachable, which makes it easier for domestic readers to immerse themselves in devoting into the construction of economic and social development. For foreign readers, &quot;we&quot; is also more easily accepted. Therefore, the translators also took into account the social and ideological significance of the language forms used when translating the Reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> === 2.3 Conversion===<br /> <br /> ''Traditionally, &quot;transformation&quot; refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of &quot;transformation&quot; should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose&quot;'' (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.<br /> <br /> &quot;Traditionally, 'transformation' refers to the change of different grammatical structures, but in CDA, the meaning of 'transformation' should be interpreted in terms of discourse, context and purpose.&quot; (Fowler, 1991: 90-91). This suggests that critical discourse analysis values the change of ideological meaning and the influence of context and purpose on &quot;transformation&quot;. Therefore, &quot;transformation&quot; can be applied to translation studies to investigate the ideological impact of translation by analyzing the changes of &quot;transformation&quot; between the source language and the translated one.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995), this lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. <br /> <br /> In the analysis of &quot;transformation&quot; in GWR and its translation process, nominalization and inactivation are used to disclose the ideological changes in translation. Nominalization refers to the process of converting verb structures into nouns or noun phrases. According to Fairclough (1995). This lack of mood, time, and participants caused by nominalization is considered ideologically significant because it obscures the reader's causality and responsibility, so that the addressor's or writer's attitude and perception of certain events is not yet clear. --[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.<br /> <br /> Inactivation is the transformation of active voice into passive one in which the relevant participants are removed for most of the time, making causality unclear. Thus, by using inactivation, discourse can become more objective and less subjective, leaving a different impression on the reader and thus expressing different ideological meanings. More importantly, inactivation also has functions as thematization, in which the object is placed at the beginning of the sentence as a subject. In this way, by emphasizing the object and hiding the agent, the ideological purpose of shifting the reader's focus and hiding the cause-and-effect relationship is achieved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> For example: <br /> ===2.3.1 Nominalization===<br /> <br /> A)传统产业加快升级。——upgrading in traditional industries accelerated.<br /> B)受全球疫情冲击，世界经济严重衰退，——The shock of the covid-19 pandemic has sent the world economy into severe recession, <br /> C)金融等领域风险有所积聚——There are increasing risks in the financial sector and other areas.<br /> D)政府工作存在不足——There is still room for improvement in the work of government. <br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.<br /> <br /> It can be shown from the above examples that in the original Chinese text, the subject and predicate in the four examples are very prominent. However, in the translation, nominalization is done, which emphasizes the emphasis of the original text.<br /> For example, in A), &quot;upgrade&quot; is a verb and serves as a predicate; but in the translation, upgrading is nominalized and used as the subject, and its status is more prominent than in the original.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is higher than that of the adverbial in the original text. <br /> <br /> In B), &quot;Affected by the global epidemic&quot; was originally used as an adverbial of cause, but it was nominalized as the subject in the question, highlighting the direct impact of the epidemic on the world economic recession, and its status is much higher than that of the adverbial in the original text.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui <br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but because the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as &quot; The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.<br /> <br /> C) The key word in the original text can be &quot;risk accumulation&quot;, but due to the adverbial term &quot;finance and other fields&quot; is in front, its position is weakened; and the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot; is used in the translation, and the subject is nominalized as The whole sentence of &quot;increasing risks&quot; is highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text should be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot; &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.<br /> <br /> D) The full expression of the original text can be &quot;In the government work, there are deficiencies.&quot; The implied meaning is &quot;I should improve and upgrade the government work.&quot; The translation directly points out the implied meaning, straightforward and straightforward, and the subject is treated as &quot;room for improvement&quot; is also used in the sentence pattern &quot;There be&quot;, and the points that the original text wants to emphasize are highlighted.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into account the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.<br /> <br /> It can be seen that the processing of English translation is more flexible, and it also takes into consideration the ideology of foreign readers, that is, they prefer concise and direct expression, while the expression of domestic readers is more subtle and prefer verbs.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 Active to passive===<br /> <br /> A).城镇新增就业 1352 万人——Around 13.52 million new urban jobs were added.<br /> B).国际收支基本平衡。——A basic equilibrium was maintained in the balance of payments.<br /> C)..重大区域战略深入实施。——progress was made in implementing major development strategies for regions.<br /> D).改革开放迈出重要步伐。——Major headway was made in reform and opening up.<br /> E).供给侧结构性改革继续深化，—— Supply-side structural reform was further advanced.<br /> F).重要领域改革取得新突破。——and breakthroughs in reform were made in key areas.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter of In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.<br /> <br /> In the first part of the report, in the review of the work and achievements in 2019, a large number of passive voice translation methods are used to highlight the achievements since 2019 and weaken the reporter and the government as these achievements The presence of the promoter. In fact, in the Chinese context, the above example is also a kind of &quot;active expression passive&quot; sentence structure, which is more concise and more focused.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,<br /> <br /> From the veiw of Critical Discourse Analysis, this article conducts a superficial and tentative analysis of the ideological influence reflected in the Chinese-English translation of the 2020 government work report.The analysis found that,--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> (1) in terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;<br /> <br /> (1) In terms of classification, <br /> a) the translation will choose different corresponding words in English depending on the situation for the same word in the original text. And this is because in English I like to use different words to show the richness and diversity of the words of the article, while in Chinese I like to use the same word to rhyme and compare to show momentum.<br /> b) In the process of translation, the translation will be selectively interpreted, that is, supplementary translation of some conventional abbreviations in the original text, so that foreign readers can better understand.<br /> c) Some specific words will be translated asymmetrically in the translation to reflect their own ideology. For example, the &quot;reunification of the motherland&quot; on the Taiwan issue is translated as &quot;reunification&quot; because China wants to convey to the world the principle that &quot;the Taiwan issue is China's internal affair.&quot;--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements and soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, and God is also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> (2) In terms of modal<br /> a) The translation will choose different modal verbs according to the content and attitude of the original text. The choice of these different modal verbs expresses the different requirements, soft and hard attitudes of the Chinese government in various fields such as domestic economic development, epidemic prevention and control, motherland reunification, social problem resolution, diplomacy, and international issues, thus reflecting the Chinese government's ideology.<br /> b) There are a large number of additional translations of personal pronouns in the translation, and most of them have chosen the plural of the first personal pronoun &quot;we&quot;. It shows the collectivism that the Chinese government is accustomed to, While God is also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points to be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.<br /> <br /> (3) In terms of conversion, there are many nominalizations and active-to-passive translations in the translation. These two kinds of translation processes make the key points be emphasized in the original text more directly highlighted in the translation, and at the same time respect the expression habits of English, which are also caring for foreign ideologies.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report more reflects China's own ideology. The reason is also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but The translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.<br /> <br /> In general, the translation of the 2020 government work report reflects China's own ideology. The reasons are also obvious. <br /> First, this is China's government work report, which also determines that the translation must reflect China's ideology. <br /> Second, the government work report is made at the two sessions each year. It is mainly a summary of the work of the past year and planning for the work of the next year. It is mainly for the domestic people, so it naturally has a strong Chinese ideology; <br /> but the translation is of course aimed at foreign readers, so translation processing will also show reasonable concern about foreign ideology and expression habits. As a political report, he must have a more obvious political ideology than other styles, which is inevitable in every country. Finally, the richness and variability of vocabulary in the translation of the 2020 government work report is still not as good as the report of the native English-speaking countries, which can be improved.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.Limitations===<br /> <br /> ===4.1 Insufficient data support===<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted solely on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020. Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.<br /> <br /> In this paper, a comparative analysis is conducted on the two versions of the government work report in English and Chinese in 2020.<br /> Firstly, the evidence is insufficient in the part of applied critical discourse analysis, which should be done to the best of its ability.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> I envisaged to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can get a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.<br /> <br /> The author envisage to use data analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace to conduct a translation comparative analysis for the Chinese and English versions of the government work report for a total of 8 years since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, and an analysis of ideological diachrony. By analyzing the change of top 10 high-frequency keywords in the reports over the past 8 years, we can take a glimpse of the socio-economic development of China and the shift of the government's focus during this period. By analyzing the changes in the choice and frequency of personal pronouns and modal verbs used in the reports over the years, and by analyzing the frequency of nominalization and inactivation in the translation of sentences, we can see the changes in the ideology of the translators and the Chinese government they represent when translating the reports.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> However, since it is a need to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.<br /> <br /> However, since it is necessery to use corpus construction software, such as EmEditor, and to collect the corpus and classify and denoise the data before doing data analysis, it is not a task that can be accomplished at a stroke; only then it is the analysis done with analysis software such as SPSS and CiteSpace. However, the author has a strong interest in this research method, and will make further efforts.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> ===4.2 Insufficient theoretical support===<br /> <br /> The author does not have a deep understanding of critical discourse analysis, nor does he/she expound the Introduction clearly. Her understanding of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author’s understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.<br /> <br /> The author does not have a profound understanding on critical discourse analysis, nor does she expound the Introduction clearly. Her knowledge of the specific analysis methods is also shallow, so she cannot do a comprehensive and accurate analysis in the Analysis section of the paper.<br /> Second, the author's understanding of ideology is fuzzy. Therefore, in the latter part of the analysis, when it is necessary to return to the study of ideology at the end, she is unable to conduct the analysis in a precise way.--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 10:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br /> <br /> <br /> ===5.Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1].《意识形态与翻译研究》，王东风，中山大学出版社，2006年12月<br /> [2].《修辞学与意识形态》，屠有祥，人民出版社，2013年3月<br /> [3].《外宣翻译导论》，张健，国防工业出版社，2013年12月<br /> [4].《语料库和批评话语分析视阈下的&lt;政府工作报告&gt;意识形态研究》,康佳萍、姜占好，黑龙江教师发展学院学报，2020年3月<br /> [5].《基于CiteSpace的外交翻译暨外交话语研究的可视化分析(2000—2018)》，牛文惠、刘磊，黑河学院学报，2020年第二期<br /> [6].《国内翻译意识形态研究（1998-2018）——基于NoteExpress的可视化分析》，李志阳，2020年第二期<br /> [7].《翻译对意识形态的创构———以宇文所安《文心雕龙》英译本为例》，胡作友、张丁慧，外语学刊，2020年第四期<br /> [8].《批评性话语分析视角下的政府工作报告英译研究》，高媛，2016年<br /> [9].《从翻译操纵理论看2015年政府工作报告英译》，王海云、李慧慧，现代交际，2016年第五期<br /> [10].《论译者对政治文本的操控——以2009年政府工作报告为例》，徐静怡、陈思，2009年12月<br /> --[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 18:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation Based on the Principle of “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance” 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou 202020080628&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji for example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between the two languages and corresponding translation strategies.<br /> <br /> <br /> English and Chinese belongs to two different language families. While the former belongs to Indo-European language family, the latter belongs to Sino-Tibetan language family. Therefore, they differ in many aspects--type, psychology, aesthetic, culture, rhetorical devices, syntactic pattern, lexical meaning, discourse organization, semantic structure, pragmatic structure, textual structure, textual cohesive devices and so on. Taking the English translations of Chinese essays by Zhang Peiji (as an) example, this paper, based on the principle of “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and further provides appropriate translation strategies for Chinese-English translation. Readers can improve their translating ability after the acquisition of the knowledge of the differences between (delete the) two languages and corresponding translation strategies.--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 14:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> English;Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”<br /> <br /> <br /> English; Chinese; “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”--[[User:OUYANGJINGLAN|OUYANGJINGLAN]] ([[User talk:OUYANGJINGLAN|talk]]) 13:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)OuYang Jinglan<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 英语属于印欧语系（Indo-European），汉语属于汉藏语系（Sino-Tibetan）。英汉两种语言在语言类型、语言心理、语言审美、文化、修辞、句法结构、词汇语义、话语组织、语义、语用、语篇结构以及语篇衔接手段等方面都存在差异。本文以张培基英译散文为例，以“信、达、雅”原则为指导，从英汉语言心理、英汉语言审美、英汉语篇结构、英汉语篇衔接手段等方面对比英语同汉语的不同之处，并提供相应的翻译策略。读者通过了解英汉两种语言在各方面的差异，并学习相应翻译策略，能够提高汉英翻译水平。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 英语;汉语;“信、达、雅”<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Essay is a flexible and casual literary form, free from the restrictions of rhythm of poetry, plot of novel, and act and scene of drama. This paper focuses on English and Chinese essays. Based on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, the paper makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts, and studies the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc, and therefore sums up a variety of translation strategies and methods for Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> ===2. “Faithfulness, Comprehensibility and Elegance”===<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, comprehensibility and Elegance” is a translation principle put forward by YanFu in his work Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays. He stated that “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (xin), comprehensibility (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not comprehensible is no translation at all. Comprehensibility is therefore of prime importance” (Chan 2004: 69). “In addition to faithfulness and comprehensibility, we should strive for elegance in translation.” (Chan 2004: 70) <br /> <br /> This paper, based on the translation principle “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”, compares English and Chinese through the analysis of some texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts. <br /> <br /> ===3. Comparison of English and Chinese===<br /> <br /> A major difference between English and Chinese is that English is a hypotactic language while Chinese an paratactic language, which from the perspective of philosophy means that English people’s way of thinking is of rationality while Chinese people’s way of thinking is of wuxing (Pan 1997: 361). Rationality in English language means that English sentences emphasize overt morphology and the integrity of form, so we call English a morphological language. Instead, Chinese sentences do not have many hypotactic markers. Therefore, the meaning of Chinese sentences can only be understood through wuxing, in other words, intuition, thus we often call Chinese people’s way of thinking intuitive thinking (Liu 1992: 326). <br /> <br /> The inflected forms in modern English include mainly conjugation and declension, and affixation. However, there is no inflected forms in Chinese language and the grammatical meaning of Chinese sentences is expressed through the use of words, the arrangement of word order, the implied meaning etc.(连淑能, 1993: 4) Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, we are supposed to exhibit the implicit grammatical relation in the original texts through hypotactic markers. For example:<br /> <br /> Example 1:其中有些人是因为年事已高，力不从心。这不是艺术的死亡，而是艺术的离体，他自己无可自责，社会也会尊重他在艺术上曾经作出的贡献(Zhang 2007: 289)。<br /> Some writers lay down their pens because they are too old to be equal to the task. We call it retirement from art rather than death of art. They have nothing to blame themselves for. And society at large will pay tribute to the contributions they have already made to art (Zhang 2007: 291).<br /> <br /> The expression “有些人” in the first sentence is plural, which includes both men and women. While the word “他” in the second sentence is single, only including men. Actually, “有些人” and “他” in the original text refer to the same concept but they differ in number and gender. When translating the sentences into English, we have to take the harmony of form into consideration. <br /> <br /> Due to the difference between English and Chinese, Mr. Zhang translated “他” into “They” to be in agreement with the subject “they” in the first sentence, which characterizes hypotaxis in English language. Though it seems that the translation is not faithful to the original text, the former actually expresses what the latter means. That is to say, the translation is comprehensible.<br /> <br /> There is no inflected forms in Chinese while English is rich in inflected form. Therefore, when translating Chinese into English, translators are supposed to keep the consistency of gender, number, case, tense, style, voice, mood, comparatives, and person, etc. within the context, and to use the inflected forms in English to express the conceptual and grammatical meaning in the original Chinese text.<br /> <br /> Chinese pays attention to subjective narration, while English gives consideration to both subjective and objective description and tends to object description. Taking root in the psychology of Chinese people, the long standing thematic thinking always subtly reflects Chinese people’s consciousness of “everything exists for me”. <br /> <br /> Take the Chinese sentence “作业不写了” as an example. It is a human being rather than “作业” who performs the action “写”. That is to say, the subject should be a human being, which reflects Chinese people’s subject consciousness--Chinese speakers always discuss a topic which they make comments on. Since the agent in sentences with a “topic-comment” structure is self-explanatory, it is always deleted in a Chinese sentence. This well characterizes Chinese sentences as loose.<br /> <br /> English language, with the subject given priority in a sentence, has a strict “subject-predicate” structure which is highly grammaticalized. However, the topic rather than the subject is given priority in a Chinese sentence. It may not be in agreement with the subject since it is more grammaticalized than the latter. Therefore, the “topic-comment” structures in Chinese sentences should be translated into “subject-predicate” structures in English when we do Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:页数不多的往往立刻通读，篇幅大的，只把正文任择一二章节略加翻阅，就插在书架上。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> If it happens to be a thin one, I often finish reading it at one sitting. Otherwise, I often browse through one or two chapters or sections before putting it onto my bookshelf. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> There are two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. In a “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause, the meaning of the topic and that of the comment show a logical relation between two clauses. A “topic-comment” structure with the form of a clause has a close relationship with conditional clauses, and in this example conditional clauses serve as topics. The logical relation in this example is: If..., ... Otherwise..., ... The conditional relation should be translated in the corresponding English sentence with the addition of conjunctions between the original clauses in the process of Chinese-English translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> If it is a threadbound Chinese book, I use a writing brush to draw small circles as markings. Otherwise, I use a red pencil to draw heavy underlines. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> There are also two “topic-comment” structures with the form of a clause in this example. Therefore, Mr. Zhang added the two conjunctions “if” and “Otherwise” to show the logical relation in the original sentences.<br /> <br /> Impersonal subjects always appear in English sentences, while personal subjects are used more frequently in Chinese sentences. <br /> <br /> Example 4:买到了几册新书，一册一册地加盖藏书印记，我最感到快悦的是这时候。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Whenever I have some new acquisitions, it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to stamp my ex-libris on them one by one. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> It is obvious that the subject of the original sentence “我最感到快悦的是这时候” is “I” (我), which refers to the author. However, Mr. Zhang translates this sentence as “it always gives me great pleasure and satisfaction to...”, where the personal subject “I” is transformed into the impersonal subject “it”, according with English natural expressions.<br /> <br /> Example 5:这种死亡他自己感到很痛苦，别人看了心里也很难受。(Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> This kind of death causes not only much pain to the writer himself, but much sadness to other people as well. (Zhang 2007: 291)<br /> <br /> In this example, “这种死亡” serves as the topic and “他自己感到很痛苦” as well as “别人看了心里也很难受” serve as comments. Since the two comments take sentence as its form, they have separately “他” and “别人” as the subject. However, in the English translation by Mr. Zhang, “This kind of death” (这种死亡) serves as the subject with “他” and “别人” transforming into objects, which shows the tendency to use impersonal subjects in English sentences. The translation is not only faithful to the source text but also comprehensible.<br /> <br /> Chinese people’s subject consciousness brings about the tendency to use personal subjects. Instead, English people’s object consciousness explains why impersonal subjects are used frequently in English sentences. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, we can transform personal subject into impersonal subject. That is to say, the subject can be abstract nouns, inanimate things or the impersonal subject “it” (Lian 2010: 106, 113). <br /> <br /> Chinese sentences always have a “topic-comment” structure, while English sentences always have a “subject-predicate” structure. Therefore, in a Chinese-English translation, the semantic relation between the topic and the comment in the original sentence should be presented through the use of conjunctions to accord with the syntactic features of English sentences.<br /> <br /> English sentences have a basic “subject-predicate” structure. English words are under the restraint of morphological changes; words and clauses are connected through cohesive devices; pronouns accord with the words mentioned above (Lian 2010: 90-91) .<br /> <br /> As a result, English sentences are closely related with each other. However, since Chinese sentences are free from the restraint of morphological changes, it is not necessary that the object should accord with the subject in a Chinese sentence. Chinese sentences are loose because of the diversity, complexity and flexibility of the “subject-object” structure. <br /> <br /> Example 6:借来的书，在我好像过不来瘾似的，必要是自己买的才满足。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> It seems that books bought can better satisfy my bibliomania than books borrowed. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The original sentence is composed of three parts without conjunctions between them. But there exists the semantic relation in it--the comparative relation between “books borrowed” (借来的书) and “books bought” (自己买的). Therefore, the comparative relation should be expressed in English translation. Mr. Zhang employed the expression “rather than” to combine the original three parts into one sentence, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 7:据说，任何爱吃糖果的人，只要叫他到糖果铺中去做事，见了糖果就会生厌。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> It is said that those who have a great liking for candies will sicken to see them when later they happen to work in a candy store. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original texts into one sentence through the use of “who” and “when” to make the English sentences compact and coherent, expressing the beauty of the translation’s syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> Example 8:像针尖上一滴水滴在大海里，我的日子滴在时间的流里，没有声音，也没有影子。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Like a drop of water falling off a needle point into the ocean, my days are quietly dripping into the stream of time without leaving a trace. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> There are four loose sentences in the original text. However, the two short sentences “没有声音” and “也没有影子” have been transformed separately into the adverb “quietly” and the propositional phrase “without leaving a trace” as an complement of the action “日子滴在时间的流里”, making the English sentences compact. Simile is employed in the translation as well as in the sour text, which shows faithfulness in the translation.<br /> <br /> Example 9:作家不能当隐士，适当的社会活动和文学活动可以开阔眼界，活跃思想，对创作也是有帮助的。(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> Being no hermit, a writer stands to benefit in writing as long as he gets properly involved with social and literary activities to widen his field of vision and stimulate his thinking. (Zhang 2007: 292)<br /> <br /> The original text consists of four short sentences without overt conjunctions connecting them, and it includes two subjects “作家” and “适当的社会活动和文学活动”. Mr. Zhang combined the four parts into one sentence, “作家” (a writer) being the subject, “不能当隐士” being transformed into the absolute nominative construction “Being no hermit”. The addition of “as long as” in the translation indicates the semantic relationship between the second part and the fourth part. Besides, Mr. Zhang added “to” to transform “可以开阔眼界，活跃思想” into the adverbial of purpose. All the transformations made express what the author wanted to express.<br /> <br /> Sentences like loose sentences, compressed sentences, run-on sentences, short sentences, etc., are frequently used in Chinese. On the contrary, the grammatical relationship is expressed through the arrangement of word order and flexible use of various cohesive devices in English sentences, thus English sentences are compact with a clear logical relationship between the matrix clauses and the subordinate clauses.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in Chinese-English translation, the translator is supposed to add conjunctions appropriately to connect the short sentences in the original text, indicating the implicit grammatical and logical relationship. Consequently, readers are able to understand the sentence meaning without even relying on the context. <br /> <br /> Category words are used to express the category which behaviour, phenomenon, property and other factors belong to; they are often used to refer to other things in Chinese. For example, “情绪” in the Chinese sentence “那你的恹恹欲睡的情绪又将如何” and “情味” in “常不禁会感觉到难以名言的寂寞的情味” are category words. <br /> <br /> There are many category words in Chinese language for a better form of expression. Instead, category words are much less frequently used in English language. The sameness in number, property and other aspects are avoided in English language.<br /> <br /> Example 10:我一向没有对于任何问题作高深研究的野心，因之所买的书范围较广，宗教、艺术、文学、社会、哲学、历史、生物，各方面差不多都有一点。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> Since I have never entertained ambition for making a profound study of any subject, the books I have acquired cover almost everything--religion, art, literature, sociology, philosophy, history, biology, etc. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> “范围” in the original text belongs to category words. Thus, it is unnecessary to translate it in English. Therefore, the English translation should avoid the use of the corresponding English expression “the range of”. Compare the following sentence with Mr. Zhang’s translation:<br /> ... the range of the books I have acquired covers almost everything...<br /> It is obvious that Mr. Zhang’s translation is more natural. Moreover, Mr. Zhang omitted the translation of “各方面差不多都有一点” because what the expression means has already been contained in “the books I have acquired cover almost everything”.<br /> <br /> Category words in Chinese always express objects’ categories. Though they are indispensable to the correctness of grammar and the expression of mood, they are of little practical significance in that they just repeat the semantic meaning of a precedent expression. When doing Chinese-English translation, we are supposed to omit the translation of category words and rather translate the content nouns before them.<br /> <br /> English language has the tendency to the use of nouns and thus is stative. On the contrary, verbs rather than nouns are more frequently used in Chinese sentences, thus Chinese language is dynamic (Lian 2010: 133). In Chinese-English translation, the dynamic Chinese sentences should be translated into stative English sentences.<br /> <br /> In Example 7, “爱吃糖果” is translated as “have a great liking for candies” rather than “like candies”. The verb “爱” is transformed into the noun “liking” and posited t after the verb “have” as its object（连淑能，P148）, which characterizes English language as stative.<br /> <br /> Example 11:自我入书店以后，对于书的贪念也已消除了不少......(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Likewise, ever since I began to work in a bookstore, my obsession with books has been very much on the decline. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Prepositions are always posited before nouns or noun phrases. Therefore, English language uses prepositions as frequently as nouns. The priority to the use of both nouns and prepositions makes it more clear that English is a stative language (Lian 2010:145). The verb “消除” has been translated as the prepositional phrase “on the decline”, thus the dynamic Chinese sentence has been transformed into stative English sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 12:我自己就是浪费了很多时间的一个人。(Zhang 2007: 216)<br /> Personally, I am also a fritterer. (Zhang 2007: 218)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang translated the expression “浪费很多时间的一个人” as the noun phrase “a fritterer”, the noun derived from the verb “fritter”, rather than “a person who fritter a lot of time” in which the verb “fritter” is directly used, making the translation stative.<br /> <br /> Example 13:青翠的叶上已经凝集着细密的露珠，这显然是昨夜被人遗弃了的。(Zhang 2007: 119)<br /> The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves clearly showed that the roses had just been cast away the previous night. (Zhang 2007: 120)<br /> <br /> The expression “凝集着” in the original sentence can be either translated or omitted. Generally, it is unnecessary to translate verbs of this kind. Mr. Zhang translated the first half part as “The numerous fine dewdrops on the fresh green leaves”, directly omitting the translation of “凝集着” since the prepositional phrase “on the fresh green leaves” has already expressed its meaning.<br /> <br /> Chinese language is dynamic while English language is stative. In Chinese-English translation, firstly, abstract nouns can be used to express actions, behaviors, changes, states and so on in the original texts; secondly, verbs in the original texts can be replaced by common nouns which express behaviors or actions (Lian 2010: 138); thirdly, translators can use prepositions more frequently; fourthly, grammaticalized verbs or weak verbs can be used instead. (Lian 2010: 147)<br /> <br /> Generally, English language avoids repetition; it repeats words or phrases only for emphasis or for the use of rhetorical devices. English natives are not interested in the repetition in syllables, words or sentence patterns (Lian 2010: 221). Translators are supposed to replace the repeated expression with a new one or omit the repeated part or explain it in a different way as long as the meaning of the original text is explicitly expressed. In this way, the translation will be concise and powerful, and it will fit more into English people’s language habits (Lian 2010: 223). <br /> <br /> Example 14:我虽爱买书，而对于书却不甚爱惜。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Much as I love books, I take little care of them. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> The second part of the original sentence repeats the noun “书”. However, Mr. Zhang replaced “books” (书) with the pronoun “them”, avoiding the repetition of “books” and connecting the two sentences.<br /> <br /> Example 15:书籍到了我的手里，我的习惯是先看序文，次看目录。(Zhang 2007: 26)<br /> As soon as a new book comes to hand, I always read the preface first and then the table of contents. (Zhang 2007: 28)<br /> <br /> The repeated verb “read” (看) has been omitted in the translation. <br /> <br /> In the fourth example, Mr. Zhang added the subject “I” (“我” in Chinese) before the sentence “买到了几册新书”, making the English sentence complete in terms of syntactic structure.<br /> <br /> English language often uses pronouns to avoid repetition, while Chinese language uses less pronouns and tends to repeat words and phrases. In terms of coordination, repeated words or phrases are usually deleted in English but repeated in Chinese. Moreover, English sentences avoids repetition of words through the use of synonyms or hyponyms. Instead, Chinese sentences repeat the words to express the beauty of the balance in form. Therefore, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators are supposed to avoid the repetition in meaning through replacing, deleting, or transforming the repeated parts. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, it is necessary to add the subject when translating Chinese sentences into English because the subject is often omitted in Chinese while English is a language with a strict “subject-predicate” structure.<br /> <br /> Because English is a hypotactic language but Chinese an paratactic language, cohesion in English and Chinese differs a lot. In terms of textual cohesion, there are mainly two differences between English and Chinese: one is that the cohesion in English is implicit while that in Chinese is explicit; the other is that the two languages differ in sentence division. There is no clear division between a phrase and a clause (which was previously called a simple sentence), between a clause and a sentence (which was previously called a compound sentence), between a sentence and sentence groups. (Shao 2013: 390)Because of this difference, the addition of conjunctions is needed in Chinese-English translation. <br /> <br /> Example 16:经我看过的书，统体干净的很少。(Zhang 2007: 27)<br /> Consequently, the books I have read are rarely clean. (Zhang 2007: 29)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the adverb “consequently” in the translation. According to the context, the reason for “经我看过的书，统体干净的很少” is explained in the preceding sentence “线装书大概用笔加圈，洋装书竟用红铅笔划粗粗的线”. Therefore, when translating these sentences, we should express the causality between the two sentences. The adverb “consequently” well expresses it. <br /> <br /> Example 17:我不禁头涔涔而泪潸潸了。(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> At the thought of this, sweat oozes from my forehead and tears trickle down my cheeks. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang added the expression “At the thought of this” in the translation, which links the preceding sentence and the following sentence and expresses the implicit meaning in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 18:我觉察他去的匆匆了，伸出手遮挽时，他又从遮挽着的手边过去......(Zhang 2007: 55)<br /> Aware of its fleeting presence, I reach out for it only to find it brushing past my outstretched hands. (Zhang 2007: 57)<br /> <br /> The translation adds the expression “only to find” to connect the second and third parts of the original text, making overt the implicit meaning that the author was regretful for his failing to grasp his time.<br /> <br /> Example 19:怕只怕三杯下肚，豪情大发，嘟嘟嘟，来个瓶底朝天......(Zhang 2007: 290)<br /> The trouble is after three cups of alcohol he will get wild and unrestrained and end in gulping down a whole bottle. (Zhang 2007: 289)<br /> <br /> Mr. Zhang combined the four parts in the original text into one English sentence, showing the logical relationship between these parts. In the original text, “来个瓶底朝天” is the result of “三杯下肚，豪情大发”; the semantic relationship between the two parts has been shown through the addition of the verb phrase “end in” in the English translation. Actually, Mr. Zhang deleted the translation of “嘟嘟嘟”, which seems not to be faithful to the original text. However, it is unnecessary to translate this expression since it means nothing here.<br /> <br /> Words, phrases and clauses are often connected through various cohesive devices in English, which shows that English emphasizes overt cohesion. On the contrary, much less or even no cohesive devices are used in Chinese, which shows the tendency toward implicit cohesion in Chinese. In Chinese-English translation, it is necessary to add relational words, conjunctions, prepositions and so on, or change the form of words in the translation to express the grammatical and logical relationship in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of essay, and then provides the definition of Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, comprehensibility and elegance”. Then, it compares the differences between English and Chinese in terms of psychology, aesthetics, textual structure, textual cohesive devices etc., and makes an analysis of the original and translated texts selected from Zhang Peij’s English translations of Chinese essays and the original texts to see whether the translation is faithful, comprehensive and elegant. Finally, the paper provides some strategies for Chinese-English Translation. However, the paper only compares English and Chinese from limited aspects and it only covers several texts. There remains some problems to be solved. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Leo Tak-hung Chan. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory. John Benjamin Publishing Company. <br /> Lian Shuneng连淑能. (2010). 英汉对比研究 [Contrastive Studies of English and Chinese]. Beijing: 高等教育出版社.<br /> Liu Miqing刘宓庆. (1992). 汉英对比与翻译 Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press江西教育出版社.<br /> Pan Wenguo 潘文国. (1997/2002) 汉英语对比纲要 [An Outline of Chinese-English Contrastive Study]，Beijing: Beijing Language and Culture University Press北京语言文化大学出版社.<br /> Shao Zhihong 邵志洪. (2013). 新编英汉研究对比 [Contrastive Studies Between English and Chinese]. Shanghai: East China University of Science and TechnologyPress 华东理工大学出版社.<br /> Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2007) 英译中国现代散文选（一） [Selected Modern Chinese Essays 1]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:06, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_12&diff=116795 2020-12-20T14:32:34Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Vanity Fair 常慧月 Chang Huiyue */</p> <hr /> <div>='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 全美欣 Quan Meixin 202020080637 英美文学&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, local customs and food aesthetics. The third part will put forward the trend and prospect of food culture-loaded words from the aspect of translation method, translation system and the training of translators.The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === Key Words ===<br /> food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br /> <br /> === 题目 ===<br /> 中国“食”文化中文化负载词的异化翻译研究<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> 中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br /> <br /> 中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食美学三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分从翻译策略、翻译技巧和翻译人才培养三个方面提出“食”文化负载词翻译的趋势和展望；第四部分将对本文进行一个简短的总结。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 12:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === 关键词 ===<br /> “食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br /> <br /> === 1.Introduction ===<br /> Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of the Eastern food culture, but also benefits the whole world and shines in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges have become more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, translating food culture-loaded words accurately can not only promote international cultural exchanges but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have done researches about culture-loaded words in related fields, such as research from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence,and from famous literary works such as ''A Dream of Red Mansions''. There are few studies on food culture-loaded words from foreignizing translation. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture-loaded words from the perspective of foreignizing translation.<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture is rich and colorful. It is not only the axis of oriental food culture, but also beneficial to the whole world and shining in the world culture. With the development of tourism, cultural exchanges are more frequent, and the pursuit of food in China and the West has also risen to a higher level. Therefore, the accurate translation of food culture loaded words can not only promote international cultural exchanges, but also further enhance the international competitiveness of Chinese food culture. In China, although many experts have studied cultural loaded words in related fields, such as from the perspective of relevance, functional equivalence, and from famous literary works such as &quot;A Dream of Red Mansions &quot;. There are few studies on the alienation translation of food culture loaded words. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the translation of food culture loaded words from the perspective of alienation translation.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Culture-loaded words ====<br /> Before discussing culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we have to know what is culture-loaded word. Liao Qiyi in his books An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories said that <br /> <br /> “Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.”( Liao Qiyi 2002:232) <br /> <br /> During the process of translation, we have to consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they make distinctions between different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical period, different culture-loaded words occur. What's more, culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmitting, culture will also develop. As China has a long history , therefore, there are abundant culture-loaded words, which is both difficult for for translators to translate and for foreigners to understand.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, we must consider how to translate culture-loaded words because they distinguish different cultures. Cultural-load words can also reflect a country's social background, financial basis and culture in a certain period of time. In different historical periods, different cultural-loaded words appeared. More importantly, culture can be passed down from generation to generation. In the process of communication, culture will also develop. Because China has a long history, it is difficult for translators and foreigners to understand the rich cultural load words.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Foreignizing Translation====<br /> Foreignizing translation is a concept that put forward by Lawrence Venuti from the perspectives of politics, culture, ideology and history in 1995.Venuti considers the foreignizing method to be &quot;an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad&quot;.(Venuti,1995: 20) <br /> <br /> Alienation translation is a concept put forward by Lawrence Venuti in 1995 from the perspective of politics, culture, ideology and history. Venuti believes that the alienation method is &quot;a nationalist pressure on the cultural value of the target language, which records the language and cultural differences of foreign texts and sends readers abroad &quot;.(Venuti 1995,20) --[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> It is&quot;highly desirable&quot;, he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the &quot;violently&quot; domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms &quot;resistancy&quot; is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. (Venuti,1995: 35)<br /> <br /> It is&quot;highly desirable&quot;, he says, in an effort'to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation. In other words, alienation methods can inhibit the &quot;violent&quot; domestication of cultural values in the English world. The alienation method of translation, a strategy Venuti also known as &quot;boycott &quot;, is a kind of translation style that is not smooth or estranged. It aims to protect ST from the ideological domination of the target culture by highlighting the foreign identity and making the translator's existence visible.(Venuti 1995,20)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In some aspects, foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language's culture. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language's cultural background and is more faithful to the source language's culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text.Take Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Therefore, we could make use of foreignizing translation to preserve Chinese tranditional culture.<br /> <br /> In some aspects, alienation can preserve the uniqueness of the source language culture. Compared with domestication, alienation considers the cultural background of source language more and is more faithful to the culture of source language. It can maintain the exotic flavor of the source text. Taking Chinese food culture as an example, it contains great national characteristics and shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to food culture have rich Chinese culture. Therefore, we can use alienation translation to protect Chinese traditional culture.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === 2.The Application of Foreignizing Translation in Chinese Food Culture ===<br /> <br /> Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the culture-loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, which reflect China's specific history, culture and custom.<br /> <br /> Food culture embodies the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. Therefore, the cultural loaded words in food culture can be understood as words with distinctive Chinese cultural characteristics, reflecting the specific history, culture and customs of China.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of the dishes and the allusions of the founders. Translating Chinese-style dish's name correctly can convey the implicit Chinese cultural background knowledge, which is of far-reaching significance to the promotion of China-Western cultural exchanges. <br /> <br /> For example, there are some relevant information, such as the birthplace of dishes and the allusion of the founder. The correct translation of the name of Chinese dishes can convey the implied knowledge of Chinese cultural background and has far-reaching significance for promoting the exchange of Chinese and Western cultures.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The naming of Chinese dishes reflects the information of the ingredients, followed by the cultural connotation and artistic characteristics behind the naming. Therefore, the translation of dish names is diverse.<br /> <br /> This paper will combine the characteristics of Chinese food culture and divide culture-loaded words into three categories: Wwords of historical allusions,words of local custom and words of food aesthetic. And then this paper will introduce how to choose appropriate foreignizing translation strategies according to their characteristics.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Words of Historical Allusions ====<br /> <br /> The historical allusions in Chinese &quot;food&quot; culture-loaded words are words formed by Chinese historical figures or events, legends and allusions. A large part of Chinese cuisine is named by Chinese historical figures or allusions, and a few come from historical allusions have long been heard or understood by foreigners, but others are still very unfamiliar.<br /> <br /> Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling,2005:229)<br /> <br /> Chinese Pinyin can be used for the translation of food culture load words which is already very familiar to foreign diners. Xu Xianling in her books Chinese Food Culture introduces the allusions of “元宵(Yuanxiao)”.(Xu Xianling 2005,229)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called ‘Yuanxiao’ during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month.(Xu,2005:230)<br /> <br /> It is said that in the Han Dynasty, a woman named ‘Yuanxiao’ missed her parents so much that she shed tears every day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and said that according to the order of the Jade Emperor, the Vulcan would burn down Chang'an (the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th day of the first lunar month.(Xu 2005,230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu, 2005:230)<br /> <br /> The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named ‘Yuanxiao’ to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named ‘Yuanxiao’ met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.”(Xu 2005,230)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural words such as &quot;Yuanxiao&quot; formed by historical figures can be directly translated into &quot;YUANXIAO&quot; in Chinese pinyin because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners who come to China and even friends abroad. By the foreignization approach can achieve most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics.This translation method retains our national language style. (Xu, 2005:232)<br /> <br /> Cultural words such as &quot;Yuanxiao&quot; formed by historical figures can be translated directly into &quot;YUANXIAO&quot;, because they are recognized and accepted by most foreign diners and even friends abroad. Most of the unique things with Chinese characteristics can be realized by means of alienation. This translation method preserves our national language style.(Xu 2005,232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, it can also allow foreign diners to arouse their desire for knowledge about the stories and historical background behind the food while tasting the food.For those historical allusions and culture-loaded words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations, we can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with deep Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.<br /> <br /> In addition, it can also enable foreign diners to stimulate their understanding of the story and historical background behind the food when tasting it. For those historical allusions and cultural load words that have not yet reached a certain cross-cultural popularity, annotations can be added to supplement cultural information. These allusions with profound Chinese cultural characteristics can be retained to the greatest extent.--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example cited by Hu Zhishan in his book ''Chinese Food Culture'' is a famous dim sum”大救驾”.<br /> <br /> “The famous dim sum &quot;Dajiujia&quot; in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan,2005:92))<br /> <br /> “The famous dim sum &quot;Dajiujia&quot; in Anhui is an allusion from 956 AD. When Zhao Kuangyin(the emperor of Song Dynasty), who was only a general at the time, conquered Huainan(a city of An Hui province), he was unable to conquer it for a long time at first, and finally he won after several setbacks, but he was also exhausted. For several months, it was difficult for him to eat any food.(Hu Zhishan 2005,92)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At that time, a chef in the army tried every means to carefully make a round snack, which was loved by Zhao Kuangyin, quickly recovered his health.<br /> <br /> Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: &quot;The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life.&quot; And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the &quot;Da Jiujia&quot; of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu,2005:92)<br /> <br /> Later, Zhao Kuangyin succeed in lots of battles and became emperor. But he was missing about the dim sum, he once said: &quot;The trouble of the pommel horse, the illness after the war, and this dim sum saved my life.&quot; And in the Song Dynasty, if one saved the emperor’s life, called “Jiu Jia”.Therefore, the &quot;Da Jiujia&quot; of An Hui province became famous.”(Hu 2005,92)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a kind of food once saved the emperor)”This not only preserves the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the diners’ attraction to the food and the stories behind the food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think about what kind of food would save the emperor? It is unbelievable. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu,2005:93)<br /> <br /> We used the foreignizing translation to translate “大救驾”as “Da Jiu Jia(a food that once saved the emperor)&quot;, which not only retains the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also enhances the appeal of diners to the stories behind food and food through simple explanations. Maybe they will try to think what kind of food can save the emperor? This is incredible. Everyone may want to try such attractive food.(Hu 2005,93)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is “叫花鸡”,Jiaohuaji is a special dish made by wrapping processed chicken with soil and lotus leaves and baking it. This dish has a long history.<br /> <br /> According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness in the south of the Yangtze River. There was a Jiaohuazi(a beggar) who kindly gifted him what he thought was the best &quot;Jiaohuaji&quot;. Being hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was a delicacy on earth and asked the Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know what it was called, so he said &quot;rich chicken&quot; casually. (XuXianling,2005:232)<br /> <br /> According to legend, during a private visit by Emperor Qianlong, he was hungry and sleepy in the wilderness of Jiangnan. There was a Jiaohuazi (a beggar) who kindly gave him what he thought was the best &quot;Jiaohuaji &quot;. Hungry and sleepy, Emperor Qianlong thought it was delicious, asked Jiaohuazi the name of this chicken. The beggar didn't know the name, so he said &quot;rich chicken&quot; casually.(Xu Xianling 2005,232)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the &quot;rich chicken&quot;, so &quot;Jiaohuaji&quot; has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu,2005:234)<br /> <br /> After Emperor Qianlong returned to the dynasty, he was full of praise for the &quot;rich chicken&quot;, so &quot;Jiaohuaji&quot; has been spread because of the emperor's praise, and it has become a famous dish. (Xu 2005,234)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> So it is appropriate to translate “叫花鸡”into“roast whole chicken wrapped in mud (Jiao HuaJi, because it is a beggar who first cooked it quite accidentally).<br /> <br /> In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu,2005:234)<br /> <br /> In Chinese history, there are lots of allusions which could explain the creation of a famous dim sum. If we want to introduce these dim sums to foreigners, we have to explain the historical background so that we can express the original meaning. (Xu 2005,234)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Words of Local Customs ====<br /> <br /> Folklore, as a direct reflection of people's lifestyle, also contains rich symbolic meaning. On the Dragon Boat Festival, people eat rice dumplings to express their memory and remembrance of Qu Yuan(a famous poet in Warring state period); on the Mid-Autumn Festival, Mid-Autumn moon cakes and reunion dinners embody people's strong desire for a happy family. <br /> <br /> In China, all ethnic minorities have their own unique eating customs, which can be said to be diverse and different. Therefore, the folk customs contained in the culture-loaded words of &quot;food&quot; show the typical nationality of Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> The strongest dietary customs should be the festival customs. There is a habit of eating specific foods in various traditional Chinese festivals. The translation of such words can directly express the content so that the target language readers can understand.<br /> <br /> Such as: eating &quot;重阳糕,&quot; the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into &quot;Double-ninth Cake&quot;.(Zhang,2008:54.)<br /> <br /> Such as: eating &quot;重阳糕,&quot; the custom in the Han nationality , Double Ninth Festival is September 9th in the day, so it can be directly translated into &quot;Double-ninth Cake&quot;.(Zhang 2008,54)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In addition, expressing prayers for various good wishes is also one of the characteristics of folk custom words.<br /> <br /> &quot;清汤全家福&quot; is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, mainly including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish maw, mushrooms and cabbage heart. &quot;全家福&quot; is often used to celebrate the birthdays of the elderly and wedding banquet, family reunions, and even baby full moon banquets, so we can translate it into “family gift”to express auspicious meaning.(Xu,2005:35)<br /> <br /> &quot;清汤全家福&quot; is a famous dish in Shandong. The ingredients are more diverse, including abalone, sea cucumber, chicken, duck, fish belly, mushrooms and cabbage heart. &quot;Family photo&quot; is often used to celebrate the old people's birthday and wedding banquet, family reunion, and even baby full moon banquet, so we can translate it into &quot;family gift&quot; to express auspicious meaning.(Xu 2005,35)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, the &quot;合欢汤&quot; mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into &quot;happy-reunrion soup&quot;。 &quot;happy-reunion&quot; not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu,2005:36)<br /> <br /> For example, the &quot;合欢汤&quot; mentioned in A Dream of Red Mansions expresses the yearning for the joy of family. Mr. Yang Xianyi directly translated it into &quot;happy-reunrion soup&quot;。 &quot;happy-reunion&quot; not only achieves equivalence in language form, but also fully conveys cultural connotation.(Xu 2005,36)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> By foreignizing translation shows the traditional customs behind the food. Such as: eating jujube buns for newlyweds in Shanxi, eating Zhuzibaba on March 3rd in Anhui, etc. The nationality, regionality and history of traditional customs are difficult points in the translation of food culture.<br /> <br /> For example, how to translate this sentence”每年的立冬是请酒神的日子。”<br /> <br /> It can be translated into :”Lidong, the start of winter, is the day to worship the god of wine.”In this version, &quot;Lidong&quot; is one of the twenty-four solar terms of the folk calendar, and the foreignizing translation version &quot;Lidong&quot; is intriguing. &quot;酒神&quot; is generally translated as &quot;Bacchus&quot; or &quot;Dionysus&quot; in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. The translation &quot;请酒神&quot; is translated into &quot;worship the god of wine&quot; because the god of wine of Shaoxing wine is Yidi.(Zhang,2008:58)<br /> <br /> It can be translated as :&quot; Lidong, the beginning of winter, is the day of worship of Dionysus .&quot; In this version, Lidong is one of the 24 solar terms of the folk calendar, and the alienated translation version of Lidong is intriguing. &quot;酒神&quot; is generally translated into &quot;Bacchus&quot; or &quot;Dionysus&quot; in English, which is the Western Bacchus and Dionysus. &quot;请酒神&quot; is translated into &quot;worship the god of wine&quot; because Shaoxing wine god is Yidi.(Zhang 2008,58)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 14:01, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The creation of food is an inevitable accident, and is the result of the hard work and wisdom of the people of all ethnic groups. Foreignizing translation implicitly and euphemistically re-exhibits emotions, which is more helpful for target language readers to understand the development process of Chinese food culture.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics ====<br /> <br /> The food aesthetics of Chinese &quot;food&quot; culture has been analyzed in detail in Xu Wanbang's article &quot;''Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture''&quot;.<br /> <br /> In this paper, in addition to mention the beauty of the Chinese people's image of food, the beauty of the food environment, the beauty of food utensils, and the aroma of food, he also listed the aesthetic appeal of name, sound, beauty, etc. in particular, the naming methods of various dishes such as colors, flowers, etc.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br /> <br /> In this paper, in addition to mentioning the Chinese people's image of food beauty, food environment beauty, food utensils beauty, food aroma, but also listed the name, voice, beauty and other aesthetic demands. Especially the naming methods of various dishes, such as color, flowers and so on.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of &quot;true to the name&quot;, and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang,2005:37)<br /> <br /> From this we can see the Chinese people’s pursuit of &quot;true to the name&quot;, and strive for beautiful dishes, tastes, and better names. The wonderful feeling that diners can enjoy both materially and spiritually. Because a wonderful name is not only a vivid description of the dish, but also an organic part of the dish itself, which often plays an unexpected function.(Xu Wanbang 2005,37)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For the translation of dishes with beautiful names, some people think that the main ingredients of food should be directly translated to ensure the faithfulness of the translation. In fact, this is not the case. In &quot;food&quot; culture, thinking style, and language characteristics embodied in such words are more abundant.<br /> <br /> For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106)<br /> <br /> For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This method of literal translation,annotation foreingnizing translation and not only allows foreign diners to appreciate the good name of the food, understand the Chinese thinking mode and word habits, but also shows the true content of the food in the annotation part clearly.<br /> <br /> The name of the dish is beautiful. Chinese food is delicious and has a better name. The name of a lady is beautiful and moving, which can reflect the person's personality, hobbies, and cultural accomplishments.<br /> <br /> The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu,2005:36)<br /> <br /> The same is true for the name of the dish. It has to be repeatedly scrutinized and not far-fetched, and strive to be elegant and relevant to the title. The name of the dish can reveal the characteristics of the dish and reflect the whole picture of the dish.(Xu 2005,36)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Xu in his paper put forward several methods to name a dish.<br /> <br /> “1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the &quot;Jade&quot; of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang,2005:38)<br /> <br /> “1.Named after color. Especially named after the color of the ingredients and the color of the dishes after they mature. For example, the &quot;Jade&quot; of jade shrimp is mainly green and fresh to the green of peas, and matched with the white shrimp color, it gives people a feeling of refreshing.(Xu Wanbang 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as &quot;Osmanthus scallops&quot;.(Xu,2005:38)<br /> <br /> 2.Named after flowers. Flowers are deeply loved by people and are cleverly combined with dishes. Some of them are delicacies with real flowers, which are named after the delicacy of orchids and belly silk. Although some flowers do not appear in the dishes, the color and shape after the dishes are like a certain kind of flower can also be named, such as &quot;Osmanthus scallops&quot;.(Xu 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu,2005:38)<br /> <br /> 3.Named after the type. After the dishes are made, they are named according to the shapes formed, which are both realistic and poetic; they have both practical value and beautiful enjoyment. For example, the butterfly sea cucumber, seeing the name of the dish, immediately realizes that the shape of the dish is like a butterfly.(Xu 2005,38)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After discussing these categories of culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture, we could have a basic understanding about these specific words and learn how to translate it properly. By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. <br /> <br /> Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language's culture to the target readers, it requires the translator's great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation and be familiar with cultural background before translating.<br /> <br /> === 3.The Trend and Prospect of Culture-Loaded Words ===<br /> <br /> In the future, the extent of cultural exchanges will be larger and more diversified. The cultures of all countries are constantly pursuing similarities and seeking differences. What’s more, we have to learn to accept foreign cultures with tolerance and an open mind. <br /> <br /> Foreignizing translations will gradually be accepted by readers. In spread of the characteristics of &quot;food&quot; culture, it is an inevitable trend to adopt foreignizing translation strategies. However, the research on the translation of &quot;food&quot; culture-loaded words is still a relatively new topic. The paper has made considerations on its future development in the following aspects.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translation Method ====<br /> <br /> First, the choice of translation of &quot;food&quot; culture-loaded words should also &quot;kick out the old and welcome the new&quot;. Of course, the &quot;old&quot; here refers to those culture-loaded words that are too old and rarely used or limited to a small range.It is unnecessary to translate such culture-loaded words .<br /> <br /> In addition, the development of &quot;food&quot; culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br /> <br /> In addition, the development of &quot;food&quot; culture is not stagnant,and it will be updated with the changes of the times. For example, the classification of cuisines may be expanded; new dishes will continue to appear; eating habits will also change, and so on. All of these require researchers or translators to have an attitude of studying hard and keeping pace with the times.(Zhang 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, we have to try to use different translation methods to translate these culture-loaded words. In addition, taking untranslatability into consideration is also very important.<br /> <br /> Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi,2002:153)<br /> <br /> Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. (Liao Qiyi 2002,153)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao,2002:153)<br /> <br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture.(Liao 2002,153)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers. <br /> <br /> Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene, 1969:13)<br /> <br /> Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene 1969,13)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and literal translation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation.<br /> <br /> In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br /> <br /> In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and literal translation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017,75)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different translation methods can be used to translate different words or sentences. The most important thing is that we have to consider the real situation and whether the target readers can understand it or not.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation System ====<br /> <br /> We need to form a systematic translation system of &quot;food&quot; culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang, 2014:106)<br /> <br /> We need to form a systematic translation system of &quot;food&quot; culture-loaded words. The system should not only include translation theories for the proper definition of culture-loaded words, but also a corpus of culture-loaded words. Among them, though the establishment of a corpus of culture-loaded words is a huge systematic project, the advantages that the corpus brings to translation work are immeasurable.(Zhang 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation scholars should consciously collect the corpus of culture-loaded words related to &quot;food&quot; in their daily research and practice to achieve accurate and efficient translation as soon as possible.<br /> <br /> With the development of technology and science, it is convenient for us to use machine translation to finish translation works. That means that it is possible to introduce Chinese food culture to the whole world by machine translation. What we should to do is to improve and supervise the quality of the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> Maybe in the beginning, these will have lots of mistakes during the process of translation., but I believe it will become more accurate gradually. <br /> <br /> Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu, 2008:99)<br /> <br /> Forming a systematic translation system is really important for us. In Hu Bin’s paper”The Spreading Skills of Chinese Food Culture”, we could notice he put forward many strategies to introduce food culture to the international market. It is obvious that we will encounter unpredictable problems, but if we set up a system, and it will make things become easier. (Hu 2008,99)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan,2003:12)<br /> <br /> In Zhu Dan’s paper “''A Study of the Translation Strategies on Culture-loaded Words of Chinese Food--A Case Study on the Translation of Tasting China''”, she pointed out that there is no relatively complete food translation system in China. As a result, when you encounter some word problems in the translation process, you often cannot find a reasonable and unified standard.(Zhu Dan 2003,12)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu,2003:12)<br /> <br /> As a result, the translators of the translated content can justify themselves, but it will cause foreign readers to be puzzled, and ultimately unable to accurately and systematically spread Chinese food culture. (Zhu 2003,12)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu,2003:15）<br /> <br /> The author has summarized the strategies and methods for the translation of staple food content, and found that the translation of such names and related cultural words can follow certain translation rules, but this is only a point in many food translations. (Zhu 2003,15）--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Translation strategies and methods at this point are expanded and improved, and on the basis of this point, through joint efforts to establish a comprehensive and detailed Chinese food translation system, the current Chinese food is classified as a whole, such as cold dishes and hot dishes.<br /> <br /> Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu,2003:15）<br /> <br /> Categories, soups, staple foods, specialty snacks, Chinese wine and Chinese tea, and then continue to refine. In the process of sorting and summarizing, the criteria for recurring or culturally characteristic names are determined, so that fixed and key food content can be translated. (Zhu 2003,15）--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Training of Translators ====<br /> <br /> The cultivation of relevant talents needs to strengthen the cultivation of cultural awareness. In the process of foreignizing translation of &quot;food&quot; culture-loaded words, the understanding of the cultural knowledge of the source language and the target language is the basis of translation.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, most of the random translations are caused by the lack of cultural background knowledge.Therefore, in the process of training talents, we should grasp cultural background knowledge and cultivate cultural awareness throughout the entire process of language learning.<br /> <br /> Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang, 2014:106))<br /> <br /> Since the content of the translation involves traditional Chinese and Western cultures, especially Chinese people are very sophisticated in all aspects of food, including the choice of ingredients, cooking skills, color matching, taste pursuit, etc. So the translator is required to choose vocabulary very carefully which could convey the meaning of the original one.(Zhang 2014,106)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, the author found that in the translation process, there are often several English words corresponding to a Chinese word, but it is more confused when we have to choose a word. It is difficult to clearly point out the difference between each word.<br /> <br /> It is necessary to carefully consult the dictionary and view the relevant example sentences, consider each word in the specific application language environment, and find out the key points emphasized by each word in a set of synonyms through comparative analysis.<br /> <br /> This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a &quot;translation style&quot;. (Xu, 2008:69))<br /> <br /> This requires translators not only to expand their vocabulary, but also to grasp the most accurate meaning, applicable context, and key points of each English word, so as to make the translation process more smooth and express the content more accurate. When many translators re-translate culture-loaded words, their translations are still inadequate and have a &quot;translation style&quot;. (Xu 2008,69)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Zhu in her paper summarize the connotation and values of Chinese culture accurately and vividly. On the other hand, I must choose the correct and appropriate English expression method. To balance the two,I still needs to deepen my English skills in many aspects.<br /> <br /> Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu, 2003:16)<br /> <br /> Eliminate the translation barriers between the two languages to the greatest extent, allowing foreign readers to read their own authentic language and understand China's characteristic food culture. At the end of the translation process and during the proofreading process, the translators have to examine their translations.”(Zhu 2003,16)--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 15:33, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the same time, the curriculum system needs to be reformed to meet the demand for talents. Today's tourism industry continues to develop. Catering is an indispensable part of the tourism industry, and its market demand will also grow rapidly.<br /> <br /> Enterprises will integrate international standards from food translation, dish innovation, and even service management. This shows that the demand for translators in food-related fields is rising. Therefore, relevant courses or teaching content can be added to the curriculum to train outstanding professionals for the external communication of Chinese food culture.<br /> <br /> === 4. Conclusion ===<br /> <br /> In short, Chinese food culture not only plays an important role in the lives of our people, but also continuously expands its influence in the world environment. As the top priority of Chinese food culture, &quot;food&quot; culture is even more prominent.<br /> <br /> Although the food of China and the West is very different in all aspects, under the situation of globalization, the culture is constantly merging and spreading. Enjoying the cuisine of different countries has become an indispensable part of the daily life of contemporary people.<br /> <br /> The culture-loaded words of in food culture are rich in Chinese characteristics. During the translation process, try to adopt foreignizing translation strategies, and appropriately adopt different foreignization methods according to different culture-loaded words. Therefore, we could retain their own cultural characteristics to the maximum extent and introduce them to the whole world.<br /> <br /> In addition, we also give foreigners opportunities to experience the splendid &quot;food&quot; culture while experiencing the same wonderful language features and profound cultural connotations of China. The world-famous Chinese cuisine attracts food lovers from all over the world.<br /> <br /> Chinese traditional food culture is broad and profound, has a long history with rich and diverse cuisines, different cooking styles, and distinctive ethnic characteristics. When we enjoy delicious food with all colors, flavors, we can learn about the historical allusions, humanistic customs, legends and traditional culture of our nation, and spread our customs and food to other countries.<br /> <br /> When translating Chinese traditional food culture, it is not only necessary to understand the food characteristics, but also to understand the basis of the naming of dishes from the connotation of our traditional culture. Only when we have a rich knowledge in Chinese food culture, can we make a correct translation of Chinese dish and contribute to the spread of Chinese food culture.<br /> <br /> In foreign cultural exchanges, translation is an important means and carrier. It is a huge challenge for translators to let foreign audiences understand Chinese culture, while retaining and reflecting cultural characteristics.<br /> <br /> With the development of social economy and cultural exchanges, we are required to innovate and use a variety of translation methods to effectively draw readers, and explore the common emotional attributes in the different culture.<br /> <br /> To stimulate emotional resonance in different contexts, so that we can fully and accurately show our country's cultural characteristics and gain the initiative status in the increasingly fierce cultural competition.<br /> <br /> === 5. References ===<br /> <br /> *Jeremy Munday(2016.)''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' [M].Taylor and Francis Group.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi廖七一(2002)''An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories'' 当代西方翻译理论探索[M].Nanjing: Yilin Publishing House.南京:译林出版社.<br /> <br /> *Xu Xianling, Li Xiangzhuang 徐先玲,李相状(2003)''Chinese food culture'' 《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China Drama Publishing House. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br /> <br /> *Jin Huikang 金惠康(2003)''Intercultural Communication Translation''《跨文化交际翻译》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社.<br /> <br /> *Hu Zhishan 胡自山(2003)''Chinese food culture''《中国饮食文化》[M].Beijing: China International Translation Press. 北京:中国对外翻译出版社,2003.<br /> <br /> *Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹(2011)&quot;A Comparative Study of the Translation of the Names of Dishes in the English Version of ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' from the Perspective of Food Culture&quot; 饮食文化视角下《红楼梦》英译本中的菜名翻译对比研究[D].Shanxi Normal University. 陕西师范大学.<br /> <br /> *Xiong Xin 熊欣(2013)&quot;A Study on the English Translation of Chinese Dishes' Names Based on the Theory of Intercultural Communication&quot; 跨文化交际理论下的中国菜名英译研究[D]. Shanghai International Studies University.上海外国语大学.<br /> <br /> *Zhao Peiru 赵佩茹(2013)&quot;Discussing the English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from a Cultural Perspective&quot;从文化角度讨论中国菜名的英语翻译[D].China University of Geosciences. 中国地质大学.<br /> <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中(1998)&quot;Cultural factors in translation: foreignization and domestication&quot;翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化[J].Foreign language.外国语.12-15.<br /> <br /> *Sun Zhili 孙致礼(2002)&quot;Chinese Literary Translation: From Domestication to Foreignization&quot;中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[J].Chinese translation.中国翻译.42-43.<br /> <br /> *Xiong Bin 熊兵(2003)&quot;Domestication and Foreignization in Cultural Exchange Translation&quot; 文化交流翻译的归化和异化[J].Chinese Science and Technology Translation.中国科技翻译7-9.<br /> <br /> *Xu Wangbang徐万邦(2005)&quot;Aesthetic Interest in Chinese Food Culture&quot; 中国饮食文化中的审美情趣[J].Journal of Inner Mongolia University.内蒙古大学学报37-39<br /> <br /> *Xu Bin, Liang Wen 胡兵,梁文(2008)&quot;Foreign Communication Skills of Chinese Food Culture—From the English Translation of Chinese Dishes&quot;中国饮食文化的对外传播技巧—从中国式菜名的英译谈起[J]99-100.<br /> <br /> *谢柯,从后殖民视角论中国菜名的翻译[J].重庆文理学院学报,2009:129-131.<br /> <br /> *蒋童,韦努蒂的异化翻译与翻译伦理的神韵[J].外国语,2010:80-82.<br /> <br /> *杜晓卿,浅析中国菜肴英语翻译中的问题[J].内蒙古民族大学学报,2012:40-41.<br /> <br /> *黄粉保,汉民族的饮食文化及“吃”字短语的翻译[J].中国科技翻译,2014:56-57.<br /> <br /> *邓德虎,中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J].上海翻译,2016:53-55.<br /> <br /> *梁书琪,刘敏,川菜菜名的文化内涵及其翻译策略研究[J].湖北师范大学学报,2018:99-101.<br /> <br /> *孔祥龙,中国文化负载词的英译与文化软实力[J].科教文汇,2019:178-179.<br /> <br /> == Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi 202070080589 ==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the definition, classification and translation difficulties of culture-loaded words. Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.<br /> <br /> In conference speeches, culture-loaded words are quoted in large numbers as a kind of symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, which plays a role in conveying Chinese culture, but at the same time increases the difficulty of interpretation. This paper discusses the difficulties in the definition, classification and translation of culture-loaded words. By virtue of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> interpretive theory; culture-loaded words; translation strategy<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 在会议致辞中，文化负载词作为一种具有传统文化特色的符号被大量引用，起到了传递中国文化的作用，同时也增加了口译的难度。本文探讨了文化负载词的定义、分类和翻译难点，以释意理论为指导，以中国领导人重要会议的翻译材料为文本，分析总结了文化负载词的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 释意理论 文化负载词 翻译策略<br /> 释意理论，文化负载词，翻译策略--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> With the implementation of the strategy of “Chinese culture Going Out” and the development of external communication, China’s external communication has made gratifying achievements. However, misunderstandings and prejudices still exist in the dominant western media and among western people（并列多余，建议删除）. Although ideological differences and economic development modes are important factors in explaining such obstacles, the fact is that most Westners (更正为Westerners) have few（更正为little） knowledge about Chinese language and culture, do not understand China’s profound history and modern society. Therefore there are distorted (更正为distortion) and misreading of China’s policies and propositions.<br /> <br /> China's diplomatic activities on the international stage are becoming more and more frequent, and Chinese leaders are spreading not only the voice of China but also its culture in their speeches to outside world. This is why the cultural load words are heavily quoted as a symbol with traditional cultural characteristics, highlighting the charm of national culture while also posing challenges for(建议改为to) interpreters. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) Language, as the carrier of culture, is the characteristics of a country and has its own cultural content with unique national characteristics. Therefore, interpreters need to understand, analyze and interpret the linguistic symbols within a limited time.<br /> <br /> Interpreters need not only to translate the semantic and cultural connotations accurately, but also to conform to the conventions of the language into which they are translated. The theory of interpretation was born out of the need to accurately interpret not only the semantic and cultural connotations, but also the expression habits of the incoming language, and is gradually becoming an important guide and widely used in interpretation practice.<br /> <br /> 括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Overview of interpretive theory===<br /> <br /> The theory of interpretation was born in the late 1960s at the Ecole Supérieure in Paris, France, by Danica Selekovitch and Marianne Le Dreyfus renowned interpreting theorists and practitioners. According to the general theory of translation, there exists three levels in translation : the lexical level, the sentence (i.e. the discourse of Saussurean concepts) level and the chapter level. These three levels can be interpreted as: word-for-word translation, sentence translation out of context and communicative environment, and chapter translation combining linguistic knowledge with cognitive knowledge, respectively.Interpretive theory refers to word-for-word and sentence translation as translation linguistique or linguistic translation, while translation at the chapter level is referred to as chapter translation or translation.<br /> <br /> The the theory argues that successful translation should be carried out at the chapter level, namely, the interpretation of the chapter, because the sentence is the grammatical unit and the chapter is the semantic unit; it is the meaning, not the grammar, nor the individual words and sentences that are translated.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998：193) The equivalence of the original text and the translation is expressed in an overall communicative sense, which means the translation produces the same effect on its readers or listeners as the original. In order to achieve this effect, it is clear that the basic unit of translation should not be the words, but the communicative meaning(这句话是不是需要再斟酌一下). <br /> <br /> It can be concluded from this that the theory holds that translation is the interpretation of the non-linguistic meaning expressed by the speaker, and that language is only a carrier and a tool, so the object of translation should be the information content, the meaning, not the language (Xu Jun, 2001).<br /> <br /> 括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Interpreting and translating at conferences under the guidance of the Interpretive theory===<br /> <br /> The theory of interpretation comes from the practice of interpreting, which is of great significance in guiding the practice of conference interpreting. Interpretive theory divides the interpreting process into three levels: understanding the meaning of the original language, breaking away from the shell of the original language and re-expression. Therefore, interpreting is a triangular process rather than a straight line. Understanding the source language means that the interpreter must first understand linguistic knowledge (including phonetics, semantics, syntax, etc.) and encyclopedic knowledge (including memory, experience, perception of important events, theoretical knowledge, imagination, etc.); the next step breaking away from the shell of the original language is a cognitive process in which the oral presentation is fleeting and we can remember the whole of what we heard. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br /> <br /> In recent years, national leaders have been using culture-loaded words more and more frequently in their speeches, while interpreters are inclined to be influenced by their own culture（这个转折建议换一个表达方式）. They can easily fall into the misunderstanding of English word gaps and cultural word gaps. For example, in the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), it is said that “打铁还需自身硬”. <br /> <br /> This saying is familiar（建议更正为popular） in China which means that a blacksmith must be &quot;high skilled&quot; in order to make strong and durable iron tools. The Daily Telegraph translates the phrase as &quot;To forge iron, you need a strong hammer&quot;. “To forge iron, one must be strong”, as translated by Cable News Network and The New York Times, means “In order to work with iron, the person who works with iron has to be strong”. The foreign media's translation of the above perspective is imprecise: if the hammer is hard, the iron mat must be hard as well; if the person is strong, it is not &quot;strong&quot; even if the iron-driving technique is not skillful. <br /> <br /> The essential implication of this Chinese saying in a particular context is to emphasize the need for refining their techniques. The official translation, “It takes a good blacksmith to make good steel”, recognizes the cultural lexical gaps in the target language and, with sufficient analysis and interpretation, translates the cultural implications of the target language more accurately.<br /> <br /> 括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Overview of Translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> (这一部分是否还缺了个章节介绍)--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Definition and classification of cultural load words====<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Chen Xiaodan divides culture-loaded words into absolute vacancies and relative vacancies according to their semantic vacancy in other cultures, and relative vacancies are subdivided into three categories: vacant words with reference scope, vacant words with meaning and linguistic normative vacancies. (Chen Xiaodan 2010: 106-108)Based on the uniqueness of the words, Wang divided the culture-loaded words into five categories: physical geography, customs and habits, spiritual culture, material culture and socio-economic culture.(Wang Guoan 1996:402). Nida Eugene classifies culturally loaded words in five ways: ecocultural words, material cultural words, social cultural words, religious cultural words and linguistic cultural words（Nida, Eugene A. 1964：91）<br /> <br /> By comparing the translated materials with data compiled from the interpretation of important meetings of Chinese leaders in recent years, and based on Naida's classification of culture-loaded words, the author has divided Chinese culture-loaded words into five categories according to the characteristics of Chinese culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> (1)Three-character Structure<br /> <br /> A three-character word pattern is a fixed structure consisting of three characters(后面略显多余可删除), often associated with culture and history. In addition to its literal meaning, the three-character structure also has a profound metaphorical derivation meaning, with vivid images and a prominent oral style. For example, the opening speech of the Boao Forum 2018 mentioned the expression “小算盘”, which is unique to China's culture and indicates a proficiency in calculation.<br /> <br /> At the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned: &quot;共同绘制精谨细腻的工笔画&quot;. The term &quot;工笔画&quot; refers to traditional Chinese painting techniques, and it is important to grasp the meaning of words in the cultural context of the source language when interpreting.(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br /> <br /> (2)Four-character Structure<br /> <br /> In Chinese, the term &quot;four-character structure&quot; is a special lexical phenomenon - a four-character sequence of characters with a symmetrical structure. A class of four-character forms was created to keep the language coherent and rhyming. In recent years there has been a large number of idioms and quatrains used in speeches at important meetings of Chinese leaders, which are both concise and reflective of the charm of traditional Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Take the opening speech of the Bo'ao Forum in 2018 as an example, there is a high frequency of idioms used in the speech. For example, “众志成城”，“砥砺奋进”，“敢为人先”，“妄自尊大” and“独善其身” etc.(Du Mengxian &amp; Shen Guorong 2018:10) For example, at the opening ceremony of the second Belt and Road Summit Forum on International Cooperation, it was mentioned that &quot;a blueprint for cooperation in terms of policy communication, facility connectivity, smooth trade, financial flows and people-to-people contact was planned&quot;. Here the five four characters are juxtaposed, rhyming and unified, which is a very characteristic Chinese expression.<br /> <br /> (3) Idioms<br /> <br /> Idioms is looser and more flexible in format, and is generally passed down orally, so it is more colloquial, but the meaning of the sentence is holistic and the meaning of the whole sentence must be considered rather than (添加be） translated word by word.（Du Mengxian. Shen Guorong 2018:91-93） For example, “四两拨千斤”and“萝卜青菜各有所爱”etc.<br /> <br /> (4) Poetry<br /> <br /> Poetry is one of the treasures of Chinese literature （literary treasures 会不会更简洁一些） that richly illustrates and expresses thoughts, philosophies and emotions in a highly condensed language with relatively strict rhythm, structure and rhythm. (Li Ying 2017:419-424) In Chinese-English conference interpretation, poetry translation is quite difficult. For example, in a speech given by President Xi Jinping at UNESCO Headquarters in 2014, he quoted a poem from the Mencius Teng Wengong(是否得写明中文): “物之不齐，物之情也”.<br /> <br /> (5)Chinese Characteristic Words<br /> <br /> Chinese character words refer to words produced in China's cultural and social environment, such as the Scientific Outlook on Development, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and the Belt and Road.<br /> <br /> 括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> <br /> Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232）In addition to the conceptual meaning of the language itself, culture-loaded words are given a specific cultural meaning. In terms of the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation should take into account not only the historical background and ecological and geographical context, but also the habits of thought, customs and social environment that they reflect. <br /> <br /> （1） Translation difficulties caused by history and culture<br /> <br /> &quot;Culture plays a pivotal role in translation studies, as the cultural context determines specific communication patterns. It is therefore imperative that we understand how culture plays a prerequisite role （连续用了role，建议替换同义表达）in intercultural communication.&quot; (Xu Lisheng 2004:34) China has a long and rich history and culture, and many of its historical and traditional meanings are deeply rooted in people's minds. For example, “磕头” has been around for several years, but in Western countries it is common to hug and kiss on the cheek. ( Sun Xianmei 2019:209)<br /> <br /> （2）Translation difficulties caused by customs and traditions<br /> <br /> The differences in customs between Western countries and China can be seen in many aspects, such as festivals, greetings and food. To a large extent, the differences in customs make it difficult to translate culture-loaded words into English. Take Chinese festivals as an example, the Lantern Festival and the Dragon Boat Festival are both traditional Chinese festivals and it is impossible to translate such cultural words without understanding their origin and traditional customs.<br /> <br /> （3）Translation difficulties caused by the social environment<br /> <br /> Since China's reform and opening up, its economy and society have undergone radical changes, and a number of words with Chinese characteristics have gradually appeared in official documents and on important diplomatic occasions. This type of vocabulary, which is characteristic of contemporary culture, arises from the unique social and economic environment of modern China. This kind of words are characterized by its Chinese features, which are short in form and concise in nature, such as mass entrepreneurship and innovation, &quot;Belt and Road&quot;, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and so on. Translating this type of vocabulary requires a good understanding of China's national conditions, political policy and foreign policy, which to some extent makes translation difficult!<br /> <br /> 括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Strategies for conference interpreting under the Guidance of Interpretive Theory===<br /> <br /> When interpreting for important meetings delivered by national leaders, the interpreter is required to present the cultural essence, metaphor and extended meaning of the original language in the target language as much as possible. A prerequisite for this is that the interpreter can understand, analyze and interpret linguistic signs in a limited amount of time, and the trigonometric model of interpretive theory is a good solution to this problem. According to this model, conference interpreting can be divided into the following steps: first, the leader's speech is finished, the format attached to the language form (including idioms, slang, rhyming couplets of poetry, etc.) ceases to exist and the original language is presented to the interpreter's mind with ideas of semantics, connotation, cultural load implications, etc.（去掉了；） Second, the outer form and constraints of the language are removed from the linguistic shell of the source language. In addition to retaining the formal structure of the source language, the interpreter can also break the rules of rhythm, structure and form and translate the meaning and connotation of the culture-loaded words; the third step is to re-integrate the information in the sentences and output an expression that reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the target language. (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br /> Based on the characteristics of culture-loaded words, this paper summarizes the following four strategies for translating culture-loaded words in conference interpreting, based on the translated materials and data compiled from the interpreting of important meetings of Chinese leaders.<br /> <br /> 括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Literal translation====<br /> <br /> A literal translation is used if the original language corresponds to the expression in the translated language. A literal translation retains the format and imagery of the original text and it is easy for the audience to understand.<br /> <br /> Example (1): “河海不择细流，故能就其深。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br /> <br /> Translation: The ceaseless inflow of rivers makes the ocean deep.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The phrase &quot;河海不择细流，故能就其深&quot; refers to the fact that river, lake and sea the smallest stream, so they can achieve their depth. The interpreter has adopted a literal translation strategy here, and integrated the two verses together in the translation, which not only retains the imagery of &quot;河海&quot; and &quot;细流&quot; in the source language, but also reflects the feature of hypotaxis in English language, making it more easily accepted by listeners. <br /> <br /> Example (2) :中国人历来讲究讲求“一诺千金”。(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br /> <br /> Translation: We Chinese have a saying that honoring a promise carries the weight of gold.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The phrase &quot;一诺千金&quot; is used to describe a person who values honesty. Here, the imagery of the importance of a promise in the source language “千金” — the weight of gold—has been retained in the interpretation, which is perfectly understandable to English readers. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br /> <br /> Example (3) : “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园”(Xi Jinping 2013a)<br /> <br /> Translation: A single flower does not make spring, while one hundred flowers in full blossom bring spring to the garden.<br /> <br /> Analysis: “一花独放不是春，百花齐放春满园” refers to the fact that civilizations should flourish and develop in a way that allows a hundred flowers to bloom and a hundred schools of thought to contend（建议这句话再斟酌一下，略显繁琐）. The interpretation is a literal translation, depicting the blossoming of a hundred flowers in the garden of spring, which not only conforms to the meaning of the original text, but also points out in the following metaphor that the progress and development of human civilization presents a diverse and colorful scene. It is a way of expressing and interpreting the meaning of the proverb with half the effort, as it is generally concise in meaning and easy to understand . (Li Ying 2017:419-424)<br /> <br /> Example (4) : “聚沙成塔、积水成渊”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br /> <br /> Translation: Just as a Chinese proverb says, ”A tower is built when soil on earth accumulates, and a river is formed when streams come together.”<br /> <br /> Analysis: “聚沙成塔、积水成渊” is a Chinese idiom referring a grain of sand that keeps on accumulating will become a pagoda, while water that comes together drop by drop will become an lake. Here, the interpreter used a literal translation method to convey the meaning of the idiom literally.<br /> <br /> 括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Semantic Interpretation====<br /> <br /> Semantic interpretation is another widely used method in interpreting. Semantic interpretation is not a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence interpretation, but a translation that takes into account the context. Allusions are mostly derived from the the production practices of ancient Chinese people, while idioms are usually quotes from stories in ancient texts and have deep cultural connotations. The translation strategy of semantic interpretation is often used to translate these types of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> Example (5) :“面向未来，我们要促进不同安全机制间协调包容、互补合作，不这边搭台、那边拆台。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br /> <br /> Translation: We hat must ensure that various security mechanisms coordinate with each other in an inclusive and complementary manner rather than undercut each other. <br /> <br /> Analysis: The phrase &quot;not to set the stage on one side, but to tear it down on the other&quot; is a Chinese colloquialism. Considering the different cultural contexts, translating such culturally loaded words should not only take into account the cultural connotations of the colloquialism in the source language, but also take into account the context so that the translation reflects the culture of the source language and conforms to the expression form of the target language. The word 'stage' refers to the theatre, which indicates that the members of the troupe are not united. The interpreter translates 'rather than undercut each other. The original meaning of &quot;Taiwan&quot; corresponds directly to &quot;stage&quot;. （Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）Instead, the translation strategy of interpreting the meaning of the phrase has been adopted to grasp the context in which it was quoted by the speaker, that is emphasizing the need for countries to work together to maintain peace, and to convey the original meaning accurately.<br /> <br /> Example (6) :“和平和发展是世界各国人民共同的心声，冷战思维、零和博弈愈发陈旧落伍，妄自尊大或独善其身只能四处碰壁。”(Xi Jinping 2018a)<br /> <br /> Translation: Putting oneself on a pedestal or trying to immune oneself from adverse developments will get nowhere. <br /> <br /> Analysis: Due to their connotations and fixed patterns, idioms cannot be split up and changed, and it is not easy to find words in English that are structurally equivalent and have the same semantic meaning.（Du Mengxian Shen Guorong 2018:10）In this interpreter's translation, the phrase &quot;四处碰壁&quot; is translated out of the linguistic shell（这个说法用了好几次，建议替换说法） of the source language as &quot;get nowhere&quot;, allowing the listener to quickly understand the meaning in context.<br /> <br /> Example (7)：“促进投资快速增长。我们发挥政府投资“四两拨千斤”的作用，引导带动社会投资。”(Wen Jiabao 2010a) <br /> <br /> Translation: We promoted rapid growth in investment. We guided and stimulated non-government investment by means of well-leveraged government investment.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The phrase was first used in Wang Zongyue's translation of Taijiquan, which refers to the technique of Taijiquan as a kind of kung fu that does not use clumsy force to win over others; by extension, it means &quot;to win with little effort by clever force&quot;. The translator does not directly reproduce the English expression &quot;accomplishing a great task with little effort by clever maneuvers&quot;, but understands the above context as emphasizing how the government can reasonably guide the participation of social capital to bring about a large amount of social investment for the country. The translation of &quot;well-leveraged&quot; means to play the role of financing very well, which conveys the speaker's intention very well.（Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96）<br /> <br /> 括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Due to different social customs, religious beliefs, ecological and social environments, each nation has unique expressions that embody its own national features. (Guo, Huqing 2018:94-96) In the practice of interpretation, translators often adopt the strategy of free translation, breaking the rules of rhythm, structure and form of the original language and choosing to translate its meaning and connotation. This is also the central meaning of interpretive theory—to break away from the linguistic shell of the source language.<br /> <br /> Example (8) :“物之不齐，物之情也”(Xi Jinping 2014a)<br /> <br /> Translation: It is only natural for things to be different.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The saying &quot;物之不齐，物之情也&quot; is from the Mencius Teng Wengong, which means that everything is different and has its own unique personality. This is an idea frequently quoted by Xi Jinping when talking about relations between countries and civilizations. The translation departs from the format and genre limitations of poetry and translates the connotations of ancient poetry from the theory of interpretation, which is concise and intuitive, yet captures the core meaning.<br /> <br /> Example (9) : 中国古人说：“万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br /> <br /> Translation: An ancient Chinese philosopher observed that “plants with strong roots grow well, and efforts with the right focus will ensure success.”<br /> <br /> Analysis: The saying &quot;万物得其本者生，百事得其道者成&quot; is from the Dao of Daoism（应该是Taoism吧） by Liu Xiang of the Western Han Dynasty, and means that everything in the world can grow if it is preserved at its roots, and everything can succeed if it is morally righteous. In this sentence, &quot;本&quot; and &quot;道&quot; have a strong（建议换adj.） cultural significance in Chinese and are difficult to find suitable words to express in English. (Zhang Mengyuan 2019:116-117)<br /> <br /> The translation therefore employs the strategy of paraphrasing to translate the meaning of the original poem and make it more comprehensible for an English-speaking audience.<br /> <br /> 括号内中文为修改建议--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 15:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Streamlining Information Interpretation====<br /> <br /> In conference interpretation, interpreters need to react quickly, choose their words decisively and ensure that the listener fully understands them. Therefore, when translating culture-loaded words words, interpreters not only need to have a good understanding of the Chinese language and culture, but need to master certain translation methods and strategies. When dealing with four-character idioms or other culture-loaded words, they should streamline the information, which means omit or integrate unnecessary information.<br /> <br /> Example (10): “40年众志成城，40年砥砺奋进，40年春风化雨，中国人民用双手书写了国家和民族发展的壮丽史诗。” (Xi Jinping 2018a)<br /> <br /> Translation: With united and determined efforts, the Chinese people have added a glorious he chapter to the development epic of the country. and the nation.<br /> <br /> Analysis: In this sentence, the four-character structure is frequently used, but the three juxtaposed idioms “众志成城”, “砥砺奋进”and “春风化雨” all indicate the efforts of the Chinese people for national development.The translator has streamlined the message here by directly translating it as 'With united and determined efforts', which is both informative and concise.<br /> <br /> Example (11): “形势稍好，尤需兢慎；居安思危，思则有备，有备无患。”(Wen Jiabao 2005a )<br /> <br /> Translation: We must be mindful of potential problems and get fully prepared for the worst. We must be sober-minded, cautious, prudent especially when the situation is getting a little better.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The analysis of the whole sentence shows that the second sentence is a further explanation of the first sentence, in which the Prime Minister reminds people to be cautious, because when times turn better, that is when people are most likely to let their guard down. The words “兢” and “慎” convey the same meaning in the whole sentence, so the translator has streamlined the message and followed the principle of citing three examples in English.<br /> <br /> Example (12):“两年前，我们在这里举行首届高峰论坛，规划政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通的合作蓝图。”(Xi Jinping 2019a)<br /> <br /> Translation:Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a Two years ago, it was here that we must meet for the First Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation, where we drew a blueprint of cooperation to enhance policy, infrastructure, trade, financial and people-to-people connectivity.<br /> <br /> Analysis: In this case, &quot;政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通、民心相通&quot; is a juxtaposition of five four-character characters, each ending with the word &quot;通&quot; in a unified form. This is an expression with Chinese characteristics. In this translation, the interpreter has put aside the linguistic form and streamlined the message, focusing on the main message of the four-character pane, namely &quot;policies, facilities, trade, capital and people's heart&quot;, to achieve the translation effect of reaching the meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The study of translation of culture-loaded words under the interpretative theory breaks away from the linguistic form of the original language and takes the semantic interpretation of culture-loaded words as its goal. All in all, the study does not stick to the formal and functional equivalence translation and reciprocity model and provides practical guidance for the successful interpretation of cross-cultural communication. This paper compares the differences between four types of culture-loaded words and their English translations, namely three-character structure, four-character structure, idioms and poetry.<br /> <br /> Under the guidance of interpretive theory, it analyses and concludes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words based on translated materials of important speeches given by Chinese leaders. The interpretative theory not only provides theoretical support for conference interpreting, but also needs to be enriched and improved in interpreting practice. It is hoped that the research in this paper will provide a reference for interpreters to successfully translate culture-loaded words in foreign affairs conferences.<br /> <br /> ===Conferences===<br /> Nida, Eugene A. [Towards a Science of Translating]. [Leiden: E.J.Bril] 91. <br /> <br /> Marianne Lederer 玛丽雅娜・勒代雷. 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[A study of Chinese-English translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of Interpretative Theory——a case study of simultaneous interpretation of important Chinese leaders' meeting]. “辽宁工程技术大学学报(社会科学版)”[ournal of Liaoning Technical University（Social Science Edition)] 419-424<br /> <br /> Guo, Huqing. 郭卉青. (2018). 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[English-Chinese Interpreting Strategies for Cultural-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretive theory]. “陕西能源学院学报”[Journal of Shanxi Institute of Energy] 94-96<br /> <br /> Du Mengxian, Shen Guorong. 杜梦笑,沈国荣. (2018). 释意论下汉英平行语料库中汉语文化负载词口译策略探究——以2018年博鳌亚洲论坛开幕式演讲为例. [Interpretation of Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Parallel Corpora —A Case Study of Chinese Leader’s Speeches on Boao Forum for Asia in 2018]. “牡丹江大学学报”[Journal of Mudanjiang University] 91-93<br /> <br /> Zhang Mengyuan. 张梦原. (2019). 从释意理论看汉英会议口译中文化负载词的翻译——以习近平主席在第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛开幕式上的演讲为例. [ Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Conference Interpretation from the Interpretive theory: An Example of President Xi Jinping's Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Second &quot;Belt and Road&quot; International Cooperation Summit Forum].“新西部”[NEW WEST] 116-117.<br /> <br /> ===Website Links of the speeches===<br /> <br /> Xi Jinping. (2019.4.26). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/28/WS5cc4fc9ca3104842260b8d0b.html<br /> <br /> Xi Jinping. (2018.4.10). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. https://language.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/12/WS5be8f2c0a310eff3032880e7.html<br /> <br /> Xi Jinping. (2013.4.7). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2013-04/11/content_16393483.htm<br /> <br /> Wen Jiabao, (2010.5.5). Report. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/2014npccppcc/2014-02/27/content_17309719.htm<br /> <br /> Wen Jiabao, (2005.3.14). Press Conference. “China New”. https://www.chinanews.com/news/2005/2005-03-14/26/550469.shtml<br /> <br /> Xi Jinping. (2014.4.1). Keynote Speech. “China Daily”. http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2014-04/01/content_17396012.htm<br /> <br /> ==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characters from the view of cultural self-confidence 刘博 Liu Bo 202020080619 外应==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;刘博 Liu Bo, 202020080619&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and put forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing. It is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.<br /> <br /> Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. '''As''' language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture development and prosperity in the context of cultural self-confidence. This chapter explores the translation of culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics from the perspective of cultural confidence and '''puts''' forward four strategies including transliteration, literal translation, free translation and paraphrasing, '''which''' is not only helpful for English-speaking people to have a better understanding of the culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics but also beneficial to the export of Chinese culture to a certain extent.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:42, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded Words; Cultural self-confidence; Translation Strategy.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:33, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上提高了中国文化的传播。<br /> <br /> 如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。本章主要探索在文化自信的视域下中国文化负载词的英译策略，主要提出了四个策略，包括音译，直译，意译以及释义法。这不仅能帮助目的语读者更好地理解中国文化负载词，同时也在一定程度上'''促进'''了中国文化的传播。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 11:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have come to every aspect of our life and to every participant. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, “In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Especially as China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government the Communist has proposed the concept of &quot;firming cultural confidence&quot;, aiming to improve the Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture going out and improve the cultural confidence, so English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br /> <br /> 【我把段落分成了两段啦~】<br /> Now we are in an era of globalization and we are in a world of culture diversity. Inter-cultural communication is becoming increasingly extensive. People from different countries contact each other much more frequently than ever before. Cultural exchange and cultural integration have penetrated into every aspect of our life and into every participants. China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said,“In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination.” (Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China 2016) --[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. Social values have become more complex and diverse especially in a time when China's economic development has entered a new stage, and its reform has also entered a critical period. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Under such circumstances, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, Chinese government together with the Communist Party has proposed the concept of &quot;firming cultural confidence&quot;, aiming to improve Chinese people's awareness of the inheritance of Chinese culture, and to promote the image of China in the World. And how to spread Chinese culture by way of translation is one of the tasks worthies to take. As Translation is an essential tool for Chinese culture to go out and for Chinese people to improve cultural confidence, English language learners '''in China''' should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increasing China's international influence.【这一段要是有引用的话就符合老师要求了~~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===The Connotation of Cultural Confidence===<br /> <br /> Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence. Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means Cultural self-awareness means that &quot;people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization.&quot;（Fei Xiaotong 2009） That is to say that we have to greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of &quot;total reversion&quot; and the blind inferiority of &quot;total westernization&quot;, and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence. However, &quot;cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world &quot;(Fei Xiaotong 2009).So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should &quot;promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.<br /> <br /> 【给你分成三段啦~】Firstly, confidence is a concept of phycology, and it doesn’t equal to arrogance. &quot;The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment, ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily completed particular activities.&quot;（Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. 2009）When the object of confidence turns to culture from human, there comes cultural confidence.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Cultural confidence is a country's full affirmation of its own cultural values and a firm belief in its own cultural vitality. One of the preconditions of cultural confidence is cultural conscious, which means 【这里是解释Cultural self-awareness的意思 还是cultural conscious的意思捏】 that &quot;people living in a certain culture have 'self-knowledge' of their culture, understand its history, formation process, characteristics and the direction of its development, without any 'cultural regression', without any 'restoration', and without advocating total westernization or total otherization &quot;（Fei Xiaotong 2009）. That is to say that we have to '''be''' greatly familiar with Chinese culture as well as be clear about its development. It requires us to get rid of the arrogance of &quot;total reversion&quot; and the blind inferiority of &quot;total westernization&quot;, and to know and evaluate ourselves objectively in a rational manner. It is only on the basis of deep and thorough self-awareness that we can build up firm confidence.<br /> <br /> However, &quot;cultural self-awareness is an arduous process; one must first know one's own culture and understand the many cultures one comes into contact with before one is in a position to establish one's place in this emerging multicultural world &quot;(Fei Xiaotong 2009). So we need to be humble enough to embrace other cultures. But it is not enough just to be tolerant of other people's cultures or to import the best of other cultures. Although Chinese traditional culture has provided historical origin of cultural confidence，there is still a long way to enforce it. So, We should '''&quot;'''promote exchanges and dialogue among different civilizations and modes of development, learn from each other's strengths and complement each other's weaknesses in the process of competition and comparison, and develop together through exchanges and mutual learning.Words are the building blocks of language, and it is through words that the cultural situation of a people can be viewed. In this context, the translation of culture-loaded words is like the bricks used to build a house - small but essential.【这里是不是少了引用~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 12:26, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===How to interpret culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> ====The definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Hu Wenzhong defines culture-loaded words: “Culturally-loaded words and expressions are loaded with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of words and expressions.” So, broadly speaking，culture-loaded words can be regarded as words, phrases or idioms used to express something unique to a culture. They are the words embedded in their distinctive culture and foreigners need to understand their cultural implications.<br /> <br /> '''Culture-loaded words is defined by Hu Wenzhong as:&quot;....&quot;'''--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In Hu’s opinion, he distinguishes culturally loaded words and expressions from non-culturally-loaded ones. He contends that in the process of communication, the connotation of culture-loaded words may be extended or diminished, because a person learns a foreign language usually for the purpose of acquiring the communicative ability across cultures (Hu Wenzhong, 1999). <br /> <br /> The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from the widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, &quot;Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history&quot; (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br /> <br /> The other view on the definition of culture-loaded words comes from '''a''' widely-known linguist called Liao Qiyi, &quot;Cultural load words are words, phrases or idioms that signify something specific to a culture, reflecting the distinctive and unique ways of doing things that a particular people have gradually accumulated over the course of its long history&quot; (Liao Qiyi 2000). China has a long history, and in the course of its long development it has accumulated a large number of colorful and culturally loaded words, such as certain specialties, established customs, religious beliefs, unique architecture and so on…<br /> <br /> To sum up，culture-loaded words are related to specific culture. For example, “端午节”，the traditional Chinese festival, embodies traditional culture. There is no English word equal to it. So, only after knowing the customs of “端午”，can we figure out that it can be translated as “Dragonboat Festival”.<br /> <br /> ====The classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Chinese culture has accumulated a rich cultural vocabulary throughout its long history，it is a complex work to categorize them. Therefore, the classification of traditional Chinese cultural load words is only for the purpose of discussing the English translation strategies of such words in the process of foreign communication.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br /> <br /> Different scholars categorize the classification of culture-loaded words differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br /> <br /> Different scholars '''classify''' culture-loaded words '''as''' differently based upon their perspectives and angles. First, we can draw on Aixelá's criteria for classifying cultural vocabulary into two categories: proper nouns, which mainly include names of people, places, and specialized organizations, are specific and fixed in meaning, and are not too difficult to translate. General nouns, on the other hand, are complex, abstract, and have no specific, precise meaning, and their usage is diverse. (Aixela, J. F. 1996).<br /> <br /> What’s more, Nida had classified culture into five types: ecology, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture.(Nida 1964) So, based on these two kinds of classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into: proper nouns， social culture-loaded words, political culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, linguistic culture-loaded words. Detailed information is as follows:<br /> 【分成了两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Proper nouns include the names of people and natural landscape. For example, “长江”，“黄河”.<br /> <br /> Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing, food, traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br /> <br /> Social culture-loaded words are closely related to daily life, and are words that people create in their productive lives, such as words related to food, clothing,【删了一个food】 traditional festivals, local customs, etc., and so on. For example, “粽子”,”青团”are Chinese traditional foods made by Glutinous Rice.<br /> <br /> Political culture-loaded words are more likely to refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as &quot;一带一路,&quot; &quot;新常态,&quot; and so on.<br /> <br /> Political culture-loaded words '''most likely''' refer to political terms that have been used since the founding of the new China and have had a significant impact on the international arena as China's international status has risen, such as &quot;一带一路,&quot; &quot;新常态,&quot; and so on.<br /> <br /> Religious culture-loaded words is the words that reflects the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include &quot;佛祖&quot;， &quot;菩萨,&quot; and so on.<br /> <br /> Religious culture-loaded words '''are''' words that '''reflect''' the spiritual beliefs of a certain region, including various rituals, concepts, and materials related to religion, and is the accumulation of a nation's spiritual culture. Common words for religious culture include &quot;佛祖&quot;， &quot;菩萨,&quot; and so on.--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Linguistic culture-loaded words Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, &quot;竹篮打水——一场空&quot; and &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)<br /> <br /> Linguistic culture-loaded words '''refer to that''' Language is one of the most important components of culture, and linguistic culture reflects the characteristics of a language. Linguistic and cultural words include idioms, slang, sayings and slang. For example, &quot;竹篮打水——一场空&quot; and &quot;八仙过海，各显神通&quot; are all linguistic and cultural words with a strong Chinese cultural flavor.(Wang Enke 2002(04):83-85)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Different cultural loaded words are often translated using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br /> <br /> Different cultural loaded words are often translated '''by''' using different strategies. A general classification of cultural loaded words makes it easier for translators to choose a translation strategy based on the different lexical categories.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===The Translatability of Culture-loaded Words===<br /> <br /> Chinese is different from English. Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection while English is a kind of synthetic language that features inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own ways to be expressed and each has to be translated in different ways. Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br /> <br /> Chinese is different from English '''in that''' Chinese is a kind of analytic language, in which there is no inflection''',''' while English is a kind of synthetic language '''featured as''' inflection. As far as vocabulary is concerned, both languages possess plenty of words with cultural connotations. Because of different traditions and histories, different geographical environments, and different ways of thinking, they have different connotations, each has its own '''ways of expression''' and each has to be translated in different ways.<br /> <br /> Since a cultural load word is a concentrated expression of the culture of a country and a people, when culture-loaded words are used in cross-communication, there usually exist lexical gaps or cultural margins. So, are culture-loaded words translatable or not?(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 【分成了两段~】<br /> <br /> Actually, the translation process of culture-loaded words is decoding the original words and then reconstruction the words and reproducing the ideas of original. Although there exists semantic zero in cross-cultural communication and translatability is in dispute, culture-loaded words are still translatable. (Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130.)So even though it is difficult to communicate between different cultures, there are similarities between languages and cultures. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida takes a closer look at this issue, suggesting that “although absolute communication between people is not possible, highly effective communication is possible between people, both within and between language areas, because of their thinking, their physical reactions, their cultural experiences and their ability to adjust to the behavior of others.” (Nida 1964:55)And Nida's view that &quot;what can be said in one language can also be said with relative precision in another&quot; is amply supported by the material obtained through extensive research.(Nida 1975)<br /> <br /> For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” appears in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages therefore results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)<br /> <br /> For example, in English the expression “Haste makes waste” '''is rendered''' in Chinese as“欲速则不达”，“Strike while the iron is hot”in English，in Chinese there is a similar expression“趁热打铁”，etc.The commonality between languages''', therefore,''' results in translatability between languages and the recognition of the possibility of cultural loaded words is the basis for translation of cultural loaded words.(Wang Xiaodan 2009(38(S1)):130-132)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, it cannot be denied that cultural differences do pose difficulties for the translation of cultural loaded words. The translation of culturally loaded words faces two bottlenecks: <br /> <br /> Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to fully achieve in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)<br /> <br /> Firstly,the absence of equivalent vocabulary. The uniqueness of cultures results in the uniqueness of culturally loaded words. A word that is specific to one culture may be difficult to find a counterpart for in another culture.<br /> <br /> Secondly, equivalent cultural meanings are missing.In both cultures, what we sometimes think of as equivalent words are not the same in terms of sentimentality, depth of meaning, lexical bias, etc. In the other culture, the words are not the same in terms of meaning. Therefore, Eugene Nida's principle of equivalence is very difficult to '''be fully achieved''' in the translation of culturally loaded words, and the reason for this translation dilemma is culture.(Li Zhaoguo (03):107-108)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 【分成两段了~】<br /> <br /> In today's increasingly globalized world, where the world is sharing more and more things, but only culture has not lost its borders, and countries are placing more and more importance on their traditional culture and national identity, it is difficult to convey cultural factors with zero loss, so the translatability of cultural loaded words is limited. It is incumbent upon translation theorists to analyze the differences between the source and target language and find ways to overcome these difficulties.(Qiu Mao-Ru 2001(01):24-27)<br /> <br /> ===Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words===<br /> <br /> As above mentioned，culture-loaded words are translatable，but the translatability of culture-loaded words is limited. Therefore, the translator can only retain and convey the cultural information contained in culture loaded words as much as possible. In this regard, Newmark introduces the concepts of 'communicative translation' and 'semantic translation': &quot;Communicative translation attempts to make the translation have an effect on the reader of the TL that is as close as possible to the effect of the original text on the reader of the SL. Semantic translation attempts to convey the exact contextual meaning of the original as far as the semantic and syntactic structure of the TL allows&quot;.(Peter Newmark, 1981) <br /> <br /> Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi （Liao Qiyi，2001）also pointed out that culture should be regarded as a basic unit in the translation process, not just in the language; translation is not a simple process of decoding and reorganizing, but more importantly the communication and dissemination of culture; translation should not be limited to the simple conversion of the source language text, but should also focus on whether the text is functionally equivalent in the target language and culture; at the same time, different translation principles and norms should be used in different historical periods to meet the needs of culture. This chapter classifies the translation strategies of culture loaded words into four categories：<br /> <br /> ====Transliteration====<br /> <br /> Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation sound vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)<br /> <br /> Transliteration, as the name implies, is a translation strategy of looking for English with similar pronunciation according to Chinese pronunciation when translating Chinese. It is a very common approach used in translation. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines transliteration as writing a word, name, sentence etc.This method usually makes the translation '''sound【删掉？】''' vivid and familiar by maintaining its original pronunciation and Chinese culture flavor.(Zheng Dehu 2016(02)53-56)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, “ma jiang”(麻将) is peculiar to Chinese only, for which usually four people are needed to play it. It has been very popular as an entertaining game in China. People play it for relaxation or for fun. Nowadays it is still welcome in China. To let English-speaking people understand it, “Majhong” is ok.“Tu hao(土豪)”，originally refers to the despotic landlord who had a lot of money, land and property. Nowadays “Tuhao” is used to ridicule the mainland Chinese people who are rich but uncultured, not having the corresponding good taste, manners to match their accumulated wealth.（Hu Weijia.2006(04):34-36.）<br /> <br /> The following are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote the communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）<br /> <br /> '''Followings''' are examples of this kind: place names such as “Hutong” from “胡同”，“Beijing”from “北京”，names of food and drink such as “Zongzi” from“粽子”, “Tofu” from “豆腐”, “jiaozi” from“ 饺子”,“Maotai” from “茅台”, and some otherterms specific to Chinese culture such as “kang” from “炕”,“yin yang” from “阴阳”, “Fengshui” from “风水”, “Kungfu” from “功夫”， “Laogai” from “劳改”，“Shuanggui”from “双规”, “Hukou” from “户口”, “Hongbao” from “红包”, “Guanxi” from “关系”, “Chengguan” from “城管”,“qipao (or cheongsa which is from Cantonese)” from “旗袍”, “renminbi” from“人民币”, etc.So far, all of the above transliterated words have been very well accepted by English speaking people. Transliteration may be employed if it works, which can better promote '''the【删掉】''' communication between two cultures. （ibid.2006(04):34-36.）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> “Literal translation refers to a method of translation from the source language into the target language that respects the syntactic structure of the target language despite changes in the linguistic environment.”（Newmark 2001））Simply put it, literal translation is word-for-word translation. That is to translate something literally. It is another important tactic of translation, with which translators needn’t do much changes on the words, sentence sequence, or grammatical structure. This is a translation method under the strategy of foreignization. Political culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example, “一带一路”can be translated as “The Belt and Road”，and “新常态”can be translated as“new normal”， which refers to the newly emerging Chinese economic status. Most importantly, with this tactic, the TT and ST could be equivalent in both forms and meanings. A more example: <br /> <br /> Original text：孔子很重视美育。他说 ：“兴于诗，立于礼，成于乐。”意思是说，学习《诗》（《诗经》），可以感发人的精神，使人产生美感 ；学习《礼》（《周礼》），可以使人的行为得到规范，成为一个文明的人。<br /> <br /> English translation：Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “Studying the Book of Songs (Shijing) inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying the Book of Rites (Zhouli) enables one to behave properly as a person of enlightenment.”(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180).<br /> <br /> As we can see from this example, the first step in translating an ancient language is to convert it into modern Chinese and then to translate it. In both translations the category words &quot;The book of&quot; has been added. The overall translation follows the structure of the original text and retains the linguistic features of the original.<br /> <br /> However, literal translation is not the dead translation of word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions in order to achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).<br /> <br /> However, literal translation is not the dead translation '''from''' word to word. Hard translation should be treated according to specific conditions '''as a way to''' achieve the purpose of effective communication. For example，it is inappropriate to translate sentence like “不入虎穴，焉得虎子” as “If you do not go into the cover of the tiger，how will you get its cub”. Obviously, such translation cannot convey the meaning of the original sentence. <br /> <br /> In this case, we don’t need to give up literal translation directly and turn the perspective to the target language readers, but supplement this translation with “In other words：nothing venture，nothing gained”. Therefore, translators should strengthen the study of Chinese culture when they are learning, so that they can not only master the translation strategy of culture loaded words, but also be conducive to their understanding and pride of Chinese culture(Zheng Dehu,2016(02):53-56).【分成两段啦~】--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Paraphrasing====<br /> <br /> This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be &quot;similar in appearance but not in spirit&quot;, but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand, thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).<br /> <br /> This method refers to the interpretative translation of the original text when translating. Interpretive translation is a translation strategy that we always use when translating culturally loaded words and is a necessary means of cultural transfer. If only the correspondence between Chinese and English characters is taken care of in translation, the result will often be &quot;similar in appearance but not in spirit&quot;, but in order to avoid ambiguity in the meaning of the translated text, an interpretative translation is carried out to express the meaning in its entirety so as to make it easier for the other party to understand'''；【thus不能用在句中 用分号感觉会好点】'''thus achieving the best translation effect and achieving cross-cultural communication.(Wang Yingquan,2006,27(03):74-76).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that the target language reader can get close to the source language, feel and remember the culture, and then further explanations so that the target language reader can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).<br /> <br /> Most of social culture-loaded words can be translated in this way. For example：四大发明 The Four Great Invention ( the compass， papermaking， gunpowder， printing ). In this way, translators firstly give a complete literal translation of the source language in a different way so that target language reader'''s''' can get close to the source language, '''feeling and remembering''' the culture, and then further explanations '''are given''' so that target language reader'''s''' can understand the meaning of the source language.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180).--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's look at another example:道可道，非常道( 老子《道德经》)<br /> <br /> English translation：The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao．<br /> <br /> Note：The Tao，(spelled as Dao in Chinese phonetic symbols) a philosophical term first used by Lao-Tzu ( Lao Zi) ; traditionally translated as Tao ( thus Taoism) ，logos，way，path，road，etc（Gu Zhengkun，2006).<br /> <br /> Here,“道”are translated with transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators lost. To make them balanced again.However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br /> <br /> Here,“道”are translated with '''a method of''' transliteration because there is no equivalent words in the target language. Translators have to create a new word. In consequence, the balance between the receptors and the translators '''is''' lost '''to''' '''realize a''' balance '''in translation. However,Literal translation or transliteration would confuse the target language reader, who lacks a cultural background, whereas an interpretative translation using an explanatory method accurately conveys the intended meaning without losing the cultural features of the original language.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== Free Translation====<br /> <br /> English and Chinese belong to two different language families. Not only are there huge differences in vocabulary, syntax and rhetoric, but the cultures they embody are also very different. When the first three methods fail to achieve functional equivalence between the original text and the translated text, a context-specific free translation is required. Paraphrasing is often used in literary translation，linguistic culture-loaded words can be translated in this way.(Tang Xiuqiong 2006(01):126-130)<br /> <br /> For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather to shift expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br /> <br /> For example：“覆水难收”can be translated as “it’s no use crying over spilt milk”, and “木已成舟” can be translated as“The die is cast”. In these examples, translation no longer seeks to unify the form of the original text, but rather '''shifting''' expressions and perspectives to fit the conventions of expression in the source language, while maintaining the same meaning as in the original. <br /> <br /> <br /> Let's look at another example:<br /> <br /> Original text:就是豺狼虎豹，也就是把它们赶得远远的，不让它们危害人类而已。<br /> <br /> English translation ：Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. (Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin,2020(13):177-180)<br /> <br /> In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words &quot;豺狼虎豹&quot; into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?&quot; The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but if translate it as “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will make the purpose and the reader easier to understand and thus communicate effectively.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)<br /> <br /> In Western culture, wolves and tigers have positive images, but the negative images are predominant. Wolves show a sinister, cunning and vicious image, while tigers are regarded as symbols of danger, greed and cruelty, which reflects the clash of terms between Chinese and Western cultures. Translation the Chinese words &quot;豺狼虎豹&quot; into wolves and tigers is more typical and helps Western readers to understand the meaning of the idioms. Another example would be that if “塞翁失马，焉知非福?” is translated as “When the old man on the frontier lost his mare, who could have guessed it was a blessing in disguise?&quot; The listener would feel that they were listening to a story and would not be able to appreciate the meaning of the words，but '''if it is translated as''' “a loss may turn out to be gain”，it will '''fulfill''' the purpose and '''enable''' the reader to understand '''its meaning easier''' , '''realizing an effective cultural communication'''.(ibid 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Linguistic culture-loaded words always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of The Story of the Western Wing , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）<br /> <br /> Linguistic culture-loaded words '''are''' always translated in this method, because the Chinese language is so profound that even if words are literally the same, they do not all have the same meaning. In the first book of ''The Story of the Western Wing'' , the word “好事” appears nine times, but its meaning is more ambiguous and can reflect different associations in different linguistic contexts. In this case, the use of free translation makes the meaning of the original text clearer.（Zheng Dehu.2016(02):53-56）--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> All in all，Translation is not simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying thing in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, keep the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and adjust the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)<br /> <br /> All in all，Translation is not '''a''' simply matter of seeking other words with similar meaning，but rather finding the appropriate ways of saying '''things''' in another language. In translation, especially cultural translation, a translator should be objective and faithful to the original, '''keeping''' the original form of SL cultural information as much as possible, and '''adjusting''' the way of expression according to the subject matter and genre of the original, the objective and function of the translation.(Tan Ping 2017(33):170-172)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign culture, according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the most used foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)<br /> <br /> At the same time, in today's context of cultural self-confidence, the task of Chinese translators is not just to bring in foreign '''cultures''', according to Mr. Xu Yuanchong,“If traditional Chinese culture is to contribute to global culture, Chinese literature needs to be translated into foreign languages. In today's international world, the '''mostly-used''' foreign language is English, so if Chinese literature is to be globalized, it first needs to be translated into English.”(Xu Yuanchong,2005)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, we also need more translators of other languages, but regardless of the language, with the aim of making global culture more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)<br /> <br /> But nowadays, as international communication is becoming closer, to spread Chinese culture, not only English translators are needed, '''translators of other languages are also wanted'''. '''But''' regardless of the language, with the aim of making global '''cultures''' more glorious，we need to promote China's excellent traditional culture through translation. As an important part of China's cultural transmission, Chinese cultural load words play an irreplaceable role in the historical mission of transmitting traditional culture. The role is as important as transmitting information and spreading culture.(Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin 2020(13):177-180)--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 16:08, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> *Propaganda Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China中共中央宣传部. Series of speeches by Xi Jinping[M].习近平总书记系列重要讲话读本[M]. Beijing: Learning Press and People's Publishing House, 2016.北京：学习出版社、人民出版社, 2016. <br /> <br /> *Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009-01-01). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> *Fei Xiaotong费孝通. The Life and Death of Culture [M].文化的生与死[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House, 2009.上海：上海人民出版社，2009.<br /> <br /> *Hu, W. (1999). Aspects of Intercultural Communication. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.<br /> <br /> *Liao Qiyi.廖七一. 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Shanghai Translation,2016(02):53-56.上海翻译,2016(02):53-56.<br /> <br /> *Koo Cheng-kun (tr).辜正坤( tr) ． Tao Te Ching [M].道德经［M］． Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation, 2006.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2006.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Lu, Wang Fuyin.章璐,王富银. Research on the English translation strategy of cultural loaded words under the domain of &quot;cultural self-confidence&quot;--Taking the Chinese Cultural Reader as an example[J]. “文化自信”视域下文化负载词英译策略研究——以《中国文化读本》为例[J]. Chinese Character Culture,2020(13):177-180.汉字文化,2020(13):177-180.<br /> <br /> *Wang Enke.王恩科. Cultural load word translation technique selection[J].文化负载词翻译技巧选择探讨[J]. Journal of Chongqing Business School, 2002(04):83-85.重庆商学院学报,2002(04):83-85.<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong.许渊冲. Translation of the pen [M].译笔生花[M]. 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English translation strategies of traditional culture-loaded words in the context of cultural confidence[J].文化自信语境下传统文化负载词的英译策略[J]. Xueyuan, 2017(33):170-172. 学园, 2017(33):170-172.<br /> <br /> 【嘻嘻嘻嘻~It looks nicer】<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi 202020080620 国别与区域研究==<br /> &lt;center&gt;刘金惺琦 Liu Jinxingqi &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Cultural-loaded words are words or phrases which are unique to a nation and their expressions are far more than its surface meaning. There are the unique cultural phenomena behind the words. The translation of cultural-loaded words is beneficial to a nation for culture communication. However, due to the limited time and space of film and television subtitle translation, it definitely increases the difficulty of translation. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation strategy of cultural-loaded words in film and television culture, hoping that it can be used as a reference for the translation of Chinese film and television dramas. From the perspective of Skopos Theory, this thesis uses the Chinese script and the current English translation of the popular documentary A Bite of China in recent years as corpus, analyzes and compare the Chinese and English versions of lines, and explores the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitle translation, and combined with the unique feature of time and space limitation of film and television translation, finally summarized four translation methods.<br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Subtitle Translation Strategies, Cultural-Loaded Words, Skopos Theory, A Bite of China<br /> ===题目===<br /> 目的论视角下文化负载词的影视翻译策略—以《舌尖上的中国》为例<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 文化负载词是一个民族所特有的词或是词组，其所表达的含义远不止表面那么简单，其背后蕴藏着这个民族所特有的也是唯一的文化现象，文化负载词的翻译有利于本国文化对外传播，但由于影视字幕翻译具有时空受限的特点，其大大增加了翻译的难度，因此本文着重研究影视文化中文化负载词的翻译策略，希望可以对中国影视剧对外传播翻译有借鉴意义。本文从目的论的视角出发，以近年来热播的纪录片《舌尖上的中国》中文台词和现有英译版本为语料，分析对比台词的中英文本，探究影视字幕翻译中文化负载词的翻译策略，并结合影视台词独有的时空受限的特点，最终总结四种翻译方法。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词、影视翻译策略、目的论、《舌尖上的中国》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Language is the essence of a nation, and culture is the foundation of a nation. The two blend with each other and are inseparable. This makes a new challenge for translators, that is, translation cannot be limited to the language level, but more to convey the culture behind language. Every nation has its own unique culture, which is expressed as cultural-loaded words in the vocabulary level. The research on the translation of cultural-loaded words is not only conducive to the spread of culture, but also conducive to the promotion of mutual understanding among countries. This chapter introduces the research background, research methods, research significance and organizational structure.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Research Background====<br /> With the development of economic globalization, the cultural communication among countries has become more and more frequent. Films and TV series, as a comprehensive form of art, shoulder the mission of exploring overseas markets and promoting Chinese culture and Chinese national spirit. They have become the most effective way to spread Chinese culture. Because of globalization, cultural exchanges among China and other countries become more and more frequent, thus a large number of Western film and television works have poured into the Chinese market. As a result, we need not only to actively promote Chinese excellent culture in the domestic market, but also to effectively promote Chinese culture to the world. We need &quot;Go out&quot; to let the world hear &quot;Chinese voice&quot; and spread positive energy. Whether or not to promote the outstanding traditional culture of the nation largely depends on translation. Excellent subtitle translation is conducive to opening up the Western market and promoting cultural communication.<br /> <br /> China is known as the country of food. Now more and more foreigners know China through Chinese food. Food has become one of the effective ways for foreigners to learn about China. &quot;A Bite of China&quot; is a documentary about Chinese cuisine produced by CCTV. The film not only introduces the specialties of different regions of China, but more importantly, the cultural connotation and local customs behind the cuisine. As an excellent food documentary, the film has been released in English and has been loved by overseas audiences.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Research Significance==== <br /> We are in an era of social networking，most foreigners learn about Chinese culture through the information on the Internet. Film and television works as a new form of cultural communication cannot be ignored. The limited time and space of subtitle translation makes it very different from traditional literal translation. Culture-loaded words contain the essence of a country’s culture and are the carrier of a country’s culture. The translation of culture-loaded words promotes the spread of culture to the outside, but the cultural connotations behind culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of subtitle translation. In recent years, the translation of cultural-loaded words has received more and more attention from scholars at home and abroad. However, previous studies on cultural-loaded words mainly focused on literary texts, and their translation in film and television subtitles, especially documentary subtitles, was rarely involved. This article aims to explore the translation methods suitable for cultural-loaded words in film and television subtitles through the research on the translation methods of cultural-loaded words in the documentary &quot;A Bite of China&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====1.3 Research Methods====<br /> This thesis selects the English version of A Bite of China as the research object, and analyzes the translation strategies of cultural-loaded words in the English version of A Bite of China from the perspective of Skopos Theory. It mainly employs case-study methodology, literature research methodology, descriptive, methodology.<br /> <br /> ====1.4 Organization of the Thesis====<br /> Subtitling Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory——Taking A Bite of China as an Example is the title of this thesis and it is divided into four parts.<br /> <br /> The first part is the introduction, which mainly introduces the research background, that is, the era of social media and the “Go out” strategy. In addition, this article also introduces research significance, that is, the significance of the study of the translation strategies of Chinese culture-loaded words in film and TV series for the overseas communication.<br /> <br /> The second part is a literature review and an introduction to the theoretical framework. It mainly introduces the current situation of culture-loaded word and domestic and foreign film and television translation research, the development and principles of Skopos Theory. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, following its principles of purpose, coherence, and loyalty, and constrained by the unique characteristics of movie subtitles to think about translation methods of cultural-loaded words so that promote the Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> The third part is the analysis of A Bite of China, taking the translation of cultural-loaded words in the subtitles of A Bite of China as an example. <br /> The fourth part is a summary part, which summarizes the translation strategies of Chinese cultural-loaded words in film and TV series, which guides the overseas cultural communication, improve the level of overseas cultural communication, and promote Chinese culture to go abroad.<br /> ===2 Literature Review=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to Culture-loaded Word====<br /> Looking through the translation of major movie subtitles, we can find that the influence of culture on translation is becoming more and more significant. Cultural-loaded words are the product of the combination of language and culture. Culture includes not only matter, but also non-material things such as customs, language, and ways of thinking. Language is the carrier of culture and an important part of culture. It only makes sense in the peculiar cultural environment. Different cultures in different regions reflect the unique activities that have developed in the process of their development and are totally different from other ethnic groups. Languages and cultures of different countries or nations usually have their own uniqueness.<br /> <br /> Vocabulary is the basic unit of language. Under the role of language and culture, cultural-load words are produced. This kind of vocabulary carries the cultural information of the nation and is a reflection of its unique culture. The vocabulary vacancy is formed when the cultural information carried by such vocabulary cannot be found in the target culture.<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of China's film and television industry in recent years, film and television have become a new platform for the promotion of cultural-loaded words. Although more and more scholars have begun to study the cultural-loaded words of film and television works, and have achieved certain results. However, it is undeniable that the translation of cultural-loaded words still faces many challenges. The processing of cultural-loaded words in the translation process involves the culture in both the source language and the target language. The essence of the process of translation is the exchange of culture, and the differences between Chinese and Western cultures are huge. If the translators handled it improperly, it is easy to cause misunderstandings about Chinese culture. In addition, the limitation of time and space in the translation of film and television subtitles makes it more difficult to translate.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 A Brief Introduction to Subtitle Translation====<br /> In recent years, with the rise of film and television industry at home and abroad, subtitle translation has become more and more attractive for scholars. Compared with western countries, the film and television industry started late in china, and a complete subtitle translation theory system has not formed, but we still have notable achievements made by outstanding scholars.<br /> <br /> Professor Ma Zhengqi published the article &quot;On the Basic Principles of Film and Television Translation&quot; in 1997, discussing the principles that film and television translation should follow, and trying to put forward theoretical viewpoints on the theoretical research and practical development of film and television translation for the first time. It can be said that Professor Ma Zhengqi is the pioneer of film and television translation research in China. In 1998, Professor Zhang Chunbai also published the article &quot;A Preliminary Study of Film and Television Translation&quot;, in which put forward the characteristics of the language of film and television. Professor Qian Shaochang also published &quot;An increasingly important area in the translation field of film and television translation&quot;. This article mainly compares the differences between the language of film and television dramas and other text, and summarizes the language characteristics of film and television dramas for colleagues in translation.(Ma Zhengqi 1997)<br /> <br /> In the late 1850s, western countries have already started research on film and television translation. Although western scholars did not pay much attention on the film and television translation, many excellent research results have come out. Among them, Fodor is the main representative one. He published Film Dubbing: Phonetic, semiotic, Esthetic, and psychological aspect in 1976, which is a landmark work of dubbing translation. From 1995 to the beginning of the 20th century, it was the climax of the research of film and television translation. During this period, the European Institute of Media Research (EIM) was founded. Since the 20th century, with the rapid development of western film and television, people have paid more attention on the film and television translation. At the same time, most scholars have shifted their research direction of film and television translation from the early &quot;dubbing translation system&quot; to the current &quot;audiovisual translation&quot;, focusing on the classification and selection of translation strategies in film and television translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory==== <br /> The Skopos Theory originated in German in the 1970s and was founded by Reiss and Vermeer. Its development has gone through the following four stages. The first Stage: In 1971, in her book &quot;Possibility and Limitations of Translation Criticism&quot;, Rice first proposed the function of text as a stander for translation criticism. This view was the foundation and basis of later theory; the second stage: Rice's student Wellesley Mass inherited and developed Rice's theory; the third stage: Justa Holz Mant-tari focuses on the behaviors in the translation process, and analyzes the roles of original authors, translators, and readers, and the conditions in which they are suitable. He proposed that translation is purposeful. In the process of translation, translators should follow the customs and values of different cultures, at the same time, combine the feeling of different readers under different cultural; the fourth stage: Christiane Nord put forward the &quot;loyalty principle&quot; to make up for the lack of translation theory.<br /> <br /> The Skopos Theory has begun to spread in china since 1987 and domestic scholars have also achieved a few results in the study of Skopos Theory in recent years. Gui qianyuan was the first one to introduce the Skopos Theory in the book The Three German Functionalist School translations. Then, Zhang Nanfeng introduces the Skopos Theory in a thesis. Zhong Weihe and Zhong Jue introduce it in detail in1999. From the thesis of Skopos Theory at home, we can find that many of them are introduction of the theory and there are few criticisms of Skopos Theory. As a result, the researches of Skopos Theory still need further develop.<br /> <br /> ===3 Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br /> &quot;A Bite of China&quot; is a documentary with the theme of introducing Chinese food and Chinese culture. The film connects food, local customs and family affection, and showcases Chinese food and long-standing national culture by introducing food from all over China. Many subtitles in &quot;A Bite of China&quot; involve a large number of cultural-loaded words. This is the part with the richest Chinese characteristics. At the same time, it is also the most difficult part for translators, because the connotation contained in it cannot be explained clearly in one or two sentences. It is difficult to find an equivalent in target language. In addition, the unique time and space limitations in subtitle translation make the translation more difficult. According to Nida's classification of cultural-loaded words, this chapter divides the cultural-loaded words in A Bite of China into five parts，that is, material culture-loaded words, language culture-loaded words, ecology culture-loaded words, religion culture-loaded words as well as social culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Material Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Material cultural-load word refers to the material that contains local characteristic culture. This material can be food, architecture or clothing unique to a certain countries or certain regions. Different regions will form unique eating habits, clothing characteristics or architectural styles due to the influence of geographical environment, historical culture and other factors. As there are huge differences in both languages and cultures between China and the West, it is difficult to find English words that correspond or have the same meaning in English. A Bite of China contains a lot of material and culturally loaded words, such as “螺蛳粉” (Snail Rice-flour Noodles), “藕夹” (a fried lotus root sandwich),“黄馍馍” (buns) and “馕”(a kind of crusty pancake),“肉夹馍”（Chinese hamburger）,“长寿面”（longevity noodle）, “岐山臊子面”（Qishan saozi noodles）etc. <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====<br /> The language itself already covers a lot of cultural information. Due to the influence of terrain and history, different regions or different tribes have their own languages. The language and culture itself can more or less reflect the customs and habits of a certain regional culture or the way of thinking of the local people. For example, the most common four-character expression in Chinese is very common in documentary subtitles, because the four-character expression is short and concise, satisfies the characteristics of limited time and space in subtitles, and it is also a way of expression with Chines Characteristic. For example, there are a large number of four-character expressions in A Bite of China: such as, “汤汁清爽、萝卜白净、辣油红艳、香菜翠绿、面条黄亮” (clear soup, clean white turnips, brilliant red chili oil, “肌红脂白，香气浓郁，滋味鲜美” (nice color, pleasant aroma and fresh taste), “猎杀不绝” (always leave something for the next hunt), “吃不了咱兜着走” (are in good measure), “才下舌尖，又上心头”(after passing by the tip of the tongue, the combined taste reaches deep in heart), “热腾腾” (hot), “色泽油亮” (the deep color), “酸辣可口”(hot and sour tasty),“刚中带柔”(with solidness in softness) and “家家户户”(families),etc.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 Social Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Social cultural-load words cover almost all aspects of social life. Social cultural-loaded words mainly refer to traditional festivals, ways of addressing, and ways of greeting that are unique to a country or even a region. For example, there are big differences between China and the West in the way of greeting. In the West, the way to greet you is usually how are you, while the way to greet old friends in Beijing, China is &quot;have you eaten?&quot; The meaning of eating here is not simply eating, but it represents a greeting, which is rich in emotional connotations. There is also a large amount of social-culture loaded words in &quot;A Bite of China&quot;, such as 老包”(Bao), “卫大妈”(Madame Wei), “石把头” (Shi), “顾阿婆”(Madame Gu), “老两口”(The senior couple), “陈师傅”(Chef Chen), “渔把头”(the chief fisherman), “老伴”(her husband), “年年有余” (it represents a wish for an annual surplus), “寿宴”(a birthday feast), “古尔邦节”(the Corban Festival), “满月”(reaches the age of one month), “寿星公”(the one who celebrates the birthday), etc.<br /> <br /> ====3.4 Ecological Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Different topography, climate, water and soil have bred different ecological cultures in different regions, so each region has formed a unique vocabulary in animal, plant, geography, and climate. For example, the Qilin is a common image in ancient Chinese mythology. It is shaped like a deer, with horns on its head, scales on its body, and tail like an oxtail. In the Western world, there is no such an ideal beast as the Qilin, so it is difficult for Western readers to understand such animal. It is also difficult for translators to find equivalent words in the target language, which poses a challenge for translation. Therefore, it is very important to study the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in &quot;A Bite of China&quot;. For example, 云南，香格里拉”(Shangri-la, Yunnan), “江浙一带”(in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces), “陕北丘陵沟壑地区” (Hilly and gully areas of northern Shaanxi), “小兴安岭” (the Lesser Khingan mountain range), “河西走廊”(the Hosi Corridor), “中原地区”(the Central Plains), “西南边陲” (the south-west border), “江南” (Jiangnan, south of the lower Yangtze Valley), “松花江” (the Songhua River), “灵芝” (lucid ganoderma),etc. The translation methods of these words are worthy of our translator's thinking.<br /> <br /> ====3.5 Religious Culture-loaded Words====<br /> Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism constitute the main part of Chinese religion. Although there are not many people who believe in religion in China, the influence of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism on our production, life, communication, and way of thinking is more or less manifested in language. There is also a large amount of ecological culture-loaded words in &quot;A Bite of China&quot; ,such as “悟性” (comprehension), “祈求湖里的神仙恩赐来年的丰收” (prays piously to the lake god for a good harvest next year), “被上天厚爱的人群” (the lucky locals), “the Mazu Temple” (妈祖庙), “滋养人的灵性和觉悟” (nourishes thespirit and mind), “中国的汉地佛教” (Han Buddhism in China), “食素” (vegetarian diet),“清寡”(plainness) and “古人称赞豆腐有和德” (the ancient people praised it, saying ‘tofu has merits), etc.<br /> <br /> ===4 Adoptive Translation Methods of Cultural-loaded Words in A Bite of China===<br /> The previous chapters respectively introduced the Skopos Theory and classification of culture-loaded words. This chapter will use the theory of Skopos Theory to further analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. Through analysis, we found that the translation in A Bite of China adopted both domestication and foreignization translation strategies. The translation methods used under domestication include transliteration, literal translation, and transliteration. Under the foreignization strategy, omission, and literal translation are used. In this chapter, we will explain these translation methods used in A Bite of China one by one.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Omission====<br /> Omission refers to a translation strategy that reduces some of the complex words in the lines without losing the main content of the original text. In the cases where the original text is too long or complex and the limitation of the time and space, omission strategy can be adopted to deal with culture-loaded words, which ensure the audience can understand the plot smoothly.<br /> <br /> Example1: 如今，腊味既能成为家常小菜也能登大雅之堂。<br /> <br /> Subtitle translation:“Today, the cured food appears served at a banquet.” <br /> <br /> In this sentence, the translators use the method of omission. The author deletes the two four-character words “家常小菜”and “大雅之堂”in the original sentence. In Chinese, “家常小菜”mean simple meals that are often cooked at home, and “大雅之堂” means meals that are often available at banquets. This sentence emphasizes that the cured food can already be used as a kind of food to serve at banquets. Therefore, the translator deleted the image of home-cooked dishes, which not only saves the space for subtitles, but also enables the audience to quickly understand the meaning of the sentence. And the translation of this selected sentence follows the main purpose of communication and consistency.<br /> <br /> ====4.2Replacement====<br /> According to the Principle in the Skopos Theory of Translation, the translation must be understood by reader in the target language. In A Bite of China, in order to achieve the purpose of cross-cultural language communication, the first principle adopted is to replace, that is, to find the similar or the same words or sentence in the target language so that the foreign audience can easily understand it.<br /> <br /> Example2: 中国人说：靠山吃山，靠海吃海。<br /> <br /> Subtitle translation: Chinese people say one has to make use of the local resources available.” <br /> <br /> &quot;靠山吃山，靠海吃海&quot; is a Chinese proverb, meaning that geographical conditions determine the eating habits of the locals. If it is literally translated, it means that those who live on the mountain eat things from the mountains, and those who live by the sea eat things from the sea. Although this method of literal translation can also enable foreign audiences to understand the general meaning of this proverb, the sentence is too long and it is difficult for the audience to understand the core meaning of the sentence. When translated into &quot;make use of the local resources available&quot;, the images of mountains and seas in the original text have been deleted, but the translator has cleverly used replacement translation methods to present the meaning of the original text in a way that is more understood by foreign audiences which make the translation concise without losing the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration refers to referring to the words in the source language with similarly pronounced words in the target language. This translation method will create new vocabulary.<br /> <br /> Example3: 嘉兴人踏实放心的一天，就是从一个个热腾腾的肉粽子开始的。<br /> Subtitle translation: Jiaxing natives start their day with a hot meat Zongzi, a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice with different stuffing.<br /> <br /> Example4: 泡馍也是从馍变化出来的一种西安主食。 <br /> Subtitle translation: Paomo, another staple food in Xi'an, originated from the baked buns.<br /> <br /> Example5: 徽菜里的腊八豆腐，虽然像铁饼那样坚硬，但保质期却可以很长。 <br /> Subtitle translation: Laba Tofu is as hard as a discus, but it can be preserved for quite a long time.<br /> <br /> In A Bite of China, we find that many dish names are translated using transliteration based on foreignization strategies. The name of a Chinese dish is not simply representative of the variety or cooking method of the dish. It has rich meaning with Chinese culture. For example, in the first example, Laba tofu, Laba is neither the ingredients needed for this dish, nor the cooking method of this dish. Laba is a special solar term in Chinese, and Laba tofu is a traditional delicacy to be eaten during the Laba Festival in Anhui Province, so it cannot be explained clearly in a few words. Therefore, the translation strategy of transliteration is adopted, which not only retains the cultural connotation, but also does not take up too much space on the screen to affect the audience's perception. In addition, because it is the translation of documentary, the translator should also consider the sense of the picture. Because of the simultaneity of the subtitles and the picture, the audience can easily associate the name of the dish with the dish appearing on the picture, so there is no need to explain it too much. The foreginization strategy follows the Skopos Theory that ensure the foreign audiences can understand the plot smoothly.<br /> <br /> ====4.4 Literal Translation====<br /> Literal translation is a translation method that preserves the content and structure of the source language. Literal translation is helpful to spread the source language culture, but it will inevitably cause understanding obstacles.<br /> <br /> Example6: 白切鸡是粤菜的另一道看家菜。烹鸡需要慢火，水温控制在摄氏90度，这是为了保持鸡肉的鲜嫩。<br /> <br /> Subtitle translation: White Cut Chicken is a classic of Cantonese cuisine. The chicken is simmered at around 90°C for 15 minutes.<br /> <br /> White Cut Chicken is a traditional Chinese delicacy. The translator here uses the literal translation method, that is, word-to-word translation. Although the Chinese and Western cultures are quite different, there are still many similarities. For example, theese three Chinese characteristics &quot;white cut chicken&quot; represent the color, method, and ingredients of this dish. It is easy to fort foreign audiences to understand the meaning by using the literal transltion. Therefore, the translator uses a literal translation method. At the same time, it also follows the coherent principle of Skopos Theory and achieves the purpose of cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> As countries communicate more and more closely, cultural communication and dissemination become more and more important, and translation, as a bridge of cultural communication, plays a crucial role that cannot be ignored. At the same time, since we are in an information age, the film and television industry can be regarded as the main carrier of cultural communication. As a result, the quality of subtitle translation is directly related to the spread of Chinese culture, so the quality of subtitle translation cannot be ignored. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory, it is necessary to clarify the purpose of subtitle translation or the cultural communication, so that the foreign audiences can clearly and quickly understand the plot and character relationships when watching.<br /> This thesis summarizes three translation strategies by analyzing the subtitle translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in A Bite of China. When encountering difficulties in translating cultural-loaded words, we must first clarify the purpose of translation, and then remember the features of space and time limitation in subtitle translation to translate. If the purpose is to spread Chinese culture, the translators must regard the cultural background of the source language as the most important part and use the literal translation or foreignization strategy of translation. While if it is for cultural communication, then more consideration should be given to the feelings of foreign audiences, focusing on smoothness and simplicity, and using domestication translation strategy.<br /> In the process of film and television drama translation, the translator needs to consider the feelings of the audience of target language. The primary purpose of foreign translation of film and television dramas is cultural communication. The TV series that is not based on culture communication cannot be understood by the audience of target language. Efficient overseas communication of Chinese culture based on efficient cultural communication, however, the traditional Chinese and Chinese cultures should be preserved as well. <br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> Gao Jie,Liang Lanfang. 高洁，梁兰芳. (2016). 论外宣翻译的直译方法──以《舌尖上的中国》为例 [On the Literal Translation Method of Foreign Propaganda Translation——Taking &quot;China on the Bite of the Tongue&quot; as an Example]. ''中国科技翻译''[Chinese Science and Technology Translation] 43-46.<br /> <br /> Liu Yiming. 刘一名. (2016). 从接受美学角度看文化负载词的翻译. [On the translation of cultural-loaded words from the perspective of reception aesthetics]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> Hu Jibin. 胡际斌. (2017). 接受美学视角下《舌尖上的中国》字幕中文化负载词的英译研究. [A Study on the English Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words in the Subtitles of &quot;A Bite of China&quot; from the Perspective of Reception Aesthetics]. ''湖南工业大学''[Hunan University of Technology].<br /> <br /> Zhang Liumei. 张留梅. (2015). 《舌尖上的中国Ⅱ》美食英译探究中餐菜名的翻译. [On the English Translation of Food in A Bite of China II]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报''[Journal of Taiyuan City Vocational and Technical College]183-185.<br /> <br /> Zhang Tingli. 张婷丽. (2015). 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略. [The English Translation Strategies of Dishes in &quot;A Bite of China&quot; Guided by Skopos Theory]. ''湖南师范大学''[Hunan Normal University].<br /> <br /> Zheng Dehu. 郑德虎. (2016). 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译. [Chinese Culture Going Out and the Translation of Cultural-Loaded Words]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Translation]53-56.<br /> <br /> Zhu Dan 朱丹.(2013). 中国饮食中文化负载词的翻译策略研究. [Research on the Translation Strategy of Cultural-Loaded Words in Chinese Food]. ''沈阳师范大学''[Shenyang Normal University]2013.<br /> <br /> eFodor, Itsvan. (1976). ''Film Dubbing: Phonetic, Semiotic, Aesthetic and Psychological Aspects''. Hamburg：Buske.<br /> <br /> Baker, Mona. (2000). ''In other words: a course Book on Translation''. Rutledge Encyclopedia of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Ika, K. trisnawati.(2004). ''Skopos Theory: A practical Approach in the translation''. journal of language, Education and Humanities. 23-32.<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan 202020080589 语言学==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected by the people around the world and translation of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of culture meaning, there exists much challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition as a way to explain the phenomenon.<br /> <br /> Characterized by profound meaning, majestic style, and concise language, Mao Zedong's poems shows the essence of his life and revolutionary experience. Mao's unique artistic charm and philosophical wisdom make him deeply respected '''by people''' around the world and '''translations''' of his poems are also widely concerned. His poems are written in the style of classical metrical verse, in which the culture-loaded words are the crystallization of Chinese culture. Because of the specificity and complexity of '''cultural''' meaning, there exists '''many''' challenges in the translation of such words. Nowadays, translation theorists both at home and abroad have gradually swerved their focus from discourse analysis and cross-cultural communication to a deeper factor—cognition ，'''and regarded it''' as a way to explain the phenomenon.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world, perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors (author, reader and text), which is a realization of harmony ensued by cognitive view of translation.<br /> <br /> In this sense, based on Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, this chapter selects Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems as an example to discuss the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of cognitive view in translation. It is concluded that Xu's version serves for the target readers by retaining the flavor of the original text and promoting cultural communication based on his bodily experience of the world,the perception of the target culture, and multiple interaction among three factors： author, reader and text, which is a realization of harmony ensued '''from''' cognitive view of translation.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words; Mao Zedong's Poems; Cognitive View of Translation; Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 认知翻译观视角下毛泽东诗词中文化负载词的翻译研究——以许渊冲译本为例<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 毛泽东诗词意境深远，气势磅礴，语言自然简洁，是毛泽东人生和革命经历的精华，独特的艺术魅力和哲理智慧让其深受世界人民的推崇。他的诗词都用古典的中国格律诗体写就，其中的文化负载词是中华民族思想文化的结晶。但由于其文化意义独特复杂，给翻译带来了较大挑战。当下，国内外的翻译研究焦点由文本分析和跨文化交流的角度渐渐转向了一个更深层的要素——认知，可用于解释文化负载词翻译的现象。<br /> <br /> 本篇基于奈达对文化负载词的分类，选取许渊冲所译的毛泽东诗词为实例，根据认知语言学翻译观，浅谈文化负载词的翻译。结果表明，许氏译本以服务目标语读者为目的，根据自身体验与对源语文化的感知，并基于三要素（作者、读者、文本）的多重互动保留源语文本文化负载词的原有味道，实现了文化的传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 文化负载词；毛泽东诗词；认知翻译观；许渊冲<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, phenomenon as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs, and has obvious regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, a vast territory and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language. (Gao Fanghui 2017: 151)<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words, as the name implies, reflect things, '''phenomenons''' as well as feelings and thoughts unique and specific to a culture. This special kind of words are produced in the long run of the development of a country's civilization, which contains rich cultural information, reflects distinctive national personality, its traditions and customs. '''And it also contains''' regional characteristics and historical epochal features. Thus, it is the language embodiment of a specific history, culture and customs. With a long history, '''vast territory''' and rich cultural heritage and connotation, China has given birth to a wealth of culture-loaded words in its language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements, which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural differences turn out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when It comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems that carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br /> <br /> As for Mao Zedong's poetry, it contains a large number of cultural elements which are gradually accumulated in the long run of historical development. (ibid: 151) It is known that translation is, more often than not, an exchange between different cultures. The famous American translator theorist Eugene A. Nida once said, “for a truly successful translation, knowing two cultures is more important than grasping two languages, because words become meaningful only in its effective cultural background.” (Nida 2002: 82) It is obvious that cultural difference turns out to be an obstacle in the transformation between two languages and it is even more difficult when '''it''' comes to the translation of culture-loaded words of Mao Zedong's Poems '''which''' carry rich cultural, historical or other information specific to the source language. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) Therefore, it is of certain significance and value to study the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and popular versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems is unique among many translated versions, and it is one of the most successful and '''prevailing''' versions in the English world. (Ye Jihong 1994: 109) As a representative translator in modern and contemporary China, Xu has blazed a new trail in literary translation, especially in '''translation of poetry'''. And his translation thoughts or strategies can somehow be explained from the perspective of cognitive translation that “ensures harmony by considering three factors (author, text, and reader) in communication as well as by taking into account of interactivity, embodiment feature of text, translators'creativity and the distinction between objective and subjective world. (Wang Yin 2005: 15)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 13:15, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In terms of textual organization, this chapter, being composed of three parts besides introduction and conclusion, begins by outlining and introducing the historical research on English translations of Mao's poems and culture-loaded words. Then it describes the cognitive view of translation and its application on culture-loaded words, and ends by analyzing Xu's translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literary Review===<br /> Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and rich cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.<br /> <br /> Mao Zedong's poems are magnificent, powerful, and precise in words. Featured by natural creation, classics citation and '''affluent''' cultural connotations, his poems are not only widely praised in China, but also deeply admired by foreign readers. (Wang Ping 2007: 138) This part firstly specifies previous studies on English Translations of Mao's poems, especially that of Xu Yuanchong's version. Then, previous studies of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems will be touched upon. In the end, a brief comment will be given based on aforementioned overviews.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Previous Studies on English Translations of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br /> <br /> Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic field in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and put forward his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.<br /> <br /> Translations of Mao Zedong's poems have always been analyzed and studied among academic '''fields''' in China. “Xu Yuanchong is one of the scholars who have translated Mao's poems and '''developed''' his own translation theory in literary translation, making his translated version one of the most popular ones around the world.” (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 45) Here is a brief overview of their studies.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> The translation of Mao Zedong's poems into English starts from the 1930s and lasts to the beginning of 21th century. Many Chinese translators such as Ye Junjian(1991), Xu Yuanchong(1978), Zhao Zhentao(1980), Gu Zhengkun(1993) and Li Zhengshuan(2010, 2011, 2018) have been devoted to translating Mao Zedong's poems. Other translators including Yuan Shuipai, Qiao Guanhua, and Qian Zhongshu and have even worked as a group and made contribution to the translation task in 1961. Still others have cooperated with a foreign partner and come out with a co-translated version, such as the version of Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en (1965), as well as the version of Willis Barnstone and Ko Chingpo(1972). (Li Zhengshuan 9)<br /> <br /> In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their own opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br /> <br /> In addition, a number of Chinese scholars are also interested in studying the English translation of Mao Zedong’s poems in detail. They have either made comments on some English versions of Mao Zedong’s poems and put forward their opinions or focused on the analysis of several English translated versions from different perspectives or theories. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[File:ZFY Figure1.jpg]]<br /> <br /> [[File:ZFY Figure2.jpg]]<br /> <br /> Taken CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. It can be clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. <br /> <br /> '''Taking''' CNKI database as a corpus, the above Figure 1 shows the number of research papers, including journals, theses and dissertations, on the topic of English translations of Mao Zedong's poems from the 100th anniversary of the poet in 1993 up to 2020. '''It is''' clearly shown that the number of references has raised considerably to reach its apex in the year 2003 and another 3 climaxes in 2007, 2011 and 2015 respectively, which may result from various comments and thoughts brought up by translators while or after translating Mao's poems. As for the number of cited papers and selected papers per year, the amount of research papers on the translation of Mao's poems have increased rapidly since 2007 and reached a peak in 2013, the year of the 120th anniversary of Mao Zedong. With the occurrence of culture turn in translation and cognitive linguistics, the trend of translation theory such as Dynamic Equivalence, Conceptual Blending theory, Relevance Theory Schema Theory, Skopos Theory, Ecological Translation Theory and Receptional Aesthetic have attracted scholars and laid a foundation for studies in Mao's poetry. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Additionally, figure 2 reveals the '''topic''' or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that main studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been put on a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.<br /> <br /> Additionally, figure 2 reveals the topical or key words in related research papers, through which we can explicitly see that '''major''' studies on translation of Mao's poems concern about translators, comparative analysis and translation theories. To be more specific, among the most frequently appearing subjects in the study of English Translation of Mao's Poems, the most frequent translators are Xu Yuanchong, Zhao Zhentao, Gu Zhengkun and Yuan Shuipai. Aesthetic translation theories such as “beauty in sound”, and “beauty in sense”, and other theories like “intertextuality” and “creation for loss” have been frequently taken into account. While “target readers”, “translation style”, “translators' subjectivity”, “cultural image” and “culture-loaded words” have also been '''put into''' a heated discussion. The translation of “Ci pai”, “reduplicated words”, “alliteration” and “rhythm” in Mao's poems have always been considered either.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Previous Studies on Xu Yuanchong's Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems====<br /> <br /> The study of translators is an important part in the previous study of Mao Zedong's poetry. Different translators have different principles and methods in translating Mao Zedong's poems into English, which directly promotes the diversification of their English versions; thus, making a good preparation for the following academic research and discussion. Among various translated versions of Mao's poems, Xu's translated version and his translation thought indeed has triggered a heated discussion, which can be indicated from the frequency of his name presented in figure 2. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is a representative among all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin has published Xu Yuanchong's &quot;300 China's immortal poems&quot;, which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the &quot;Lifetime achievements in translation&quot; from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong is a representative '''in''' all the modern and contemporary translators in China, best known for translating Chinese poems into English and French. His influence has spread both at home and abroad. In 1994, British publishing company Penguin '''published''' Xu Yuanchong's &quot;300 China's immortal poems&quot;, which was the first time that the publishing company published a Chinese translation. And in the year 2010, Xu was awarded the &quot;Lifetime achievements in translation&quot; from the Translators Association of China (TAC). And on August 2, 2014, at the 20th World Conference of the Federation of International Translators, Xu Yuanchong was conferred the “Aurora Borealis” Prize. He is the first Chinese winner of the award. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 87)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed in the target text that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted by the translator from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light in the translation techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)<br /> <br /> Xu's translation of Mao's poems remains the characteristics of traditional Chinese poems in a way that cultural needs and reading habits of target readers are fully considered. The humanistic and revolutionary thoughts and cultural connotations contained in the poems are conveyed '''in target text''' that is “as beautiful as the original semantically, phonologically and logically”. (Chan Sin-wai 2009: 216) Many Chinese scholars have studied Xu's translation. These studies are mainly divided into two categories: one is to compare his version with other English versions of Mao Zedong's poems; the other is to study the translation strategies and methods adopted '''by translator''' from different theoretical perspectives. While this chapter attempts to analyze and interpret Xu Yuanchong's English version of Mao Zedong's poems from the perspective of cognitive translation theory, and try to shed new light '''in translation''' techniques and methods of culture loaded words in Mao Zedong's poems. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 88)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> After reviewing the related research on Xu Yuanchong's translation of Mao Zedong's poems, the next section will introduce previous studies of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words====<br /> <br /> This section will further talk about culture-loaded words, including its definition, classification and a review on the translation study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems. Then a brief comment will be given followed by this section.<br /> <br /> =====2.3.1 Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> <br /> Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the basic meaningful elements of a language, are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. Therefore, there occurs culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> Due to the differences in environment, geographical location, social mechanism, religious belief, life style and mode of thinking, different countries have different cultural heritages. Since language and culture are inextricably intertwined. On the one hand, '''language expresses''' and embodies cultural reality. '''On the other hand''', language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture. '''The changes in linguistic usage''' reflect the cultural changes in return. (Dai Weidong 2002: 130) Accordingly, words, as the '''minimal''' meaningful elements '''of language''', are prone to have cultural or historical meaning in different languages. '''This therefore gives rise to culture-loaded words.'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with specific national cultural information and indicate deep national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.<br /> <br /> In actuality, many Chinese scholars have put forward their definitions and understandings of culture-loaded words. Liao Qiyi states that culture loaded words refer to words, phrases or idioms that can mark the unique things in a culture. They reflect the unique ways of activities accumulated by a specific nation in the long process of its historical and cultural development, which are different from other national cultures. (2000: 232) Hu Wenzhong has made a distinction between culture-loaded words and non-culture-loaded ones: “Culture-loaded words or expressions load with '''message''' of specific national culture and '''contain deeper meaning of the''' national culture. They are the direct or indirect reflection of national culture in the structure of lexeme.” (1999: 64) Scholars in other countries have also come up with definitions of cultural-loaded words. For example, according to British researcher Mona Bakers, “the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as culture-specific.” (2000: 21) So on and so forth.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As far as the classification of culture-loaded words are concerned, Nida's classification is widely accepted. Culture was divided by Nida into five categories in his book Towards A Science of Translation, which are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture respectively. (Nida 1964: 91) <br /> <br /> Specifically, ecological culture refers to geological environment, climate and place name; material culture consists of tools, objects and other material objects created by a region or nation to meet the needs of production of life and is a representation of a culture; social culture concerns about historical background, culture customs and social behavior of a nation; religious culture relates to the aspect of religious belief and practice; linguistic culture is closely connected with specific feature of a language in the aspect of phonetics, grammar, syntax and other usage of language such as allusion and metaphor. (ibid: 91)<br /> <br /> =====2.3.2 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems=====<br /> <br /> When put culture-loaded words in the search column of CNKI, there are roughly 1000 of papers related and mainly taken novels and subtitles as research object and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that much attention have given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.<br /> <br /> '''When entering &quot;culture-loaded words&quot; in the search bar of CNKI,''' there are roughly 1000 of papers related '''to it,''' '''majority of which''' take novels and subtitles as research '''objects''' and in the perspective of skopos theory, relevance theory, memetics, schema theory, semantic translation, cross-cultural communication and functionalism with few from the perspective of cognitive view of translation. But when it comes to the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, there are total 9 papers on this topic, which includes 4 journals and 5 theses. It can be concluded that '''a lot of''' attention '''has''' given to the study of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems and Xu's translation respectively.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.4 Comments on Previous Studies====<br /> <br /> Based on the above overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially in 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. <br /> <br /> Based '''on above''' overviews, it can be noted that there still exists translation significance in the study of Mao Zedong's poems, for the latest translated version have come out a decade ago by Li Zhengshuan. (Zhang Jiguang 2020: 89) Going forward, it is estimated that there be researches upon Mao's poems especially '''on''' 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong in 2023. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning of the original word and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture and the transmission of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> For the English translation of culture loaded words, it is difficult to faithfully reflect the cultural connotation of such words only through the transform of language in a superficial way, which would hinder the communication of implied information. The English translation of culture loaded words should be based on the meaning and context by fully considering the implied meaning ofthe '''original text''' and combining it with western culture. Then appropriate English translation methods should be applied to realize the conversion of culture '''and transmission''' of cultural connotation as well. One point to notice is that ambiguities and disputes, cultural void and loss should be avoided in the process of translation.（'''这里是不是少了引用）'''--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. It has been proved that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.<br /> <br /> Since Xu Yuanchong's translated version of Mao's poems is a focal point of analysis and research. '''It goes without saying''' that a good translation can always stand scrutiny and comparison. And it is in this point that the English translation of Mao's poems will be developed and cultural communication will be achieved.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3. Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. Nowadays, interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) <br /> <br /> Cognitive translation is a new paradigm of translation studies. It advocates the application of concepts, theories and methods from cognitive linguistics to translation studies. '''currently，'''interdisciplinary research has become a new trend in the field of translation studies. The study of cognitive perspective of translation is the result of the trend (Guan Yingzi 2020:117) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This part will firstly give a brief introduction to cognitive linguistic view of translation. Then, it will specify the application of cognitive view of translation in the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Overview of Cognitive Linguistic View on Translation====<br /> <br /> Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language system. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)<br /> <br /> Traditionally, translation was thought as a transformation between two different language '''systems'''. Translators'role is always passive and dependent. With the application of new theories such as functionalism, hermeneutics and deconstruction applied in translation practice and translation theory research, people gradually realize that in the process of translation, whether it is the choice and understanding of the original text, or the interpretation and expression of the original text, the translator's role cannot be ignored. And a translator always embodies his/her unique subjectivity in the target text. (Cai Longwen 2010: 58)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:<br /> <br /> Based on experiential philosophy, cognitive linguistics examines'''（这里的动词用的不太恰当，不知道你原意想表达什么）''' translation from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Compared with the traditional text-based translation view and traditional linguistic translation view, cognitive linguistics highlights the performance of the subject's cognitive activities in translation. Such perspective of translation has been described and mapped by Wang Yin as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “A cognitive model of translation sees translation in terms both of multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the reality world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) <br /> <br /> “A cognitive model of translation sees translation '''in terms of''' multiple interactions among subjects with differently embodied backgrounds and of a good mastery of the various meanings of the original discourse. These meanings then get mapped and re-expressed in the target language, resulting in the description of the '''real''' world and the cognitive world. Taking into consideration all three factors (author, text, reader) in communication, this new model ensures the harmony in translation. (Wang Yin 2005: 15) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> [[File:ZFY Figure3.jpg]]<br /> <br /> Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation has embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)<br /> <br /> Such model shows six main thoughts of cognitive view of translation: (1) Translation '''possess''' embodiment feature; (2) Translation is an interactive activity; (3) Translation is creative; (4) Translation should be based on text; (5) Translation should be harmonious; (6) Translation should reproduce two worlds: objective word and cognitive world. (Wang Yin 2005: 17-18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the one hand, the translation view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)<br /> <br /> On the one hand, the translation '''form the''' view of cognitive linguistics recognizes the decisive role of cognitive activities, that is, translation is the result of experience and cognition. On the other hand, translators, as one of the cognitive subjects, should be restricted by the interaction between other cognitive subjects involved in translation activities. Thus, translation should be creative in a restricted way, rather than giving play to '''an''' imagination. (Wang Yin 2007: 581)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, become cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers outside the source language.<br /> <br /> In sum, cognitive linguistic view on translation emphasizes the importance of cognition, which requires the translator to reproduce the original world and cognitive world presented in the source text. Translation, thus, '''becomes''' cognition-based and interactive to facilitate the communication between readers '''and''' outside the source language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Application of Cognitive View of Translation in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems====<br /> <br /> The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on people's experience of the objective world, and has a cognitive psychological basis. In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, this provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.<br /> <br /> The cognitive view of translation can be applied to explain specific problems in translation. “The embodiment of cognitive categories formed based on '''individual's''' experience of the objective world '''and cognitive psychology.''' In this sense, word translation is not only a process of code switching in form, but also a process of transplanting cognitive categories.” (Xiao Kunxue) Based on the cognitive translation model and the translator's experience and creativity, '''it''' provides a way to deal with the difficulties faced in the translation of culture loaded words in Mao's poems.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Translation: Its Embodiment Feature=====<br /> <br /> “Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability among different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to his inspiration, On the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)<br /> <br /> “Translation is a cognitive activity based on perception and experience of the objective world. Basically, we human share the same objective world and general thinking, which is the prerequisite of translatability '''between''' different languages. On the one hand, the cognition of the author comes from his/her experiential activities, giving birth to '''his/her''' inspiration, '''on''' the other hand, the cognition of both translators and readers also come from their experiences, and it is only through experiential comprehension of text that the intention of the author and text can be achieved.” (Wang Yin 2005: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 1a. 七律·长征（一九三五年十月）:<br /> <br /> 红军不怕远征难，远水千山只等闲。(Xu Yuanchong 2015: 47) <br /> <br /> 1b. The Long March (October 1935): <br /> <br /> Of the trying Long March the Red Army makes lights;/<br /> Thousands of rivers and mountains are barriers slight. (ibid: 48)<br /> <br /> Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a typical words of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. <br /> <br /> Red symbolizes passion, loyalty, honor and success in Chinese culture, while in English culture, red symbolizes passion, courage and sacrifice. Therefore, red has positive and similar cultural connotations in both Chinese and Western cultures. Here“红军”(Hong Jun), a '''representative word ''' of social culture, is rendered as “red army” by Xu Yuanchong. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture.&quot;(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is an expression equivalent to the original function in the target language.<br /> <br /> &quot;As human beings live and breed in the same earth, though different culture could have different expressions for things, there are roughly three aspects of culture: objects, institution, psychology and some similar cognition. And the possibility of translation is based on the commonality of culture.&quot;(Chen Hongwei 2002: 11-12) Embodied cognition forms the cognitive basis of mutual translation between different languages. Therefore, in the translation of Chinese culture-loaded words, literal translation is appropriate when there is '''an functional equivalent to the original language''' in the target language.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Translation: An Interactive Activity=====<br /> <br /> As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and source language, subjects and target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the &quot;creator&quot;, who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) <br /> <br /> As shown in the above cognitive model of translation, translation is a cognitive activity based on multiple interactions, i.e., reality and subjects (author, translator and reader), subjects and '''the''' source language, subjects and '''the''' target language, reader and author, as well as translator and reader. “The translator, first of all, is a reader, who has to interact with the author of the original text, and then the &quot;creator&quot;, who interacts with the target reader through the translation.” (Wang Yin 2005: 17) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, Xu Yuanchong has noticed the feature of interactive activity in translation by saying:<br /> <br /> “The world influences the author. The author reflects the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)<br /> <br /> “The world influences the author. The author '''reveals''' the world and creates works. Influenced by the world and in accordance with the work, translators create translations that influence target readers. Target readers are affected by the translation, and their reactions will also affect the world. Of course, the author and the translator will also influence the world, but that is not the main relationship between the art of translation. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 151-152)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 2a. 渔家傲·反第一次大围剿（一九三一年春）：<br /> <br /> 万木霜天红烂漫，天兵怒气冲霄汉。(ibid: 28)。<br /> <br /> 2b. Tune: Pride of Fishermen// Against the First “Encirclement” Campaign (Spring 1931)<br /> <br /> Under a frosty sky all woods in gorgeous red, / The wrath of godlike warriors<br /> strikes the sky overhead. (ibid: 29)<br /> <br /> In the above example, “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation in cognitive view of translation. <br /> <br /> '''In above example''', “天兵”(Tian Bing) , a unique religious word in Chinese culture, is a metaphorical word used to refer to the red army, which is the justice party of the revolution. The implied meaning here is to express an inviolability of the awe-inspiring righteousness of the red army. When translated as “godlike warrior”, Xu interacts with the poet and the English reader. Although the metaphorical objects are different, the reaction of the readers are the same, which shows the interactivity of translation '''from the cognitive view.''' --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 03:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Translation: Be Creative=====<br /> <br /> “As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the difference of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'.&quot; (Wang Yin 2005: 17)<br /> <br /> “As a cognitive activity of mankind, translation is inevitably subjective and creative. Fundamentally, translation is mainly a mapping of text codes formed in different cultural backgrounds and social environments, which inevitably involves different cognitive worlds. Moreover, the '''differences''' of individual language level could determine the fact that different translators will have different translations of the same text and that translation is anything but a 'reflector' or 'microphone'.&quot; (Wang Yin 2005: 17)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such idea echoes with Xu's viewpoint of that“literal translation should be done &quot;at will&quot; on the premise of &quot;not exceeding the rules&quot;, with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Such idea echoes with Xu's '''viewpoint that''' “literal translation should be done &quot;at will&quot; on the premise of &quot;not exceeding the rules&quot;, with the purpose of seeking truth and beauty as well as enhancing the acceptability of the translated works among target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3a.七绝·为女民兵题照（一九六一年二月）：<br /> <br /> 中华儿女多奇志，不爱红装爱武装。(ibid: 95) <br /> <br /> 3b. Militia Women--Inscription on a Photo (February 1961)<br /> <br /> Most Chinese daughters have desire so strong,/ To face the powder and not<br /> to powder the face. (ibid: 96)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as classical and typical (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later is a suit for a battle. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong's translation of “不爱红装爱武装”has always been lauded as '''classic''' (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 48) “红装”(Hong Zhuang) and “武装”(Wu Zhuang) belong to linguistic culture with the repetitive word “装”(Zhuang) The former one refers to women makeup, while the later '''refers to the battle outfits.''' (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 171) In Xu's rendering, “powder” is used as a verb and noun in the verse respectively, both retaining the original meaning and beauty as well as showing creative treatment of the translator.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Translation: Be Harmonious=====<br /> <br /> “Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. Neither emphasizing one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.<br /> <br /> “Author, text and reader are three factors that translators should taken into consideration. '''Emphasizing''' one at the expense of other is not a harmonious translation.” (Wang Yin 2005:18) Examples are numerous when it comes to harmonious translation, which serves as the goal of translation from cognitive perspective.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Let's take Xu's translation of “万”(Ten thousand) in Mao's poems as an example:<br /> <br /> 4a. 沁园春·雪：千里冰封，万里雪飘。(ibid: 57)<br /> <br /> 4b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Snow <br /> <br /> Hundreds of leagues ice-bound go, / Thousands of leagues flies snow (ibid: 58) <br /> <br /> 5a. 沁园春·长沙：万类霜天竞自由。(ibid: 5)<br /> <br /> 5b. Tune: Spring in a Pleasure Garden// Changsha<br /> <br /> All creatures strive for freedom under frosty skies (ibid: 7)<br /> <br /> According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the north China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)<br /> <br /> According to Mao Zedong Poetry Appreciation Dictionary,“万”(wan) in the first poem was used by Mao Zedong to delineate the magnificence of snow scene in the '''northern''' China.(2011: 87) And in the second poem,“万”is taken as a round number. (2011: 18)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also conveys the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)<br /> <br /> Accordingly, in the first translation, “万”(wan) was rendered into “thousands of”, which not only conforms to the vague concepts of large quantities in English, but also '''retain''' the original rhythm. Nevertheless,“万”(wan) in the second example means “many” rather than “ten thousand”, because the number of creatures are impossibly as many as ten thousand. Therefore, a balance among the author, text and reader is achieved. (Xu Yuanchong 2003: 223)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 01:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 The Objective World and the Subjective World to be Reproduced in Translation=====<br /> <br /> According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and meanings of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)<br /> <br /> According to Wang Yin, “translators should fully consider the two worlds in the process of translation and have a thorough understanding of the overall information and '''meaning''' of the text and reproduce them correctly in the target language.” (2005: 18) One point worth mentioning is that the objective world of the text, more often than not, is the world the author subjectively understood or comprehended (ibid: 20)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Xu also assumes that the source and target can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)<br /> <br /> Xu also assumes that the source and target '''text''' can not only express the same objective truth, but also express the same subjective thought and describe the same objective truth. (2003: 266) Although generally speaking, the translation is not as good as the original text, translators could understand the subjective world of the author to tell the exact intention of a certain expression used and sometimes make his/her translation even surpass the original text. (ibid: 266)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 6a. 忆秦娥·娄山关（一九三五年二月）：苍山如海，残阳如血。(ibid: 44)<br /> <br /> 6b. Tune: Dream of a Maid of Honor// The Pass of Mount Lou<br /> <br /> Green mountains like the tide;/ The sunken sun blood-dyed. (ibid: 45)<br /> <br /> Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects the both the subjective and objective world of the author in a way catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.<br /> <br /> Here “海”(Hai) and “阳”(Yang) are both words from ecological culture, which expresses Mao's sadness and melancholy towards the heavy losses in the Long March. (Yu Lixia 2016: 107) After understanding the subjective world and objective world of the poet, Xu conveyed the emotional intention by applying “the sunken sun” from To a Sky-Lark written by English poet Shelley. In this sense, the translation reflects '''both''' the subjective and objective world of the author '''in the way''' catering to the target readers' reading habit and cognition.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 02:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===4. Analysis of Xu's Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao's Poems===<br /> <br /> “The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of the poet's original work and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31) <br /> <br /> “The greatness feature of Xu Yuanchong's translation is that it successfully retains the characteristics of '''the original text''' and reproduces the beautiful artistic conception of the original poem.” (Hu Deqing 1999: 31)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moving the author toward him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> In the translation of culture-loaded words in Mao's poems, Mr. Xu prefers to leaving the reader in peace, as much as possible, and '''bring the author close to'''him/her, i.e., the target reader have less problem in understanding the real meaning of those words while savoring the cultural flavor of them. To achieve this goal, some characteristics are shown in his translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Faithfulness in Meaning, Style and Aesthetics====<br /> <br /> It is suggested by Xu Yuanchong that the term “faithfulness” in literary translation is not simply equivalent to the maintenance of original form of expression, but also to the preservation of artistic charm of the source text. Translators should make the best use of expression in the target language in order to better convey the content of the original work. (2001: 51)<br /> <br /> In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to obey two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. <br /> <br /> In translating culture-loaded words, Xu would like to '''follow''' two principles to reach the goal of faithfulness. One is “do what you want without exceeding the rules” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 03) and the other being “the kite should not be broken” (Xu Yuanchong 1998: 47), the later of which is a balance between similarity in form and spirit as well as a continuous interaction among author, reader and text. --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 7a. 七律·人民解放军占领南京（一九四九年四月）：<br /> <br /> 天若有情天亦老，人间正道是沧桑。(ibid: 62)。<br /> <br /> 7b. Capture of Nanjing by the People's Liberation Army (April 1949)<br /> <br /> Heaven would have grown old were it moved to emotions;/<br /> The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans. (ibid: 62)<br /> <br /> 7c. The PLA Capture Nanjing<br /> <br /> Were Nature sentient, she too would pass from youth to age,<br /> But man's world is mutable, seas become mulberry fields. (Translation Censorship Group 1976: 11)<br /> <br /> In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place by reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) <br /> <br /> In order to illustrate this, let me compare Xu's version with the official version. “沧桑(Cang Sang)”is a material culture-loaded word, which means great changes in the natural world. (Appreciation Dictionary 2011: 105) Here, Mao used this word to imply that great changes has taken place '''through''' reform, and that the establishment of the Communist Party of China is a right way to go, just like the change from the sea to the mulberry field. (ibid: 106) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the real meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.<br /> <br /> 7c has rendered the literal meaning of“沧桑(Cang Sang)”at the loss of its spirit. While 7b not only has conveyed the '''literal''' meaning but also has retained the rhythm of the original poem, which makes the target language more readable and better reproduces the poetic features of the original poem. By this way, 7b is obviously a cut above 7c.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one word, faithfulness in Xu's translation of culture-loaded words comes to meaning, style and aesthetics. <br /> <br /> ====4.2 Adaptive Rewriting====<br /> <br /> In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic feature, cultural connotation, ideology and reading habit of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47) <br /> <br /> In Xu's eyes, rewriting is for the purpose of adapting to the original linguistic features, cultural connotations, ideologies and reading habits of target readers. (Zhang Mengxue 2019: 47)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> To illustrate, two methods are always employed to meet the need of rewriting: <br /> <br /> The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “move the author towards target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) <br /> <br /> The first method is free translation of culture-loaded words, such as “华佗(the best physician)”“不周山(Mount Pillar)”“一枕黄粱(dream of reigning)”, which provides explanatory information of the original words according to the context. The second one is a replacement of images, such as “防肠断 (for fear your heart should break)”,“霸王 (the Herculean King)”and “鬼 (vampires)”.This comes to culture-loaded words that sounds strange when given the explanatory messages in translation. Thus, substitution of cultural image is adopted to “bring the author close to target readers”, combining the objective and subjective worlds of both the author and readers '''together''' as well as reaching a harmony in translation. (ibid: 47) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield in the Red army.” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) <br /> <br /> Moreover, annotation is also used to enable target readers to understand the original cultural connotation. For example, “不周山Mount Pillar” has an footnote which says, “Mount Pillar was a legendary mountain below which furious battles had been fought in ancient times. Here the poet might refer to any battlefield '''where the Red army fought with enemy.'''” (Xu Yuanchong 2015: 30) --[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.3 Creative Violation====<br /> <br /> Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a unique personal style, which shows the translation view of &quot;the six classics annotate me&quot; and &quot;there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua &amp; Xu Jun 2018: 123)<br /> <br /> Xu affirms the independence of artistic texts and the subjectivity of literary translation. Because of this, his translation often has a '''uniquely''' personal style, which shows the translation '''views''' of &quot;the six classics annotate me&quot; and &quot;there is me in translation”. (Qin Jianghua &amp; Xu Jun 2018: 123)--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As Xu supported that poetry is best words in the best order and that creative violation is preferred in poetic translation by using the best words in the best order. (2015: 14) <br /> <br /> Especially, creative violation is seen in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.<br /> <br /> Especially, creative violation is '''used''' in the situation where there is an equivalent word in the target language, but '''it is''' not the best expression. Taken Xu's illustration in his paper as an example, (2012: 90) “一截遗欧，一截赠美，一截还东国”in Mao's poem ''昆仑''(Kun Lun) was translated as “I would give to Europe your crest/ And to America your breast/ And leave in the Orient the rest.” Such creative violation of the original meaning of “一截”, a word means‘a part' and belongs to linguistic culture, highlights the tall and majestic image of Mount Kunlun, which conveys the content of the source text in a better form.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> “Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And culture loaded words can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:<br /> <br /> “Poetry is known as the laurel of literature because of its concise language and rich thoughts. And '''culture-loaded words''' can be taken as the pearl of the laurel”. (Gao Fanghui 2017, 152) This chapter, based on previous researches, has discussed about Xu's translation of culture-loaded words from cognitive perspective of translation. And it is concluded as follows:--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the word and have an embodied experience of the text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in order to guide the target readers to accept culture-loaded words, the translator is required to understand the implied meaning of the '''words''' and have an embodied experience of the '''original''' text according to the background knowledge both historically and culturally. This is the foundation of translating culture-loaded words.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, after interaction among author, reader and text, translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.<br /> <br /> Secondly, '''except the interaction among author, reader and text''', translators are also suggested to give full play to subjectivity and creativity under the restriction of faithfulness and reader's reception. One could employ literal or free translation, adaptive rewriting or creative violation, depending on different conditions. Thus, a harmony in translation is appreciated.--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 09:44, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the original cultural connotation with more details.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, no matter which translation principles, strategies or methods are taken, annotation is necessary to help target readers to understand the '''cultural connotation of the original text''' with more details.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. (2002). Language and culture: Context in Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> *Cai Longwen 蔡龙文. (2010). 论基于认知语言学的翻译机制 [On Translation Mechanism Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. 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(2005). 试论词汇层面翻译的认知取向 [On the Cognitive Orientation of Translation at Lexical Level]．''外语与外语教学'' [Foreign Language and Foreign Language Teaching]. (1)．<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (1998). 美化之艺术《毛泽东诗词集》译序[The Art of Beautification. Preface to Mao Zedong's Poetry Collection].''中国翻译''[Chinese translation]. (04):3-5.<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2001). 再谈《竞赛论》和《优势论》———兼评《忠实是译者的天职》[A Further Discussion on &quot;Competition Theory&quot; and &quot;Superiority Theory&quot; -- Comment on &quot;Faithfulness is the Translator's Bounden Duty&quot;].''中国翻译'' [Chinese Translation] (1):51-52.<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2003)．文学与翻译［Literature and Translation］.''北京大学出版社'' [Peking University Press].<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 从心所欲而不逾矩 [Do what you want without exceeding the rules]. ''光明日报'' [Guangming Daily] 04-28(011).<br /> <br /> *Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. (2015). 许渊冲英译毛泽东诗词 [Translation of Mao Zedong's Poems by Xu Yuanchong]. ''北京：中译出版社'' [Beijing: Chinese Translation Press].<br /> <br /> *Ye Jihong 叶继红. (1994). 探寻完美的表达形式———读许渊冲译毛泽东词选 [Searching for a Perfect Form of Expression -- Reading Xu Yuanchong's Selected Works of Mao Zedong's Ci]. ''北京大学学报'' [Journal of Peking University]. (2):109-110.<br /> <br /> *Yu Lixia 余立霞.( 2016). 毛泽东诗词英译本中文化负载词翻译的对比研究 [A Comparative Study on the Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English Versions of Mao Zedong's Poems].''外语学刊'' [Journal of Foreign Languages] (06):106-109.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Jiguang 张继光. (2020). 许渊冲研究现状的可视化分析及其启示 [Visualization analysis and Enlightenment of Xu Yuanchong's research status]. ''西安外国语大学学报''[Journal of Xi'an Foreign Studies University] 28 (01): 87-92.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Mengxue 张梦雪. (2019). 从毛泽东诗词英译本看许渊冲的翻译诗学观[On Mao Zedong's Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Poetics].''湖南第一师范学院学报'' [Journal of Hunan First Normal University] (06):45-49.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting 202070080612 MIT 英语笔译==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Bible has influenced the world through its translation into many different languages,being rendered into 1400 languages.Take the English translation of Bible for example,the English language and Anglo-American culture were deeply influenced by it in all aspects.Meanwhile,in China,the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures occupied a sameli importants position in the history of Chinese transaltion,not only serving as an important foundation for the spread of Buddhiam in China,but also an enrichment for the Chinese traditional culture.In this paper,I will compare the development of the two large-scale transaltion activities in history and find out their differences and similarities.Finally,I will give my own thoughts of it.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Bible translation;the translation of Buddhist Scriptures;comparison<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 摘要：《圣经》共有1400多种不同文字的版本，可以说它是通过翻译成多种语言不断影响世界的，其中又以历史上英译《圣经》规模为典范，英语语言和英美文化深受其影响。而与此有异曲同工之妙的是中国的佛经翻译，佛经翻译不仅是佛教在中国建立传播的重要基础之一，也极大丰富和发展了中国的传统文化，在中国的翻译史上占有极其重要的地位。本文将对两者进行对比总结并带来一些启示。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 圣经翻译；佛经翻译；对比<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Bible, as the source of Western literature, feeds the fertile ground of the entire English literary world, while the Buddhist classics, as an indispensable part of Eastern culture, have played an indispensable role in the progress of translation in China. The Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, two of the most influential religious texts in the world , relied mainly on translation activities for their earlier dissemination, which not only promoted cultural exchanges and translation development at that time, including the formation of translation methods and the establishment of translation theories, but also played a very important role in their own dissemination and development. Through a brief historical introduction of the translation of the Western Bible, especially the history of the English translation of the Bible, and the translation of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures, this paper attempts to clarify these two main lines of translation, summarize the common trajectories and deviations of the two classical works in the process of translation, and thus to find out the role they played by the history of translation of religious texts in various aspects of translation practice and translation theory.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-69 )<br /> <br /> ===An Overview of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br /> The history of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures started from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretched for more than one thousand years. And it has great influence on Chinese society, culture, language, arts,religion and etc.The translation of Buddhist Scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lay the foundation for later ones. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47)<br /> ====The early stage====<br /> The first period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, is the pioneering stage. During this period, the total number of Buddhist Scriptures being translated is about five hundred and seventy, while the first Chinese Buddhist translation script is Sutra in Forty-two Chapters.This period is characterized by the fact that the translators had no original texts but relied on the oral expression of the foreign monks.The translation method is that each foreign monk recited the sutras to one or more than one interpreters who would translate them into Chinese orally and there were other translators taking notes and writing down the Chinese version.<br /> And the mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which was highly proposed by An Shigao（安世高） and Zhi Chen（支谶）, who were the masters of the literal translation school. (Xie Tianzheng 2009,47-52 )<br /> ====The developing stage==== <br /> The second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development.<br /> <br /> Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. Famous translators in this stage included Shi Daoan （释道安）, Kumarajiva （鸠摩罗什）, Zhen Di （真谛）, Seng You（僧佑）.<br /> From then on, translation has become an organized activity. Kumarajiva was the first person in Chinese history to translate the Buddhist scriptures systematically on a large scale, and he paid great attention to preserving the style of the original language while not giving up the original meaning.As to the features of this time.First we can see the change from folk and personal translation to official and collective translation.Second,there were breakthroughs in translation theories and skills.Many famous translators concluded translation rules according to their experience and thoughts.Last,the part of sutras explanation was separated from translation.(Xie Tianzheng 2009,52-57 )<br /> <br /> ====The peaking stage====<br /> The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty in which the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang.He tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace” (既须求真，又须喻俗). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to combine the literal translation and free translation to give the best version of the translation.(Chen Fukang 2000,32)<br /> <br /> Xuan Zang had made great contributions to the Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures .In history he went to India to get the Buddhist scripture ,set up a large workshop of translation and translated 1335 fascicles of 75 volumes of Buddhist Scriptures .He also set down“five guidelines for not translating a term ”(五不翻).First, if a term partakes of the occult, it is not-translated (秘密故).Second, if a term has multiple meanings, it is not-translated(多义故). Third, if the object represented by a term does not exist in this part of the world, that term is not-translated(此无故). Fourth, if a past rendering of a term has become established and accepted, the term is not-translated(顺古故).Fifth, if a term elicits positive associations, it is not-translated(生善故). (Chen Fukang 2000,35)<br /> <br /> ===An Overview of Bible Translation ===<br /> Generally speaking, the classic Christian Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and  the New Testament. The history of translation of Bible can be divided into three periods:The Greco-Roman period (2nd century B.C.- 8th century A.D.),the Reformation period (16th and 17th centuries) and the Modern era (19th and 20th centuries).<br /> These three periods were also the major periods of Christianity's spread, and the translation of the Bible played a crucial role in the spread of religious views and cultural conversions.<br /> <br /> The first period is between 2nd century B.C. and 8th century A.D. when the history of Bible translation begun and two Bible translation versions need to be noticed.The first one is The Septuagint translated by 72 Jewish scholars with two in a group translating it at the same time which was basically the original text to be rendered into many other national languages.The Vulgate of St. Jerome was also translated from it.St. Jerome was a controversial person as well as his translation who also started the dispute between literal translation and free translation.And he referred his translation strategies as literal translation.<br /> <br /> The second period was happened during the 16th and 17th century.The Renaissance occurred in the 16th century,thus pushing forward the translation of Bible into many other different languages. Bible being translated into other languages was hampered by the Vatican with many scholars died of it.“The Reformation in 17th century was the consequence of the autarchy”(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 64).During this period,Martin Luther’s German translation version of Bible represented people’s efforts the best.He was also in favor of St. Jerome’s literal translation.(Tan Zaixi 2004,70)<br /> <br /> The third period is the modern era (19th and 20th centuries) of Bible translation when new versions and a lot of Revised Versions emerged as well as the versions of the third world national languages.The changeable ideology also inspired new translations,for example,Elizabeth Cady Stanton translated the first Woman’s Bible.(Tan Zaixi 2004,189)<br /> ===An Overview of English Translation of the Bible === <br /> Bible translation has a long history of more than 1400 years and the English translation of Bible kept expanding,thus a great many versions was created by numerous masters.With the development of this,English as well as the culture of English-speaking countries were enriched and benefited.We can divide the history of it into fifth periods.<br /> <br /> First, the early English translations of the Bible.<br /> <br /> The earliest English translation of the Bible can be dated back to the 8th century, when the famous English historian Bede translated the Bible into Old English in 735 AD. He was the first person who translated the Bible into English. He translated certain sections of the Bible into poetry. Bede was a well known writer in Europe at that time. He translated the “Ten Commandments of Moses” from the Bible into Anglo-Saxon, based mainly on St. Jerome’ s The Vulgate, a popular Latin translation.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br /> <br /> Second, Wycliffe's translation of the Bible.<br /> <br /> Technically speaking, Wycliffe began the English translation of the Bible. As an Oxford scholar, John Wycliffe was one of the most influential figures in England in the 14th century. He was a reformer, philosopher, writer, and theologian, and was known as “the star of the Reformation”. John Wycliffe translated the Bible for the sake of commonalty, and as such his translation became a popular tool against the power of the church. So alarmed was the Church of England that it held a Synod in Oxford in 1408, in which they banned the translation and use of the Bible. However, due to the popularity of John Wycliffe's translation of the Bible, the ban had little effect. By the 15th century, Wycliffe's translation was widely circulated, becoming the only English translation of the Bible at the time and laying the foundation for the English translation of the Bible for future generations.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 65).<br /> <br /> Third, the English translation of the Bible in the 16th century.<br /> <br /> The 16th century served as the first climax in the history of English translation of the Bible, with the translation master William Tyndale (1491-1536) as its representative. William Tyndale was an English clergyman, humanist, famous writer, and leader of the Reformation. His purpose in translating the Bible was to make it accessible to common people and to make him understand the true meaning of Christianity. Tyndale devoted his life to the translation of the Bible, which occupies an important place in the history of the English translation of the Bible. First of all, it was translated directly from the Greek and was the first printed Bible. Secondly, Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible is a perfect combination of scholarship, literature, and simplicity of phraseology, served as an ideal origin text for future English translations of the Bible. Finally, Tyndale’ s English translation has enriched the English language even more than Shakespeare, for many of today's English expressions are derived from Tyndale’ s English translation of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br /> <br /> Fourth, the English translation of the Bible in the 17th century.<br /> <br /> The 17th century was the most glorious era in the history of the English translation of the Bible. The King approved 54 scholars as translators, with Lancelot Andrewes in charge. This was the second officially supported mass translation in the western countries since The Septuagint .When translating, they were not limited to The Vulgate, which was approved by the Catholic Church, but often referred to the original Hebrew text of the Bible, so that their translation was relatively faithful to the original text. The King James Bible is the authorization among all English translations of the Bible.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 66).<br /> <br /> Fifth, the English translation of the Bible in the 19th and 20th century.<br /> <br /> There were no large-scale translation of Bible in the 19th century thus making the revise of the English translation of Bible the mainstream in this period.The American Standard Version went through a large scale revision as a result.In the 20th century, science and technology changed rapidly, and the English language also made great progress. Although the King James Bible was unassailable, many translations of the Bible were produced,such as New Testament in Modern Speech,James Moffatt,New English Bible and New International Version(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 67-69).<br /> ===The Differences and Similarities between the translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation === <br /> ===The Differences between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible Translation ===<br /> 1.From the perspective of translation contents,the time when it happened,the language and cultural environment ,translators to the historical background ,the differences between the English translation of Bible and the Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures are significant.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69).<br /> <br /> 2.Bible translation has a long history and is still going on today. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China ended in the Song Dynasty. Bible translations rely mainly on the faithful believers. By the time Buddhism spread widely in China, most Buddhist scriptures were already available in Chinese, so people preferred to read the Chinese versions rather than the foreign language originals. In this way, Buddhist scripture translations faded as they became less in demand in the social and cultural environment. (Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69)<br /> 　　 　　<br /> 3.Unlike Buddhist translations, Bible translations are motivated not only by religious beliefs, but also by the essence of Greek culture. In addition, the Bible is a literary work of high literary value. All nations and all social classes have devoted a great deal of labor to Bible-related work. In fact, while the Bible was translated into various European languages, it was also heavily influenced by the formation of written languages in European countries. Even Bible translations became the first literary works in some European countries. In Europe, the translation of religious works is closely related to literary creation.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br /> <br /> 4.Western Bible translations promote Christian culture in Christian countries where religiosity has always been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Bible text: Buddhist sutra translations have been combined with traditional Chinese philosophy and aesthetics from the very beginning, &quot;reconciling Confucianism and Buddhism&quot;, and philosophical and literary aspects have been respected as the dominant or primary value of the Chinese (translated Buddhist texts). The philosophical and literary aspects were revered as the dominant or primary values of the Chinese Buddhist scriptures.(Ren Dongsheng 2008,48)<br /> <br /> ===The Similarities between the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures of China and Bible translation ===<br /> 1.Both had gone through a long time. The English translation of the Bible began around the eighth century and reached its culmination in the 17th century. The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures began in 67 AD and reached its peak in the Sui and Tang dynasties. Both had a history of more than a thousand years until their development was quite mature. In terms of the translation results ,both the translations of the culmination became the most popular ones today. To date, most of the English translations of the Bible today are from the 17th century translation of the Bible; most of the translations of Buddhist Scriptures follow the classical translations of Xuan Zang from the Tang dynasty.(Xie Tianzhen 2009, 45-69).<br /> <br /> 2. In terms of the scale and organizational methods: Both exhibit translation activities on a large scale, with the strong support of the rulers of the time, and their achievements are particularly notable. The translation of the Bible was also on a grand scale, especially in the 17th century, which is considered to be the most brilliant era in the history of English translation of the Bible. The King James Bible supported by James I,though not finalized by him, was given the authority among the English translation versions; due to the high quality of the translation itself, it eventually achieved dominance among all English translations of the Bible. The translation of Buddhist sutras was the first large-scale organized translation activity in China. Since the Eastern Han Dynasty, the &quot;translation field&quot; method was adopted, that is, many people cooperated to translate Buddhist sutras under a strict division of labor system, which showed the characteristics of having a fixed place, a strict division of labor, and leadership by the organization. The translation of Buddhist Scriptures in China reached its climax in the Tang Dynasty, both in terms of scale and quality, which was contingent on the strong support of the rulers that time. (Ren Dongsheng 2008,49)<br /> <br /> 3.In terms of translation strategies, in the early days of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible, almost all of their translators were devout religious believers, and the religious classics were sacred in their eyes, and any arbitrary addition, deletion or modification of their contents in the process of translation would be regarded as blasphemy. Therefore, at the beginning, both Chinese translators of Buddhist scriptures and European Bible translators coincidentally adopted the strategy of word-for-word translation to show their sincere religious beliefs and to maintain the sanctity of the religious texts.(Cheng Xiaoping 2013,187)<br /> <br /> An Shigao, a famous translator of Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures, adopted the strategy of literal translation while Zhi Chen was the first person elaborating the translation theory in the history .In the Preface to the Dharma Sutra, he strongly supported the view of the Vighna from Tianzhu(an ancient translation of India) that the translation of sutras should adopt transliteration. The famous Buddhist sutra translator Shi Daoan, in his Preface to the Mahabharata Paramita Sutra, put forward the idea of “five instances of losing the originals”(五失本), which would make the translation easy to change the original meaning, and the concept of “three instances of difficulties”(三不易) , the three reasons why translation is difficult, to supplement his idea of literal translation. In addition, in his Dialectic, Yan Zong proposed the principle that insists on faithfulness and prefers literal translation.(Liu Weijie 2009,62)<br /> <br /> When the 72 Jewish scholars translated the Greek text of the Septuagint, their worship of religious texts led them to adopt a word-by-word and sentence-by-sentence translation, so that the readability of the translation was poor, and even the Greeks had difficulty in understanding it. Later Jerome believed that translations should not always be word-for-word and must be flexible, but when it came to translating the Bible, he still believed that literal translation should be adhered to , and not even the word order in the sentences should be changed, &quot;because even the word order in the Bible is a kind of &quot;metaphysical meaning&quot;. The main reason why Jerome adopted the strategy of literal translation was his awareness of the sacredness of the Bible(Xiong Hui 2013,68).<br /> <br /> According to Hu Shi's judgment, the translations of Hatamarangshi and many other monks after him changed &quot;foreign words&quot; into &quot;Chinese words&quot;, using simple language that was easily accepted by the general public instead of ornate parallelism or elegant literary texts, in order to satisfy the general public’s demand for Buddhist faith. At this time, the recipients of the sutras were no longer limited to a few sutra researchers or cultural figures(Xiong Hui 2013,68). From the perspective of reception aesthetics, the purpose of translating any text is not only to convey the original meaning correctly, but also to make it easy for readers to understand and accept. The purpose of translating Buddhist sutras is the same , so they changed the strategy of word for word translation to free translation. The Tang Dynasty was a prosperous period for the translation of Buddhist scriptures in China, and the main translators were Xuan Zang and Bu kong, among who Xuan Zang's translation style can be said to be a combination of various translation styles, and was no longer limited to the literal translation or the free translation.(Li Hua 2009,32)<br /> <br /> The Authorized Version, published in 1611, is the most important translation in the history of Bible translation. It was translated collectively by 47 of the best scholars and theologians, emphasizing faithfulness to the original text and absorbing Hebrew, Greek and Latin language styles, drawing on the essence of the original text, with simple and solemn language . The greatest achievement of his translation of the Bible is that it took into account the needs of scholarship, conciseness, and literature, and integrates all three factors into one, focusing on easy understanding and embedding the characteristics of the Hebrew language, creating a unique style of Bible translation. Tyndale paid special attention to the vulgarity of the translation, using as much ‘authentic’ English vocabulary as possible and the vivid and specific forms of expression customary to the narrative expressions of ordinary people, and the text is simple and natural, without pedantry. Therefore, his translations were very influential and widely circulated.(Liu Junping 2019,100-105)<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison between the Chinese translation of the sutras and the Bible translation , we find that both of them chose literal translation at first and later chose free translation as their translation strategies. From word-by-word translation, to mature translation, which focused on the overall meaning, and from translation, which focused on easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, to translation, which focused on &quot;reproducing the message of the original language,&quot; both the ancient Chinese translation of the Buddhist scriptures and the European translation of the Bible reveal similar translation laws. We see a common pattern in the development of the translation theories of the Buddhist scriptures and the Bible: literal translation and free translation alternately dominate the translation activities and gradually mature until the organic integration of the two is finally achieved.(Xiong Hui 2013,78) <br /> <br /> In this regard, translators have put forward many similar valuable translation theories and translation experiences. For example, the translation theory put forward by St. Jerome around direct translation and paraphrase includes: religious translation should be treated differently from literary translation, and religious translation should mainly adopt direct translation, while literary translation can adopt paraphrase method. Moreover, it rejrcted the idea that there is &quot;God's inspiration&quot; in the translation of the Bible, and that the correct understanding of the Bible should rely on extensive knowledge and proficiency in language. In terms of translation theories, history allows us to read not only the translation history and translation experience of the Bible and Buddhist scriptures, but also the development line of the whole human translation history and the evolution of translation theories.(Xiong Hui 2013,78)<br /> <br /> 4.The Influence of Bible Translation and Translation of Buddhist Scriptures <br /> (1) The King James Version of the Bible not only played a major role in the development of the English language, but also, due to the influence of the British colonization, became the original version for the translation of the Bible in many other less powerful countries,and had a definite effect on the development of languages in those countries. The King James Version was severely condemned by the opposition when it was first published, but it eventually gained dominance over all English translations of the Bible. (Liu Junping 2019,107)<br /> <br /> The Chinese translation of the Buddhist Scriptures has had a profound impact on all aspects of Chinese culture, and has a place in China's cultural history that cannot be ignored. In certain historical periods, Buddhism was used by the ruling class as a powerful tool to consolidate its governance. Both of them contributed to the historical process, maintaining the dominant position of the rulers at the time, enabling the civilians to attain an ideological convergence and concentration. On the positive side, they made contributions to the stability of the social environment of the time; on the negative side,quoted form Marx,” the adoption of religion as a legitimate means of official propaganda was nothing more than the spiritual opium that enslaved the people”.(Mou Xiaofang,LiXiul 2009,62)<br /> <br /> (2)Both have injected vitality and life into the target language vocabulary and have made great contributions to culture. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched Chinese traditional culture. First of all, it shows its influence on Chinese phonetics. At the micro level, the translation of Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese has influenced the pronunciation of certain Chinese characters. At the macro level, Zhang Jianmu, in his article &quot;The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Phonetics&quot;, summarizes the influence of Chinese translations of Buddhist Scriptures in three aspects: the four sounds, the letters, and the equal rhyme charts. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has greatly enriched the Chinese vocabulary, facilitated the communication of ideas to a great extent, and played a positive role in social and cultural life. The Chinese translation of Buddhist Scriptures has a great and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature. Kumarajiva was the first master translator who noticed the style and interest of the original text. Since that, our translation of literature has been fully established. The Bible, on the other hand, is a projection of most of the works in English and American literature, and it is impossible to fully appreciate and dismantle literary works without reading the Bible. Moreover, the Bible is also our doorway to the Western world, and our understanding of Western culture is inextricably linked with the Bible.(Li Hua 2009,31)<br /> <br /> ===My Thoughts on the Comparison ===<br /> A comparison of Chinese Buddhist scripture translations and Western Bible translations reveals that they have both gone through stages from literal translation, which is almost rigidly translated word by word, to high-level literal translation, i.e., phrase and structure level, to free translation, which focuses on fluent and easy-to-understand language in order to make the translation suitable for the general public, and finally to complete reconciliation of literal translation and free translation, or no longer emphasizing literal translation or meaning in translation. The emphasis is on the accuracy of the translation and the acceptability of the translated text. We use literal translations when they are appropriate, and we use free translations when they are appropriate. By analyzing the underlying reasons behind these common developments, some basic properties and laws of translation are revealed:<br /> <br /> 1.The basic nature of translation is the conversion between bilingualism and the basic contradiction is the contradiction between bilingualism;<br /> <br /> 2.Language is the carrier of culture, cultural differences and non-correspondence must be reflected in bilingualism and ultimately reproduced through language;<br /> <br /> 3.In a specific text in a specific language, form, content and style are unified, but due to linguistic and cultural differences between bilinguals, form, content and style do not correspond to each other, which constitutes the greatest difficulty in translation;<br /> <br /> 4.Translation integrates both science and art. Science is reflected in the objective regularity of language conversion; art is reflected in the translator's active selectivity and subjective creativity in the translation process;<br /> <br /> 5. A good translator should be proficient in bilingual knowledge and familiar with the translated content;<br /> <br /> 6.The improvement of translation level and ability is a process of experience accumulation; <br /> <br /> 7.An ideal translation is one that reproduces the unity of form, content and style of the original in the translated text; <br /> <br /> 8.Faithfulness of meaning is the basic requirement for translation, especially for translation of religious classics; <br /> <br /> 9.Literal translation and paraphrase are not binary opposites but complementary relationships; The specific criteria, requirements and methods of translation are determined by the purpose of translation. It is precisely because of these basic properties and laws that Chinese Buddhist sutra translation and Western Bible translation have similarities in their development process.<br /> <br /> 10.Due to the lack of bilingual knowledge, translation experience and reverence for the religious classics, the first bunch of translators had to adopt a literal translation which was almost rigid, word by word, line by line. As a result, the translations were difficult to read and follow. In order to make the translation understandable to the readers, some people embellish the text and delete what they do not understand, and adopt an almost garbled or haphazard paraphrase of the translation. As a result, the translated text is indeed understood by the readers, but what they see is not the true picture of the scriptures. With the development of that, new translators had higher bilingual level, certain linguistic knowledge and experience in translation, who realized the mistakes and inadequacies of translating randomly, and then return to the strategy of literal translation. But at this time, literal translation is no longer word-for-word or line-for-line translation. They emphasized the overall communication of the meaning and the preservation of the original form, and did not absolutely exclude the element of paraphrase.<br /> <br /> Later, in order to make the scriptures more easily to be understood and accepted by the general public, the translators favored the strategy of paraphrasing and using the simple, concise and easily understandable language of the people. However, they do not translate randomly anymore, nor do they exclude paraphrase absolutely. The reason why there has been a long history of literal and paraphrase translations is that the translators did not realize that form, content, and style are unified in a particular language and culture, and they are not monolingual between different cultures and language systems. This is because translators are not aware of the contradiction between the unity of form, content, and style in a particular language system.It is the opposition between literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> When translators have mastered these basic rules of translation at a more mature stage of development, they no longer stick to the debate of literal and free translation, but use them as complementary translation methods, and strive to achieve full faithfulness between the translated text and the original in form, content and style, to reach the ideal standard of translation. However, as Jerome argues, literary translation should use free translation, Bible translation should adopt literal translations. The specific translation standards and methods vary according to the purpose of translation, the type of translation and the translated text.For example, from the perspective of religion and the fear of God, translators will adopt the strategy of literal translation to translate religious texts; from the perspective of spreading the great meaning and transforming the public, translators will adopt the strategy of paraphrase to translate religious texts.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> ===References===<br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[A History of Translation Theory in China].上海 Shang Hai：上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press，2000<br /> <br /> Ma Zuyi 马祖毅.中国翻译简史（五四以前部分）[A History of Translation Theory in China (Before the May Fourth Movement)].北京 Bei Jing：中国对外翻译出版设社 China Foreign Translation Press，1984.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[A Brief History of Translation in the West].北京 Bei Jing：商务印书馆 Commercial Press，2004<br /> <br /> Xie Tianzhen 谢天振.中西翻译简史][A Brief History of Translation in China and the West].北京 Bei Jing：外语教学与研究出版社 Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press，2009.<br /> <br /> Liu Weijie 刘为洁. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of Chinese Buddhism Translation and Bible Translation] [J]. 四川教育学院学报,2009,25(02):61-63.<br /> <br /> Xiong Hui 熊辉. 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Tranaltion Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scriptures] [J]. 西华大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Xihua University(Philosophy and Social Sciences Version),2013,32(01):67-70.<br /> <br /> Li Hua 李华. 中国佛经翻译与英国《圣经》翻译的比较[Comparison of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures and the English Translation of Bible] [J]. 文教资料 Cultural and educational materials,2009,(06):31-32<br /> <br /> Cheng Xiaoping 程小平. 浅谈佛经和《圣经》的不同之处[An Introduction to the Differences between the Scriptures and the Bible] [J]. 青年文学家 Youth Lierator,2018,(18):187.<br /> <br /> Chen Lianghui 陈亮辉. 论中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相似性与差异性[On the Similarities and Differences between Chinese Buddhist Scripture Translation and Western Bible Translation] [J]. 华中人文论丛 Central China Humanities Collection,2014,5(01):117-119.<br /> <br /> Yi Zhimei 衣志梅. 中国佛经翻译与西方圣经翻译的相异性[ The Similarities and Differences between Chinese Sutra Translation and Western Bible Translation][J]. 安徽文学 An Hui Literary(下半月) (the second half),2009,(07):327.<br /> <br /> Mou Xiaofang,LiXiuli牟晓芳，李秀丽.浅谈佛经翻译与《圣经》翻译的历史进程及其理论对比 [On the Historical Process and Theoretical comparison of the Transaltion to Buddhist Scriptures and the &quot;Bible&quot;] [J]山东广播电视大学学报 Journal of Shangdong Radio and TV University，2009，(01):62-64.<br /> <br /> Ren Dongsheng 任东升.圣经汉译与佛经翻译比较研究[J].上海翻译 Shang Hai Translation,2008,(03):46-50<br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br /> <br /> == Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair'' 常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br /> &lt;center&gt;常慧月 Chang Huiyue 202020080591&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This paper discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi’s translation version of Vanity Fair as the example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded word translation. This paper consists of six chapters. Chapter one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Chapter two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Chapter three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Chapter four analyzes Vanity Fair and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Chapter five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Chapter six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This paper aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words express the culture, custom, habit and so on of a nation in the linguistic way. This chapter discusses how to translate the culture-loaded words properly from the perspective of domestication and foreignization. It introduces the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and takes Yang Bi’s translation version of Vanity Fair as the example to analyze Yang’s brilliant application of domestication and foreignization in culture-loaded word translation. This chapter consists of six parts. Part one gives an introduction of translation and its different definitions. Part two discusses definition of domestication and foreignization and their development processes. Part three describes the culture-loaded words and its classification. Part four analyzes Vanity Fair and its Chinese version by Yang Bi. Part five analyzes translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair from perspective of domestication and foreignization. Part six gives a conclusion of the whole paper. This chapter aims to indicate the role of domestication and foreignization in the translation of culture-loaded words and attempts to combine translation techniques to find out the balance of two theories and the concrete measures of culture-loaded words translation.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> culture-loaded words; ''Vanity Fair''; domestication; foreignization<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。<br /> <br /> 文化负载词以语言的形式展示了一个国家的文化、习俗与生活习惯等。本文讨论了如何从异化与归化的角度恰当地翻译文化负载词，介绍了异化与归化两种翻译策略并以杨必汉译本的《名利场》为例，分析了杨必在翻译文化负载词时，对异化与归化的熟练运用。本文包括七个部分,第一部分介绍了翻译及其不同的定义,第二部分论述归化和异化的定义及其发展过程,第三部分介绍文化负载词及其分类,第四部分分析杨碧的《名利场》及其中文版,第五部分从归化和异化的角度分析《名利场》中文化负载词的翻译,第六部分是对全文的总结。文旨在表明异化与归化在翻译文化负载词时所起的作用，结合翻译技巧尝试找出翻译文化负载词中异化与归化的平衡点以及具体的方法。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词；《名利场》；归化；异化<br /> <br /> ===Chapter One Introduction===<br /> Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This thesis focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair, written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example. <br /> <br /> Globalization has developed deeply and its trend will keep going further. International communication and cooperation will go far and countries in the world are interdependent. So it is necessary for each country to strengthen communication. The basis of communication is understanding, which is based on cultures, customs, habits and so on. Translation as a medium can not only solve the problem of language barrier but at the same time convey thinking patterns, behavioral modes, living ways and so on. Translation basically has five styles: practical style, science and technology style, journalese style, argumentation style and artistic style which systematically introduce other nation’s technology, culture, information and so on. This chapter focuses on the translation of literature and takes the translation of culture-loaded words in Vanity Fair, written by William Makepeace Thackeray, as an example. --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times or ancient times, in China or elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that one language is transformed to another language. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book The Art of Translation and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that in which one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.<br /> <br /> As for translation, its definition has been given by many people who have been devoted to this career in modern times and ancient times, in China and elsewhere. For most people, translation is just that transforming one language into another. Chinese scholar Xu Yuanchong once mentioned his understanding of translation in his book The Art of Translation and defined translation as that the art of translation is to understand the content of source text through its form and then express the content in the form of target text (Xu Yuanchong, 2006, 16). He pays much attention to the process of transformation and emphasizes the surface structure and deep thinking way. Zhang Peiji, another translation expert, thinks that translation is an activity that in which one language is used to express another language that includes the content of thought accurately and completely. His core is conveying information correctly.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style (Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text.(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact, their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu’s theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida comes up with the idea that &quot;translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of the style&quot; (Nida, 2004, 12). He points out that translators should convey the content and emotion of original language as accurate as possible, while Peter Newmark insists that (Translating) is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text.(Newmark, 2001, 128). He emphasizes translation should obey the style of the original text. All these scholars express their understandings about translation, and suggest not only definitions but criteria. In fact, their translation theories happen to coincide with the theory of Liu Zhongde, who revised Yan Fu’s theories which can be summarized as faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance into faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness, which are widely accepted by Chinese translators. As far as I am concerned, good translation should make it possible that target readers not only understand the content of source texts but produce the same emotion as source readers. Good translation can deal with language barrier and convey the culture and value, which is the function and significance of translation.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Domestication and Foreignization'''===<br /> ===='''2.1 Definition of domestication'''====<br /> <br /> ===2. Domestication and Foreignization===<br /> ====2.1 Definition of Domestication====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti defined“leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him”(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are “aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign”, he also points out that these cultures are “accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator’s function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17). <br /> <br /> According to Schleiermacher, Lawrence Venuti points out that“Leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author towards him”(Venuti, 2004, 19-20) as domestication. However, Venuti holds the view that domestication has a pessimistic meaning because the term is seen as universal principle in dominant cultures which are “aggressively monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign”, he also points out that these cultures are “accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign texts with (target language) values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other (Venuti, 2004, 15). The concept of invisibility is very significant for it is used to depict translator’s function in the process of creating the target texts that can be accepted by society in a culture that regards domestication as translation criteria. As a matter of fact, it is the invisibility of translator which simultaneously “enacts and masks an insidious domestication of foreign texts” (Venuti, 2004, 16-17). --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging target language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language’s cultures and features and disseminates target language’s cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)<br /> <br /> The translation method of domestication includes several procedures: choosing carefully of the text which contributes to this way; being conscious of using fluent and pleasant style of target language; rearranging source language to accord with the type of target language; adding to interpretive material; deleting special features of source language and using orientation of target language to make target language generally harmonious. Venuti believes that domestication possesses characteristic of dominance; that is to say, it covers source language’s cultures and features and disseminates target language’s cultures and dominant position.(Venuti, 2004, 16-20)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Definition of foreigniztion====<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Definition of Foreigniztion====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an “ethnodeviant pressure” and regards its role as to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rule of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an “alien reading experience” (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization “depends on domestic cultural materials” (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is “equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text”, yet disposes that they “tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it”. (Venuti, 2004, 34)<br /> <br /> According to Venuti, foreignization is a term to designate the type of translation in which a target language is produced and deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. He views foreignization as an “ethnodeviant pressure” and regards its role as to “register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad” (Venuti, 2004, 20). The translation method means that it is not completely necessary to obey the rules of the target language and text and that it is acceptable to choose languages that lacks smoothness and uniformity and unintelligible style in some appropriate situations. It also helps collect realia of source language and archaisms of target language. These features provide target language readers with an “alien reading experience” (Venuti, 2004, 20). However, foreignization “depends on domestic cultural materials” (Venuti, 2004, 20). Venuti admits that foregnization is “equally partial (as domesticating translation) in their interpretation of the foreign text”, yet disposes that they “tend to flaunt their partiality instead of concealing it”. (Venuti, 2004, 34)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Development of domestication and foreignization====<br /> <br /> ====2.3 Development of Domestication and Foreignization====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategies and the second domesticating strategies. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization proposed by Lawrence Venuti are based on the speech On the Different Methods of Translating given by Friedrich Schleiermacher. He points out that there are two ways which can help target text readers understand the source text completely and correctly in the situation that is not separated from target text, either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him. According to the speech, Lawrence Venuti defines the first way as foreignizing strategy and the second domesticating strategy. Either of these two translation methods has advantages and disadvantages so they stir a wide discussion. In western translation circle, Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication, whose translation theory is “dynamic equivalence”. He claims that source text should be translated in the most natural way, making readers find the most appropriate understanding in target language culture. However, Lawrence Venuti is regarded as the representative of foreignization, who believes that domestication is based on ethnocentrism and imperialist cultural values. In order to resist this doctrine and value, he supports the application of foreignization.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar created polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.<br /> <br /> Besides, Israel scholar Even-Zohar creates polysystem theory, expanding domestication and foreignization from the perspective of sociology. He thinks that selecting between domestication and foreignization is determined by the specific state and status of a particular time rather than conscious choice of translators. When translated literature plays a dominant role in a multi-cultural system of a nation, it is better to use foreignizing translation; otherwise, it is better to use domesticating translation. In Chinese translation circle, Liu Kaiying criticizes drawbacks of domestication and advocates foreignization, which first leads to the discussion of two translation methods in China. While, Sun zhili is the representative of foreignization, who analyses literary translation from late 19th century to 20th century and comes up with the assertion that literary translation in 21th century will step forward foreignization from domestication. There are scholars who disagree with the first two views such as Cai Ping and Guo Jianzhong, considering into use domestication and foreignization depends on various factors and they need to be looked at critically. In general, discussion of application of the two translation methods still exists and choice of translating methods is up to the translator, the reader and the style of translation works.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Three Culture-loaded Words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> ===3. Culture-loaded Words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words==== --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years’ development of a nation and contains the nation’s customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meaning is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of culture. Because of its uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64). <br /> <br /> Culture is a complicate social phenomenon, which carries hundreds or even thousands of years’ development of a nation and contains the nation’s customs, values, knowledge, experience, politics, economy, religion and so on. Culture has the characteristics of region and nationality and uniqueness. Besides, culture is interactive with society, which increases its comprehensibility and complexity. Therefore, comparing to the translation of pure language, language with cultural meanings is more difficult to translate. The culture-loaded word is one case. As the name implies, culture-loaded words are full of cultural meaning. Because of their uniqueness, these words usually can not find equivalences in another language. So it is called cultural gap. But there is not unified definition about it. Different scholars give different definitions and they have something in common. Bao Huinan defines culture-loaded words as that source language carrying cultural information have no equivalent or corresponding words (Bao Huinan, 2004, 10). Hu Wenzhong thinks that culture-loaded words are included in a specific cultural scope (Hu Wenzhong, 1999, 64). --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that the source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.<br /> <br /> Another widely accepted definition is that in the language system, culture-words are those that can best represent the language that bears cultural information and expresses the social life of human and also refer to those words or phrases which deliver a certain kind of cultural connotative and associative meanings that may be found or may be not found in another language or culture. Mona Baker describes that a source language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in its target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food; such concepts are often referred as “cultural-specific” (Baker, 2000, 21). In conclusion, from all these definitions above, culture-loaded words are unique and have no complete equivalents.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This paper mainly analyzes Nida’s classification. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida divides cultural factors into five groups from the perspective of physical form and ideology, including social culture, material culture, ecological culture, religious culture and linguistic culture (Nida, 2004, 91). These five factors become the basic classification of culture-loaded words, that is, social culture-loaded words, material loaded-words, ecological loaded-words, religious culture-loaded words and linguistic loaded-words. Based on the classification of Nida, Peter Newmark also divides culture-loaded words into five types: ecology; material culture; social culture; organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts; gestures and habit (Newmark, 2001, 135). This chapter mainly analyzes Nida’s classification. --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Social Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> Social culture-loaded words involve a lot of aspects. They mainly refer to people’s life, which consists of habits, customs, values, lifestyle, historical background, salutation, political features, social activities, etc. They can reflect the development of society, express the characteristics of the times under the specific background, and have distinct sociality. For example, in China, there are many different salutations about relatives, such as “叔叔”、“伯伯”、“舅舅”、“姑父”和“姨夫”while the west simply use a word of “uncle” to cover all these salutations.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Material loaded-words refer to those which can meet people’s basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Material-loaded Words=====<br /> Material-loaded Words refer to those which can meet people’s basic living needs and satisfy their basic development needs, such as food culture, clothing culture, transportation culture, construction culture, and means of production. Chinese food culture is different from the west’s. For example, when celebrating traditional festival like the Spring Festival and the Mid-autumn Festival, Chinese family will reunite to enjoy “团圆饭”, that is, to enjoy a reunion dinner. “Cakes and pies and beaten biscuits” are special food in the west, so there are not corresponding foods in China, which increases the difficulty of translation.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to “Yellow River”, it is natural for people to think of the term “mother of rivers” because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Ecological-loaded Words=====<br /> Ecological loaded-words are related to nature, which is composed of geographical conditions, climate and season, plants and animals and so forth. Because of different geological positions, different cultures have different ecological loaded-words. For example, In China, when it comes to “Yellow River”, it is natural for people to think of the term “mother of rivers” because in ancient times, the Yellow River district boasted mild and humid climate, distinct seasons, adequate water and moderate temperature, which were conductive to the growth of crops. Therefore, our ancestors settled in the Yellow River district. In other words, it is the Yellow River that nurtured Chinese people and Chinese civilization. However, western culture does not have such concept just as China does not have the connotation of west wind. Britain locates in low-lying British Isles and is harassed by west wind. Besides, Britain is near the sea, which increases wind force. So in winter, Britain’s west wind is very strong, thus being an image in the Ode to the West Wind written by Shelly.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Religious loaded-words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4 Religious-loaded Words=====<br /> Religious-loaded Words concern religious beliefs and values. Religious culture is a part of human development. In western culture, most people believe in Christianity and make Bible as their codes of conduct. Many words in Bible have become proverbs and are widely used in daily conversations. For example, “forbidden fruit” is a phrase originating from Bible that has been known to every household. The phrase is usually used to describe something that is enjoyable but illegal or immoral. In China, buddhism is one of the major beliefs and there are plenty of proverbs about it, such as “天花乱坠”、“普度众生”、“西方净土” etc.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Linguistic loaded-words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.5 Linguistic-loaded Words=====<br /> Linguistic-loaded Words are refer to linguistics, comprising phoneme, syllable, intonation, word and grammar, etc. For example, Chinese language structure has its special rhythm, and four-character phrases and idioms are the dominant one, such as “刻舟求剑”、“愚公移山”、“项庄舞剑意在沛公”etc. These words are not only four-characters but also full of culture connotations. English also has abstract nouns that do not have equivalents in Chinese like “brinkmanship”, “decontextualization”.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Four ''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===<br /> ====4.1 Introduction of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> ===4. ''Vanity Fair'' and Its Chinese Version===<br /> ====4.1 Introduction of Vanity Fair====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author altered the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'''s full name is ''Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a hero'', written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The name of ''Vanity Fair'' derives from the masterpiece ''The Pilgrim’s Progress'', written by John Bunyan. The author alters the original name ''A Novel Without a Hero as subtitle''. Vanity Fair is an illusory place in Bunyan’s work where everything can be dealt with and the place expresses people’s vanity and ugliness of human nature.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France for power was broke out. All kinds of people in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.<br /> <br /> The story is draw from life. In the nineteenth century, Britain was strong and the industry and commerce were flourishing. The wealthy businessmen got rich by exploiting colonies and laborers and used money to control the society. At the same time, the war for power between Britain and France for power was broken out. All kinds of individuals in the upper and middle strata of society were busy striving for power, fame and position. Under this kind of social background, Thackeray created the book.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and another is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl’s lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the world. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia’s brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）<br /> <br /> The book mainly tells a story about two girls, one is Becky Sharp who is beautiful and brilliant but born from poverty, and the other is Amelia Sedley who is gentle and born from a rich family. The two girl’s lives form a contrast and build up the book. Both girls are studying at Pinkerton Girls’ School. In this school, Becky from a poor family suffers from neglect and discrimination, while Amelia, the daughter of a wealthy businessman, is loved and welcomed by everyone. After graduation, Becky begins her struggling in the society. She first goes into Amelia’s house to stay for a period time, while she tries to court Amelia’s brother, Joseph, and manages to marry a wealthy person and change her destiny. However, Joseph looks down upon her and does not accept her. Because of the reject of Joseph, Becky has to leave his house and comes to Sir Peter, who is old and sophisticated and becomes a governess. Here, she goes out of her way to please Sir Pitt and his elder son, and then she curries favour with Miss Crawley who is a virgin and possesses a lot of money, living an extreme luxurious and decadent life.（Yang Bi,2012,2）--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.<br /> <br /> Miss Crawley’s favorite person is Rawdon, a cavalry officer, who is worthy of the name of the buck and likes all the things that noblemen like, such as drinking, gambling, fighting and so forth. Even though Rawdon is a buck, Miss Crawley still regards him as her heir. Becky tries to please everyone and catches all people’s hearts including Sir Pitt, Miss Crawley and Rawdon. The moment Sir Pitt finishes his wife’s funeral, he makes a proposal to Becky. At this time, Becky has married Rawdon, which irritates both Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley. Under such a situation, Sir Pitt and Miss Crawley both decide to break off relations with Rawdon. Miss Crawley even deprives of his right to success her fortunes. Becky also regrets for losing the chance to be a lady.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In the meantime, Amelia’s father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has been engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.<br /> <br /> In the meantime, Amelia’s father who used to be wealthy goes bankrupt in the fierce business competition. Amelia has engaged to a youth officer George Osborne for many years. George is brilliant and handsome but is also a buck. Amelia is totally enamored of George and regards him as her hero. But after the bankruptcy of the Sedley family, father of George, old Osborne adds to the misfortunes to the Sedley family and forces his son to conceal the engagement with Amelia regardless of their friendship. Dobbin, George’s classmate and comrade-in-arms, is always crush on Amelia and does not have the heart to look at Amelia’s suffer from pains and torment. Through Dobbin’s repeated persuasion, George finally disobeys his father’s order and marries Amelia. During honeymoon period, the troops in which George, Rawdon and Dobbin are staying are ordered to fight at the front. Two newly married couples join the army in Brussels, Belgium.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family’s fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone. <br /> <br /> On the eve of the battle of Waterloo, unfaithful George is tempted by Becky and has a love affair stealthily with her. They even decide to elope together, but it does not happen because of George’s death in the war. After the war, Becky continues her journey to step into upper class of society. She makes full use of her beauty and wisdom to please magnates and defraud their money at the price of fame and chastity that most woman cherish. At last, Becky’s behaviors are found by her husband Rawdon. Even though Rawdon is on his last pins and gains extreme notoriety, he is not willing to taint his family’s fame. In order to keep his dignity and that of his family, Rawdon firmly breaks up with Becky. The end of Becky is drifting from place to place and spending her rest time pointlessly and alone.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin’s love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’ letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, after the death of her husband, Amelia is immersed in the pain of losing her husband. Over the next ten years, she consistently loves her husband and lives in a tough life. She can not be admitted by old Osborn and raise her little child and her old parents on her own. During the time, Dobbin, having been promoted to major after the war, always helps poor Amelia. Amelia has to give up her son for a living, from which she gets a sum of money from the old Osborn in return. Her life has improved. Ten years later, Dobbin comes back to Britain from India. Despite her gratification to Dobbin, Amelia can not accept Dobbin’s love because of her admiration to her husband. Until Becky shows her husband’s letters about elopement, Amelia gives up her illusion to her husband and marries Dobbin. But all things have changed a lot. In the vanity fair, everyone has payed much price for their vanity, selfishness and indulgence, greediness and foolishness.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thackeray was a critical realist of 19th century. He used ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. Vanity Fair expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book’s structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）<br /> <br /> Thackeray is a critical realist of 19th century. He uses ironical method to depict the ugly faces of various figures and deceit and dishonesty in high places with vivid writing. Vanity Fair expresses the vivid story as if it happened in front of the readers, thus forming a unique artistic style. The book’s structure is extensive enough to hold the whole society, making people realize the influence of environment on human beings.(Yang Bi,2012,5）--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese version of Vanity Fair by Yang Bi====<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Characteristics of Chinese Version of Vanity Fair by Yang Bi====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version that is translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence pattern. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one. <br /> <br /> The famous translation of ''Vanity Fair'' is the version translated by Yang Bi. Yang Bi is an outstanding translator and a representative in literary translation circles. Her translation is flexible in expression and is not limited by the original sentence patterns. Her audacious adjustment about sentence structure makes language more fluent. The characters’ emotions in the book and the author’s attitudes towards characters are presented by this translator. The translated version expresses original meaning perfectly, faithfully and vividly, reproducing the style of the source text, which can be comparable to the original one.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator’s deep language skills. Besides, whether dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.<br /> <br /> Firstly, a successful translation that gives expression to the language and language beauty is mainly reflected in the flexibility and appropriateness of choosing words. In English, a word or a phrase has many different meanings. The adoption of the exact meaning depends on translator’s language level both in English and Chinese. The appropriate choice is determined by the translator’s deep language skills. Besides, if dialogues of characters or descriptions of persons and objects are both translated in plain words, it will make reader feel understandable, clear and lively.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Yang Bi fully understands the original style and determines her translation style on the base of emotions and tones of the source text. Her style is not only steady, simple, humorous but also full of beauty. Recreation is also based on complete understanding and faithfully conveys information and artistic conception. Li Duanyan once commented “Ms. Yang Bi’s translation not only grasps the essence of translation, but also dares to recreate, thus achieves the highest level of translation, faithfully and lively”. (Li Duanyan,1980,44-45)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text’s fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and make the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expression of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, the translation embodies excellent translation skills such as division, combination, addition, deletion and so on. The application of these skills improves translation text’s fluency and puts it in the situation that does not change the original meaning and makes the translation more close to Chinese text, which is easier to be accepted for Chinese readers. In general, this translation version not only conforms to both English and Chinese language skills, reproduces the style of source text and is also intelligible for readers as well. The translation is regarded as the model of the translation circle. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, her translation is mainly characterized by cultural beauty, the use of four-character sentences, the use of reduplicated words and the flexible expressions of spoken language. Her translation style is simple, readable and funny and this translation version has great influence on the whole translation circle.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Chapter Five Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===<br /> ====5.1 Application of Domestication====<br /> =====5.1.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> ===5. Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''===<br /> ====5.1 Application of Domestication====<br /> =====5.1.1 Ecological Culture-loaded Words=====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Example1:<br /> <br /> Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)<br /> <br /> 希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。<br /> <br /> “Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> <br /> Only I wish you had sown these wild oats of yours, George. (Thackeray, 2012, 198)<br /> <br /> 希望你干完了这些荒唐事就算过了瘾。<br /> <br /> “Wild oats” grew only in Europe and the Mediterranean region in history and then become an idiom in English culture. “Sow ones wild oats” means to do wild and foolish things in one’s youth” (often assumed to have sort of sexual meaning). Yang’s translation does not mention the background of the idiom and delete the cultural meaning of it. Yang uses “荒唐事” to translate the idiom, which is more close to Chinese readers.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 2: <br /> <br /> The fellow has not pluck enough to say Bo to a goose. (Thackeray, 2012, 371)<br /> <br /> 那家伙真是老鼠胆子。<br /> <br /> The sentence can be translated into “那家伙胆小得连对鹅‘呸’一声都不敢” by literal translation. It is no doubt that this sentence expresses the fellow’s cowardice. In Chinese, there is a phrase “胆小如鼠”. So the translation of “老鼠胆子” conveys the information of the original sentence vividly and is familiar to Chinese readers.<br /> <br /> Example 3: <br /> <br /> Mrs. Bowls cautioned her lodger against venturing into the lion’s den”. (Thackeray, 2012, 452)<br /> <br /> 叫她切不可轻易住到老虎窝里去。<br /> <br /> In the west, “lion” is the symbol of power, representing the king of all animal just as the image of tiger in China. So the “lion” is translated to the corresponding cultural image of China, that is “老虎”, which both reflect that Mrs. Bowls thinks that it is dangerous for Briggs to live with Mrs. Rawdon.<br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> Poor Brigs can no more play than an owl, she is so stupid. (Thackeray, 2012, 533)<br /> <br /> 可怜的布立葛斯蠢得要死，哪里会玩牌。<br /> <br /> In the western culture, there is an idiom “as wise as an owl”. So in westerners’ view, owl is the symbol of wisdom. Here, “no more play than an owl” means foolishness. In China, traditional people are superstitious and believe that looking at an owl or hearing its sound is unlucky and bad luck is coming. So there is not the same implied meaning about owl between the west and China. Therefore, the translation deletes the owl and keeps its implied meaning.<br /> <br /> =====5.1.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> =====5.1.2 Material Culture-loaded words=====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Example 5: <br /> <br /> He insisted upon having a bowl of rack punch. (Thackeray, 2012, 56)<br /> <br /> 他又要了一碗五味酒。<br /> <br /> “Rack punch” is a kind of drink. The translator chooses a substitution of “五味酒”to fill in the cultural gap and is easier to understand for readers.<br /> <br /> Example 6: <br /> <br /> I have no taste for bread and butter. (Thackeray, 2012, 710）<br /> <br /> 有些人乏味的就像白开水煮豆腐，我可不喜欢。<br /> <br /> “Bread and butter” are common food in western countries and not rare or interesting for the western people. When it comes to food that is light and tasteless, Chinese people will think of “白开水” and “豆腐”which are white and dull. The source text uses metaphor “bread and butter” to describe boring people. The translator also uses simile to describe this kind of people. Besides, the division of translation version reads leisurely in mood and emphasizes the attitudes of speaker.<br /> <br /> Example 7: <br /> <br /> It is the duty of great intellects to be content with a bread-and-butter paradise. (Thackery,2012, 908)<br /> <br /> 只求能得到这样家常的乐趣。<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, bread and butter are common food for the west people and exist in every family. The two kinds of food are homely and accord with the meaning of “家常”. The translation deletes the meaning of original sentence and embodies the connotative meaning.<br /> <br /> =====5.1.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> =====5.1.3 Social Culture-loaded words=====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Example 8: <br /> <br /> In a CURTAIN LECTURE, I say, Mrs Sedley took her husband to ask for his cruel conduct to poor Joe. (Thackeray, 2012, 49)<br /> <br /> 正在对他训话。<br /> <br /> “Curtain lecture” is a phrase in English, which means a private lecture to a husband by his wife. “Ask for his cruel conduct” implies a blaming tone. Two phrases are just the meaning of “训话”. The several small sentences are translated into one short sentence, which is precise and concise.<br /> <br /> Example 9: <br /> <br /> But he said Sir has numbered every “man Jack” of them. (Thackeray, 2012, 130)<br /> <br /> 花匠说毕脱先生可是一串串都数过了。<br /> <br /> “Every man Jack” is an informal expression which means a single individual. The translation of “一串串” not only shows the meaning of the phrase but accords with the context.<br /> <br /> Example 10: <br /> <br /> He came home and looked out his history in the Peerage. (Thackeray, 2012, 207）<br /> <br /> 他回家之后，立刻拿出《缙绅录》来把这个人的身世细细看个明白。<br /> <br /> “Peerage”means the peers of a kingdom considered as a group. Here, according to the context and the capitalization of the word, “Peerage” refers to a register or a book. The translator chooses Chinese book 《缙绅录》which has the same meanings to translate the book, which replaces cultural meaning of the original sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 11: <br /> <br /> Lord Steyne treated his “Hareem” whenever symptoms of insubordination appeared in his household. (Thackeray, 2012, 758)<br /> <br /> 每逢他的“后宫”里的女人有不服管束的行为。<br /> <br /> The sentence expresses Lord Steyne’s dignify. Lord Steyne is a central figure in upper class. In order to reveal his social status,“household” is translated into “后宫”. In China, the word of “后宫” is full of cultural meaning used to a man’s power. Yang finds a cultural word in China to replace one in the western culture.<br /> <br /> There are some other examples about Yang’s translation of social culture-loaded words by means of domesticating method in Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> Old Nick 魔鬼老爹<br /> <br /> The little artful minx 诡计多端的狐媚子<br /> <br /> Whop my second keeper! 把我的看狩猎场的打了吗？<br /> <br /> A second wife 填房<br /> <br /> Off the hooks 翘了辫子<br /> <br /> O brother wearers of motley 同行的小丑们<br /> <br /> =====5.1.4 Religious culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> =====5.1.4 Religious Culture-loaded Words=====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Example 12: <br /> <br /> Osborne was Sedley’s godson. (Thackeray,2012,54）<br /> <br /> 奥斯本是塞特笠的干儿子。<br /> <br /> “Godson” is a male godchild in religion, and its relevant opposite is Godfather or Godmother. Parents will invite one of their good friends to be godfather of their kid. Godfather or godmother plays a key role in kid’s baptism. China has no such concept but has a concept that parents will invite their good friend to be “ 干爹” or “干妈” of their kid. Two concepts of godfather and “干爹” have similar social background. They both are people who are the best friend of the parents and are chosen to be by the parents, but they have different cultural background, that is, one is out of religion, the other is just in the folk.<br /> <br /> Example 13: <br /> <br /> What a little harpy that woman from Hampshire is. (Thackeray, 2012, 308)<br /> <br /> 汉泊郡来的那个女人真是个贪心辣手的家伙。<br /> <br /> “Harpy” is a cruel creature with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and feet also represents a cruel woman. The translation of “贪心辣手” conforms to connotative meaning of religion and is equal to cruelty.<br /> <br /> Example 14: <br /> <br /> So Jos’s tents and pilau were pleasant to this little Ishmaelite. (Thackeray, 2012, 1044)<br /> <br /> 同样的，蓓基一向被放逐在外面，现在住在乔斯的帐篷里面吃他的比劳，觉得真是高兴。<br /> <br /> In the ''Bible'', Ishmaelite is the descendant of Ishmael. According to ''Bible'', Ishmael is the eldest son of Abraham. His mother is Hagar, maid of Abraham’s wife, Sarah. After the birth of Sarah’s son the second year, Ishmael is evicted. In English, Ishmael refers to social outcasts. Ishmael is translated into “一向被放逐在外” in the way of domestication. If using foreignization, the translator must add many notes of names which are unimportant and unnecessary, and these complex names will enhance the difficulty to understand the content.<br /> <br /> ====='''5.1.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br /> <br /> =====5.1.5 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words=====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Example 15: <br /> She spelt satin satting, and Saint Jame’s, Saint Jams. (Thackeray, 2012, 324)<br /> <br /> 她把“缎子” 写成了 “团子”, “圣·詹姆士”写成了“生申母事”。<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the author takes advantage of pronunciation and form of English to express the error. The translator also uses the pronunciation and near-tone characters in Chinese to translate the sentence. Both sentences skillfully exploit the characters of two languages, making the sentences vivid.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 Application of Foreignization====<br /> =====5.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> ====5.2 Application of Foreignization====<br /> =====5.2.1 Ecological Culture-loaded Words=====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Example 16：<br /> <br /> He could sing no better than an owl. (Thackeray, 2012, 92)<br /> <br /> 因为他实在跟猫头鹰一样不会唱歌 。<br /> <br /> This sentence is complete literal translation. In the western culture and Chinese culture, owl’s sound is unpleasant. So the translator uses foreignization method, which is not only faithful to source language but conforms to Chinese people’s cultural identity. (Thackeray, 2012, 201)<br /> <br /> Example 17: <br /> <br /> When the present writer went to survey with eagle glance the field of Waterloo. (Thackery2012, 431)<br /> <br /> 用他那双鹰眼细细的把战场看了一遍。<br /> <br /> The original sentence describes the “glance” with eagle. The translated version adopts foreignization. For Chinese people, eagle’s eyes are incisive and acute. So the literal translation completely conveys emotions of source text.<br /> <br /> =====5.2.2 Material culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> =====5.2.2 Material Culture-loaded Words=====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Example 18: <br /> <br /> Her fingers were like so many sausages, cold and lifeless. (Thackeray, 2012, 646)<br /> <br /> 摸上去就像五条小香肠。<br /> <br /> “Sausage” is a kind of food in the west that is highly seasoned minced meat stuffed in casings. Chinese“香肠”is similar to the food and such translation is vivid and will not cause misunderstandings.<br /> <br /> =====5.2.3 Social culture-loaded words=====<br /> <br /> =====5.2.3 Social Culture-loaded Words=====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Example 19: <br /> <br /> I have nourished a viper in my bosom. (Thackeray, 2012, 27)<br /> <br /> 我这真是在胸口养了一条毒蛇。<br /> <br /> Miss Pinkerton borrows the story that farmer saves a snake but is bit to death by the snake in Aesop’s Fables to rebuke that Becky is ingratitude. China has the similar expression such as “养虎为患 ”. The reason why Yang did not adopt such expression maybe is that she did not want to destroy the association that snake is related to bad woman both in China and in the west. There is Medusa in the west while there is “蛇蝎美人” in China. This literal translation is not so fluent but keeps the associative meaning of the original sentence.<br /> <br /> Example 20: <br /> <br /> “Figs” was the fellow whom he despised most. (Thackeray, 2012, 70)<br /> <br /> 他最瞧不起“无花果”。(加注：无花果“figs”这字有傲慢的意思)<br /> <br /> This sentence is literal translation plus note. “Figs” has different meanings in English. One refers to “a soft candy”, the other is “not to care all about something”. The original sentence uses “figs” to express an emotion. Yang translates one meaning of the word, which is humor and interesting. The note explains another meaning, which completely displays the meaning that the original sentence coveys.<br /> <br /> Example 21: <br /> <br /> Though he is not Adonis, certainly. (Thackeray, 2012, 83)<br /> <br /> 当然啰，他不是阿多尼斯. (加注释）<br /> <br /> “Adonis” is a name and is transliterated. He, the divine of the plants of spring, is always young and worshipped by woman in Greek mythology. Names and place names always adopt transliteration. Adding annotation can make readers know more about cultural background. So the translation method is simple in the text and also help the readers understand the text better.<br /> <br /> Example 22: <br /> <br /> About as elegantly decorated as a she chimney-sweep on May-day. (Thackeray, 2012, 333）<br /> <br /> 活像扫烟囱的女孩子穿戴了准备过五月节。<br /> <br /> There a job called chimney-sweep in the west and William Black also writes two poems about the job. Children who devote themselves to the job are poor. Though China does not have such kind of job in the history but readers can imagine that children who do the job many become black because they always stay in the chimney. May-day is Labor Day that Chinese readers are familiar with. So according to imagination and cultural background, it is possible for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of the sentence.<br /> <br /> ====='''5.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words'''=====<br /> <br /> =====5.2.4 Religious Culture-loaded Words=====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Example 23: <br /> <br /> He was never known during eight years at school to be subjected to that punishment, which it is generally thought none but a cherub can escape.<br /> <br /> 在学校读书的八年里头，他从来没有给老师打过屁股。普通说起来，只有天使才能躲过这种惩罚。(注释：天使是没有屁股的，十九世纪英国散文家兰姆（Lamb）在《母校回忆录》一文中就曾提到“只有头部和翅膀的小天使”）<br /> <br /> The sentence depicts the image of model student of Mrs. Crawley. The original sentence uses the word of “cherub” but does not explain clearly what “that punishment” is because English readers will produce corresponding association when reading “cherub”. This implied meaning improves humor. Yang translates “cherub” into “天使”, which is familiar to Chinese readers and is more acceptable. It is worth mentioning that Yang Bi explains what the punishment is and cites other books to explain the reason, which tells cultural background, enhances reader’s understanding and receives a comedy effect.<br /> <br /> ====='''5.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words'''=====<br /> <br /> =====5.2.5 Linguistic Culture-loaded Words=====--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Example 24: <br /> <br /> Buty and the Beast I call him, ha ha! (Thackeray, 2012, 123)<br /> <br /> 我说他一半是别镝一半是野兽，哈哈! (加注:指童话“美人与獣”，美人（Beauty）和别镝（Buty)同音）<br /> <br /> “Buty”and beauty are homophones. Beauty and Beast is a fairy tale. “别镝” is a transliteration of “Buty”. If only looking at the translation of “Buty”, readers can not understand the meaning of the sentence. So the translator adds a note to explain such translation.<br /> <br /> Example 25:<br /> <br /> Miss ah-Miss Blunt! (Thackeray, 2012, 127）<br /> <br /> 白伦脱小姐!（外文加注释）<br /> <br /> The sentence is translated according to the original sentence. “Sharp” means acuity and “Blunt” means purity. Mr. Crawley has a poor memory and mixes two meanings. The translator explains the real meaning at the foot of the page. This literal translation plus annotation can help readers understand implied meaning.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Six Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading local books. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.<br /> <br /> Culture-loaded words are full of cultural background. Translation not only conveys information of them but also their implied meaning. Vanity Fair is famous for its significance of the times and witty language and bearing cultural information. Yang Bi’s translation is intelligible and gives a feeling that readers are reading a local book. The praise in criticism circle and its popularity among the readers both indicate the excellence of Yang’s translation.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text need both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical condition, history and society, the west and China have different cultural background, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Yang applies much of domestication and foreignization in her translation of Vanity Fair and receives wide welcome and acceptance among Chinese readers. Although controversy still exists, the fact has proved that a good translation text needs both of them. Combination of domestication and foreignization is a corollary. Because of different geographical conditions, history and society, the west and China have different cultural backgrounds, thus causing culture gap. Because of the resemblance of these conditions and the result of wide communication between the west and China, they also have something in common in the culture. So in the process of translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for each others’ deficiencies. In order to obtain a good translation text, it is important for translators to find a balance between domestication and foreignization when using translation strategies.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1] Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. <br /> <br /> [2] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.<br /> <br /> [3] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.<br /> <br /> [4] Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.<br /> <br /> [5] Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.<br /> <br /> [6] 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.<br /> <br /> [7] 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.<br /> <br /> [8] 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.<br /> <br /> [9] 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.<br /> <br /> [10] 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.<br /> <br /> [11] 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Nida, E. A, Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004. <br /> <br /> Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. New York: Prentice Hall, 1988, 39-44.<br /> <br /> Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 15-20, 34.<br /> <br /> Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. 北京: 北京外语教学社. 2000, 21.<br /> <br /> Shuttle, Mark＆ Cowie, Moria. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 43-44, 59.<br /> <br /> Tharkery 萨克雷著. 名利场 [M]. 杨必译. 北京：人民文学出版社. 2012.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲. 翻译的艺术[M]. 北京：五洲传播出版社. 2006.<br /> <br /> Tharkery 萨克雷著. 名利场[M]. 北京：中国宇航出版社. 2012.<br /> <br /> Li Duanyan 李端严. 杨必译《名利场》技巧举例[J]. 兰州大学学报. 1980, 4: 45-46.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Bao Ang 包惠南, 包昂. 中国文化与汉英翻译[M]. 北京：外文出版社. 2004, 10.<br /> <br /> Liao Qiyi 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社. 2000, 232.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br /> <br /> ==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 谌孙福 Chen Sunfu== <br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;谌孙福 Chen Sunfu 202020080597&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Translation theories; Translation strategies; Translation techniques; Skopos Theory; Pragmatic translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 论目的论视角下翻译理论、翻译策略与翻译技巧之间的关系<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word &quot;Skopos&quot; refers to &quot;purpose&quot; in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as &quot;the principle of purposes&quot;. According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br /> <br /> The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, &quot;each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.&quot; (Nord 2001,29). <br /> <br /> Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance with the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.(Dong Xiaobo 2012,17)<br /> <br /> Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br /> <br /> The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's &quot;faithfulness&quot; or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent. (Dong Xiaobo 2012,18)<br /> <br /> To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ====Translation theories,strategies and techniques====<br /> Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br /> <br /> With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br /> <br /> The interpretation of the word &quot;strategy&quot; by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as &quot;a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time.&quot; Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br /> <br /> In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies.(Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br /> <br /> In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignization, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br /> <br /> In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br /> <br /> An authoritative concept of the word &quot;technique&quot; given by Collins describes it as &quot;a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills.&quot; Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83) <br /> <br /> A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being. (Xiong Bing 2014, 83)<br /> <br /> ====The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques====<br /> Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br /> <br /> On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br /> <br /> Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br /> <br /> Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br /> <br /> To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br /> <br /> On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br /> <br /> Translation theories are the most high-levelled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories.(Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br /> <br /> Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84) <br /> <br /> But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br /> <br /> But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-levelled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies. (Xiong Bing 2014, 84)<br /> <br /> ===Case Analysis===<br /> <br /> ====The translation of tourism texts====<br /> Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). &quot;TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products.&quot; (M. Zain Sulaiman &amp; Rita Wilson 2019,17) <br /> <br /> Since this paper manages to unfold relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following is not an exception. <br /> <br /> Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation. (焦炭, 张辉 2019, 43)<br /> <br /> Example 1<br /> <br /> ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。（《武陵源风景》画册）<br /> <br /> TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marvelling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br /> <br /> TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including &quot;立地顶天&quot;, &quot;摇摇欲坠&quot;, &quot;玲珑剔透&quot; and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos Theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br /> <br /> Example 2<br /> <br /> ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br /> （九寨沟风景名胜区简介）<br /> <br /> TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the &quot;Fabled World&quot;, is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br /> <br /> Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like &quot;荷叶&quot;, &quot;书正&quot; and &quot;则查洼&quot; in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br /> <br /> Example 3<br /> <br /> ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。（《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图）<br /> <br /> TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br /> <br /> Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, &quot;章武三年&quot;, &quot;白帝城永安宫&quot; and &quot;惠陵&quot; are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as &quot;the third year of Zhangwu&quot;, &quot;Yongan Palace in Baidi City&quot; and &quot;Hui Mausoleum&quot;, these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. &quot;章武三年&quot; is translated into &quot;233&quot; which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. &quot;白帝城永安宫&quot; is flexibly treated as &quot;Fengjie County, Sichuan Province&quot;, a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are an authentic reflection of translation theories.<br /> <br /> ====2.2The translation of literary texts====<br /> Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. <br /> <br /> In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. <br /> <br /> This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br /> <br /> Example 4<br /> <br /> ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.(Harriet Beecher Stowe 1999,1)<br /> <br /> TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。<br /> <br /> Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> Example 5<br /> <br /> ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”(Cao Xueqin 1996,129)<br /> <br /> TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. &quot;Good,&quot; she said, &quot;So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off.&quot; (Yang Xianyi 1994,160)<br /> <br /> TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(David Hawkes 2004,178)<br /> <br /> Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. <br /> <br /> At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase &quot;蟾宫折桂&quot;. <br /> <br /> Yang translated it literally and directly as &quot;pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon&quot;, maintaining the exclusive Chinese images &quot;osmanthus&quot;. In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into &quot;I wish you every success&quot;, exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. <br /> <br /> Now that Skopos Theory states that &quot;aim justifies end&quot;, the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br /> <br /> Example 6<br /> <br /> ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。(Lu Xun 2004, 20)<br /> <br /> TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Blessings'' written by Lu Xun. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Blessings'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word &quot;炮烙&quot; is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of the Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted &quot;炮烙&quot; into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br /> <br /> ====The translation of business texts====<br /> Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as &quot;English used in the business context&quot;. &quot;It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP).&quot; (王兴孙 1997,24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as &quot;Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs.&quot; (陈准民 王立非 2009,17) <br /> <br /> Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of &quot;business&quot; and &quot;English&quot;. Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.(郭晓燕 2017,36)<br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy. (Candy冰箱广告词)<br /> <br /> TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br /> <br /> TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br /> <br /> Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the &quot;economic principle&quot; of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted &quot;我已经做出选择&quot; and superseded the Chinese word &quot;和&quot; with the punctuation of &quot;+&quot;, taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br /> <br /> Example 8<br /> <br /> ST: Next is Now. (三星S6系列手机广告词)<br /> <br /> TT1:未来即现在。<br /> <br /> TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br /> <br /> Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelmingly greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of &quot;未来即现在&quot; will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of &quot;让未来现在就来&quot; paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。(《三元产品设计工作室简介》)<br /> <br /> TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including &quot;一如既往&quot;, &quot;不折不扣&quot;, &quot;别具一格&quot; and &quot;独一无二&quot; have been translated into &quot; as ever&quot; and &quot;unique&quot;. <br /> <br /> More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Summary and conclusion===<br /> This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus concluded that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br /> <br /> This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> * Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (1996). ''红楼梦'' [Dream in a Red Mansion]. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House 人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> * Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹. (2004). ''红楼梦'' [The Story of the Stone]. Penguin 企鹅出版社.<br /> <br /> * Chen Zhunmin, Wang Lifei 陈准民,王立非. 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''Young Scholars'' 青年文学家 31-32.<br /> <br /> * Tsao Hsuen-Chin, Kao Hgo 曹雪芹, 高鹗. (1994). ''红楼梦'' [A Dream of Red Mansions]. Beijing: Foreign Languages ​​Press 外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> * Wang Xingsun 王兴孙. (1997). 对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨 [Discussion on the Development of International Business English]. ''International Business Studies'' 国际商务研究 24-28.<br /> <br /> * Wilson Rita, Sulaiman, M, Z 威尔逊·丽塔, 苏雷曼·M·Z. (2019). ''翻译与旅游业: 跨文化宣传的有效策略'' [Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion]. Springer 施普林格出版社.<br /> <br /> * Xiong Bing 熊兵. (2014). 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例 [Concept confusion in translation studies: Taking &quot;translation methods&quot;, &quot;translation strategies&quot; and &quot;translation skills&quot; as examples]. ''Chinese Translators'' 中国翻译 82-88.<br /> <br /> *Yang Xianyi 杨先一. (2009). 林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例 [Lin Shu and his translation——Taking &quot;Hei Nu Yu Tian Lu&quot; as an example].Qingdao: Shandong University 山东大学.<br /> --[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:15, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> == On the translation of Chinese Animal Idioms from the Functional Equivalence Theory - 彭娟 Peng Juan ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;彭娟 Peng Juan 202020080632 English Language and Literature&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Idioms can vividly reflect the cultural connotations of a language. Animals play a very important role in people’s daily life. Therefore, people often use vivid animal images to explain the complex and changeable social phenomena, so vivid animal idioms come into being. In Chinese and Western cultures, animal idioms are commonly found in various languages.<br /> <br /> First of all, these animal idioms have some similarities in some aspects, but there are also inevitably some differences. Because of these differences, translating animal idioms has become a very difficult task. The functional equivalence theory, proposed by Eugene Nida, a famous American translator, has a great influence on the translation of English and Chinese animal idioms. Nida thinks that the reaction of TL readers to the target text（TT）should be the same to that of the SL readers to the source text（ST）. <br /> <br /> Guided by Nida's theory of functional equivalence and in the light of the cultural differences between China and the West , this paper discusses and summarizes four translation methods that are suitable for animal idioms. They are literal translation, borrowing, free translation, literal translation with annotation. The purpose of summarizing these four translation methods is to make the target language keep its equivalence with the source language both in form and content.<br /> <br /> However, the meaning of each animal idiom varies in different cultures. Therefore, in the translation of these animal idioms, the translators need to choose different translation methods according to different circumstances to maximize the reproduction of the true meaning of idioms.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Function Equivalence Theory; Animal idioms; the cultural implications; Translation methods<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 从奈达功能对等理论探究动物习语翻译<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 习语能生动地反映出语言中的文化内涵。在人们的日常生活中，动物扮演着十分重要的角色。因此，人们常常采用动物形象来阐释复杂多变的社会现象,所以生动形象的动物习语应运而生。在中西方文化中，动物习语普遍存在于各种语言中。首先，这些动物习语在某些方面有相似之处，同时也不免会存在一些差异。由于这些差异的存在,翻译动物习语便成了一项十分困难的任务。著名美国翻译学家尤金·奈达提出了“功能对等”翻译理论，此理论对翻译英汉动物习语影响甚大。 奈达的功能对等理论旨在于让目的语读者对译文能产生与源语读者对原文产生的最相近的反应。此篇论文以奈达的“功能对等”翻译理论为指导,同时 根据动物的文化含义在中西方的差异,探讨并总结了四种适合动物习语的翻译方法，即意译法,借用法,直译法,直译加注释四种翻译方法。之所以总结这四种翻译方法，是为了使目的语在形式与内容上最大程度地保持与源语的对等。但是,每个动物习语的含义在不同的文化背景下也有所不同。所以,在翻译这些动物习语时，译者需要根据不同的情况选择不同的翻译方法,从而最大程度地再现动物习语的真正含义。 <br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达功能对等理论；动物习语；动物文化内涵；翻译方法<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Many theorists and scholars have conducted a lot of researches on equivalence in the past from its definition and relevance to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied equivalence in the translation process and have provided further study on equivalence with many points of view. Idioms are regarded as an crucial and fundamental part of languages which directly reflect the culture of a nation. Individuals have employed idioms for several centuries, which are the products of cultures with distinguishing cultural features and special denotations. There are countless animal idioms in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms could reflect the cultural features of the languages profoundly and make the languages colorful. Therefore, when translating, translators should understand idioms completely and focus on various cultural connotations of different animal idioms.<br /> <br /> In the past, many theorists and scholars have done a lot of research on equivalence from its definition and association to its application in various fields of translation. Some famous theorists have studied the problem of equivalence in the process of translation and made a thorough study of it from many aspects. Idioms are an important part of a language and directly reflect the culture of a nation. Idioms are the product of culture and have distinct cultural characteristics and special meanings. There are countless idioms about animals in Chinese and Western cultures. These idioms can profoundly reflect the cultural characteristics of the language, making the language rich and colorful. Therefore, translators should fully understand idioms and pay attention to the cultural connotations of different animal idioms.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> ===2.Literature Reviews===<br /> <br /> Studies abroad mainly involve four perspectives, namely syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and cognitive approaches. For instance, the grammarian Fernando (1996) has focused on the generative nature of idiom structures from the perspective of syntactic way. In his opinion, his researches has mainly applied the transformational-generative grammar. Having conducted many researches in the semantic way, researches mainly paid much attention to the meanings of idioms.Zhang QingJuan（2015:7）<br /> <br /> For instance, Makkai (1972: 122) has thought that idioms are fixed terms with two or more words and the meaning of the whole term is different from that of the individual word if you take them as a group of words. As for the pragmatic linguists, they have studied idioms of their usages or the functions they bear. The linguist Fernando’s work, idioms and idiomaticity was a breakthrough for it has broken the ontological method of previous studies on idioms. It has also linked the usages of idioms with their contexts and discussed the role idioms played in the process of language acquisition.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br /> <br /> What is more, from the perspective of Fernando, it was the encyclopedic knowledge that has finally decided the meaning of idioms. Fernando has also applied the three language functions proposed by Halliday in his systematic-functional grammar to idioms. And he classifies idioms into ideational idioms, interpersonal idioms as well as the relational idioms by replacing the term textual with relational. Cognitive linguists have also done a lot of researches on idioms. For example, the construction theory has its basis on the analyses of idioms. Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br /> <br /> Kovecses and Lakoff (1987) have proved the analyzability of idioms in their works by probing into sufficient linguistic evidences and they have found out that the way people analyze and understand idioms also reflect the metaphorical nature of human cognition. And Kovecses together with his students has also made summaries on the metaphorical usages of idioms relating to the human body. From the four perspectives mentioned above, studies on idioms also involve in the classification of idioms. Nunberg (1994) has identified three sub-categories of idioms, namely non-decomposable idioms, decomposable idioms as well as abnormally decomposable idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br /> <br /> In every life, animals have played an essential role in the improvement of people. When they exert a crucial function in the society, languages reflect the culture and contain deep animal idioms. Therefore, there are lots of animal idioms naturally containing rich cultural senses. Some researchers have mainly analyzed idioms as their research objective in various areas because idiom is a crucial verbal form, like intercultural communication, pragmatics and contrastive linguistics. Mr. Liao Guangrong in 2000 has done a comparison to an average number of animal idioms and culturally-loaded animal vocabulary through many examples in detail.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br /> <br /> The research on idioms from cultural perspective was done by Wang Dechun (2003) and Hu Wenzhong (2000). Some great achievements had been gained by some younger researchers. Animal idioms had studied by Dong Tao in 2010 in the comparing way between English and Chinese cultures. Besides, comparative methods were employed by an increasing number of scholars. For instance, comparative analysis method was used by Chen Wenbo(1982) and Jiang Lei (2000) for English and Chinese idioms. To sum up, the importance of idioms has been understood by many language researchers particularly the importance of animal idioms and a lot of researchers have made or will make further researches on idioms.Zhang Qingjuan（2015:7）<br /> <br /> ===3.The Definition and Characteristics of Idioms===<br /> <br /> The definition of idiom is presented as well as cultural connotation and characteristics of idioms.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Definition of Idioms====<br /> <br /> According to New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998), idiom refers to a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words. In general, Chinese idioms contain six types: character phrases, proverbs, allusions, common sayings, colloquialisms and slang. The scope of English idioms is not fixed, which can usually be divided into “proverbs, sayings, allusions, slang, etc”. At home, the Ci Hai definite the idiom as “one kind of idioms and phrase of convention ” . Because of the cultural differences, there are various standards on idioms. In Chinese, idioms are very common that often are seen in many cases, such as in four words forms, proverbs, idiomatic phrases, allegorical sayings, etc. In Western culture , the scope of idioms is wider than in Chinese. The proverbs, sayings and other colloquial phrases are all idiomatic.<br /> <br /> ====3.2The Characteristics of Idioms====<br /> <br /> According to the definition of idioms, individuals could know that idioms are different from common words. They have some unique features, which can be concluded as the single unit, institutionalization and irreplaceability. The induction is very brief but too abstract. Some more specific analysis will be done from their structural features and semantic features to better understand the features of idioms.<br /> <br /> To begin with, for structural features of idioms, words making up idioms cannot be replaced freely, which will result in the loss of the meanings. For instance, “make haste” cannot be written as “make hurry” and “dark horse” cannot be substituted by “black horse”. Idiom is not the simple plus of each word, such as: let the cat out of the bag, know the ropes, and rain cats and dogs. From the whole, the real meaning of them cannot be known.<br /> <br /> ===4.The Introduction of Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida, an outstanding translation theorist and lecturer in America, was born in November, 1914 and was dead in August 2011. Some translation theories were proposed by him. These theories have brought about great influence on the translation studies not only in western countries but also in Asian countries,especially in China. As is known to all, he is regarded as the most influential one among all the contemporary translation theorists. Functional Equivalence Theory is advanced by Eugene A.Nida.<br /> <br /> In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as &quot;flea&quot;, &quot;cuckoo&quot;, &quot;albatross&quot;, &quot;bumblebee&quot; and so on. For example, &quot;a white elephant&quot;, &quot;worthless or worthless&quot;, &quot;a elephant's memory&quot;, &quot;a flea in one's ear&quot;, &quot;as mad as hornet&quot;. The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> His research of translation theory has significantly affected many translators. Concentrating on what a translation does or performs, the introduction of the idea of“functional equivalence”provides a sound basis for discussing translation as a form of intercultural communication. In comparison with many other theories, Nida’s functional equivalence theory has been widely accepted and applied in translation research and translation.<br /> <br /> His theoretical research on translation has exerted a profound influence on many translators. The introduction of the concept of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; provides a good basis for discussing translation as a form of cross-cultural communication. Compared with many other theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory has been widely recognized and applied in translation studies and translation.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:33, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> ====4.1The Definition of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida defined functional equivalence between minimized and maximized effectiveness based on cognitive and experiential aspects in his book Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal connotation of functional equivalence is “The reader of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.”（1993） The maximal definition of functional equivalence could be stated as“The readers of a translated text should be able to understood and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did.” According to Nida’s view, translating is not to get fully adequate translating, but to reproduce the closest natural equivalence to the source text. A good translation always lies in between in the two levels.<br /> <br /> In his book &quot;Language, Culture, and Translation,&quot; Nida defines functional equivalence between minimizing and maximizing effectiveness based on cognition and experience. The minimal meaning of functional equivalence is that “the reader of the translated text should be able to understand it so that they can imagine how the original reader of the text must understand and appreciate it.” (1993) Functional equivalence can be expressed as “the reader of the translated text should It can be understood and appreciated in the same way as the original reader.” According to Nida, translation is not about obtaining sufficient translation, but about reproducing the closest natural equivalent to the source text. Good translation is always between two levels.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:24, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> ====4.2The Development of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Early 1960s, Nida first put forward the idea of“form equivalence”which required the source language should keep the correspondence with the target language as same as possible. In the book Toward a Science of Translation（1940）, he put forward “dynamic equivalence”. This theory meant that the react of source language must as same as the react of target language. <br /> <br /> Since some translators often understood it as“anything which might have special impact and appeal for receptors”，he changed the dynamic equivalent into functional equivalent in his work from One Language to Another. In 1993, in language Culture and Translating（1993），he defined functional equivalence that means the readers of target language could understand the translation content as the readers of source language. Nida（1993:32）<br /> <br /> ====4.3The Core of Functional Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> In the Functional Equivalence Theory, Nida puts the“receptor’s response”as the nucleus of the Functional Equivalence. It is easy to find that Nida pays great attention to the receptor’s response, which has been ignored by earlier theorists. <br /> <br /> In functional equivalence theory, Nida regards &quot;receptor response&quot; as the core of functional equivalence. It's easy to see how much attention Nida pays to the receptor response, which was overlooked by early theorists.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the SL and TL, Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasized the importance of receptor’s response. “The receptor’s response”serves as a vital measurement of the success in translating. <br /> <br /> An adequate translation should make sure that readers of the TL have the same response as the readers of the SL. That is to say, a translation should be judged not by the verbal correspondence between the two texts, but by the way that SL and TL receptors’ response.Then, the aim of translation is to make the TL readers have the same response on the TT as that of the SL readers to the ST.<br /> <br /> This principle focuses on the functional equivalence of information instead of the formal equivalence of lexical in translation. Therefore, translation should keep the meaning and style of the source language functionally equivalent to that of the target language as much as possible. Nida points out that for the purpose of realizing the ideal translation, it is necessary to find the closet naturalequivalence.This effect can only be approached rather than reached completely. Nida’s functional equivalence theory begins a new angle to the research of translation.<br /> <br /> Different from traditional translation theories, Nida's functional equivalence theory mainly emphasizes the correspondence between target language and target language, and it emphasizes the importance of receptor response. &quot;Receptor response&quot; is an important criterion to measure the success of translation. A qualified translation should ensure that the response of the target reader is consistent with that of the source reader, that is to say, the quality of a translation should not be judged by the linguistic correspondence between two texts, but by the way the source language and the target language receptor react. Therefore, the purpose of translation is to make the target reader become the target reader. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> <br /> This principle emphasizes the functional equivalence of information in translation rather than the formal equivalence of words. Therefore, translation should try to make the meaning and style of the source language functionally consistent with the meaning and style of the target language. Nida pointed out that in order to achieve the ideal translation, the most appropriate natural equivalence must be found. This effect can only be approximated but not fully achieved. Nida's functional equivalence theory opens up a new perspective for translation studies. --[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 13:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> ===5.Comparing English and Chinese Cultural Connotation on Animal Idioms===<br /> <br /> ====5.1Corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br /> <br /> In western and Chinese culture, the animal images is not totally same because of the cultural differences. But after all people around the world live on the earth, they more or less use some same animal images to express their feelings and transmit their culture. Therefore, when translating the animal idioms, it is important to distinguish different animal images in different cultures. There are some animal images that are same in both English and Chinese. <br /> <br /> In Chinese and Western cultures, animal images are not the same due to cultural differences. But after all, people all over the world live on the earth, and they more or less use some of the same animal images to express their feelings and spread their culture. Therefore, when translating animal idioms, it is particularly important to distinguish different animal images from different cultural backgrounds. Some animal images are the same in English and Chinese.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> For example:<br /> 黑马 black horse<br /> 披着羊皮的狼 a wolf in sheep’s clothing <br /> 动如脱兔 as fast as hare<br /> <br /> The metaphorical objects and connotation of these animal idioms in Chinese are completely equivalent in English. Therefore, the metaphorical objects can be maintained during the process of C-E translation. That is to say, literal translation can be used directly because of the same animal images. However, this kind of images only counts for a small proportion and many other animal images are not equivalent and even do not exist in another languages. So literal translation is not suited for this situation.<br /> Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br /> <br /> The metaphorical objects and connotations of these animal idioms in Chinese are exactly the same in English. Therefore, metaphorical objects are preserved in chinese-English translation. In other words, since the animal images are the same, it can be directly translated. However, such images make up only a small proportion, and many other animal images are not equivalent or even do not exist in another language. So literal translation is not appropriate in this case.<br /> Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> ====5.2 Semi-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br /> <br /> That is to say, in Western and Chinese culture, some animal images can achieve equivalence in terms of pattern but are totally different in meaning. For example, the animal image ‘dragon’ exist in both western and Chinese culture. But, in Western culture, the connotation of ‘dragon’ is extremely contradictory compared with Chinese culture. Dragon is vicious monster and connotes evil and terror. This image is also demonstrated in many western movies. <br /> <br /> On the country, in China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness and a symbol of the Chinese nation and Chinese culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the east. &quot;Descendants of the Dragon&quot; , &quot;Legend of the Dragon&quot;, these titles, often make us excited and pride and have the cultural identity. Many ancient emperors take the dragon seat to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming（2014:21）<br /> <br /> That is to say, in Chinese and Western cultures, some animal images are equivalent in form, but completely different in meaning. For example, the animal image &quot;dragon&quot; exists in both Western culture and Chinese culture. However, in western culture, the connotation of &quot;dragon&quot; is extremely contradictory compared with that of Chinese culture. The dragon is an evil monster, symbolizing evil and terror. This image is also reflected in many Western films.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> In China, the dragon is often seen as a symbol of happiness, a symbol of the Chinese nation and culture. The dragon symbolizes the rising sun in the East. &quot;Descendants of the Dragon&quot;, &quot;Legend of the Dragon&quot; these titles, often make us excited and proud, with cultural identity. Many ancient emperors sat on the dragon chair to symbolize their power and authority. Yi Xuming (2014:21)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:12, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> ====5.3Non-corresponding to Animal Images and Connotations====<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural diversities, some animal idioms in SL do not have the equivalent counterparts in TL. That is to say, non-corresponding means that some English animal idioms are translated into Chinese without animals image, or vice versa. Notwithstanding, “functional equivalence” can be also achieved. So translators should make some adjustments in translation strategies to achieve the highest degree equivalent. <br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, some English animal idioms have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some English animal idioms have no animal images when translated into Chinese, and vice versa. Nonetheless, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; can be achieved. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> There are some examples<br /> Like cow,like calf 有其母必有其女<br /> Rain cats and dogs 倾盆大雨 <br /> Go to law for a sheep,you lose a cow 捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜<br /> Above all the examples, there are no equivalent animals images.<br /> <br /> ====5.4Semantic Vacancy to Animal Images and Connotations====<br /> <br /> As a semantic unit, semantic vacancy in a language does not have counterparts for the same sense in another one. That is to say, animal idioms in SL have no equivalent expression in TL or such kind of animal images do not exist in TL because of the diversity and uniqueness of the geographical environment, the norms of the institution and the customs of people. Basically, it is a cultural vacancy. That is to say, there are some animal idioms with rich cultural senses in English but they have no such sense in Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, some animal idioms in English have no corresponding relationship in the target language, that is to say, some animal idioms in English have no animal images in Chinese translation, and vice versa. Nonetheless, &quot;functional equivalence&quot; is achievable. Therefore, translators should make corresponding adjustments in translation strategies in order to achieve the highest degree of equivalence.--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> In English culture, metaphorical meanings can expressed by some certain animal idioms which Chinese culture never happens, like“flea”“cuckoo”“albatross”“hornet”，etc. For example,“a white elephant”（something with little or no value）,“an elephant’s memory”（there is good memory）,“a flea in one’s ear”（uncomfortable words）,“as mad as hornet”（very angry）.It cannot be searched for the metaphorical connotations of these idioms in the corresponding Chinese language.Yuan Caihong（1999:30-32）<br /> <br /> In English culture, some animal idioms not found in Chinese culture can be used to express metaphorical meaning, such as &quot;flea&quot;, &quot;cuckoo&quot;, &quot;albatross&quot;, &quot;bumblebee&quot; and so on. For example, &quot;a white elephant&quot;, &quot;worthless or worthless&quot;, &quot;a elephant's memory&quot;, &quot;a flea in one's ear&quot;, &quot;as mad as hornet&quot;. The metaphorical connotations of these idioms are not found in the corresponding Chinese. Yuan rainbow (1999-30-32)--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 14:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Tao Ye<br /> <br /> ===6.Approaches for Animal Idioms Translation based on Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Because of the different animal connotations in Chinese and Western cultures, when translating animal idioms, translators should carefully choose translation methods. There are four translation methods as literal translation, literal translation with annotations, borrowing and free translation.<br /> <br /> ====6.1 Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> Based on the common understanding of some animals in English and Chinese, if the images and the connotations of some animal idioms are the same in both English and Chinese, the literal translation is used to translate animal idioms with the complete equivalence of form and meaning. To illustrate this translation, there are some typical examples. <br /> 动如脱兔——as fast as hare <br /> 坐山观虎斗—to sit on a hill and watch the tigers fight <br /> 老虎头上扑苍蝇—Only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head<br /> <br /> In both Chinese culture and Western culture, the natural characteristics of rabbits are related to speed. Therefore, in both English and Chinese, a rabbit is regarded as the symbol of agility and swiftness. So “动如脱兔” is translated into “as fast as hare”. Likewise, the tiger is a symbol of power and strength in Chinese and Western culture. Thus, the literal translation is the most effective translation method. For example, “坐山观虎 斗” can be translated into &quot;to sit on the hill and watch the tigers fight&quot;; “老虎头上扑苍蝇”is translated into “only fools catch flies on a tiger’s head”. Besides, we all think s fox is sly in Chinese and Western culture, so “as sly as a fox”is directly translated into “像狐狸一样狡猾”.<br /> <br /> English idiom“barking dogs seldom bite”has the same meaning with the Chinese translation“吠犬不咬人”.The other idioms should be translated this way are in the following: “as ugly as a toad”is directly translated into(像癞蛤蟆一样丑).“fish in troubled water”（浑水摸鱼） ，“a bird’s eye view”（鸟瞰），“dark horse”（黑马），“as foolish as a donkey”（蠢得像一头驴），“a rat crossing the street is chased by all”（老鼠过街人人喊打）should be translated in this way. Therefore, according to Nida's functional equivalence, in order to maintain equivalence between the source language and the target language to such a large degree, the translators should give priority to literal translation, on condition that neither misunderstanding nor cognition gap will be incurred thereby. <br /> <br /> Briefly speaking, applying the method of literal translation can produce the equivalence of the four aspects: forms, meanings, styles, and images. In this way, the translation of animal idioms can achieve the closest natural equivalence. This method can not only make the image of the animal image more vivid, but also maintain the style of the SL to satisfy the TL readers’ expectation. To some degree, literal translation is a good and effective strategy to realize equivalent translation.<br /> Liang Yanmei（2011:147-148）<br /> <br /> ====6.2 Borrowing Translation====<br /> <br /> Although some Chinese and English idioms have different animal images, their meanings are the same. Due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and English , the same figurative meaning is given to different animals. At this time we can apply similar animal idioms in Chinese to translate, that is, to transform one animal image into another animal image. On the surface, they are different in form, but they are equivalent in meaning and style. That is to say, sometimes, there are no metaphors in some Chinese animal idioms, but there are similar meanings for them in English. When it is easy for the metaphors in the English language but the national atmosphere is not able to become strong; the people may employ the borrowing way for translation.<br /> <br /> 胆小如鼠——as timid as rabbit <br /> 力大如牛——as strong as a horse <br /> 虎口——lion’s mouth <br /> 养虎为患——warm a snake in one’s bosom <br /> 害群之马——a black sheep <br /> 像热锅上的蚂蚁—like a cat on the hot bricks<br /> 杀鸡取卵—kill the goose that laid golden eggs<br /> <br /> Sometimes the images of animals in English differ in that in Chinese animal idioms while they have the identical connotation. Therefore, borrowing is the most proper way for translating text. For instance, in English, the animal image “rabbit” is used to describe people who are too timid , that is, “as timid as a rabbit” . While in Chinese“mouse”is used as an the animal image, such as“胆小如鼠”.<br /> <br /> But they are the same in the ultimate transmission of meaning. Therefore, “胆小如鼠” is translated directly into “timid as a rabbit” rather than &quot;timid as a mouse&quot; . Although both rabbits and mice may exhibit the physiological trait of timidity in some cases, the borrowing translation method is more effective in avoiding misunderstanding and achieving the successful equivalence of meaning. Besides, in Western countries, the horse is regarded as the beast for burden and can produce milk and provide meat for people.<br /> <br /> Therefore, horse has more important social status in Western society than ox to show its power. However, ox are the main beast for burden in Chinese rural area, so there are of course some sayings as“力大如牛”“壮得像头牛”rather than“壮得像头马”“力大如马”. Because of the differences , it also directly produces the difference in animal idioms, so“力大如牛” is translated into English as &quot;as strong as a horse&quot; . Obviously, although their animal images are different, the substantive meanings are completely equal. In addition, “虎口”is translated into “lion’s mouth”because tigers and lions have the identical meanings in Chinese and Western culture. <br /> <br /> In Western countries, people are more familiar with lions than tigers. Chinese idiom“养虎为患”expresses the same meaning in the story between the farmer and snake. Thus it can be translated into “warm a snake in one’s bosom”. “害群之马”is translated into “a black sheep”instead of “a black horse”. Because the Chinese idiom is derogatory while horse in Western cultures is a positive animal and sheep is a negative animal. So“a black sheep”is much more proper. <br /> <br /> Above all, once animals have positive images in one language and negative images in another language, in translating, we can not translate the animals directly into another language, but use other animals to replace them.Lei Hua（2010:136-137）<br /> <br /> ====6.3 Free Translation====<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the associative meaning of the same animal is very different in the two languages and cultures. There is also no other animal with similar associative meaning in the target language. When such idioms are translated, the best way is to abandon animal images of source language and mainly focus on the translation of meaning itself.<br /> <br /> The translation method sacrifices the animal images in the original text, but it retains the metaphorical meaning relatively and achieves functional equivalence. That is to say, free translation mainly expresses the original meaning and the style of the SL instead of transferring strictly its words, sentence patterns or figures of speech of the ST. Therefore, in order to achieve the equivalence in idiom translation, free translation is the better and suitable way to translate these idioms and reproduce them in the TL. By doing this way, the connotative meaning of idioms in the ST can be thoroughly understood by the readers of TT. <br /> <br /> There are examples.<br /> To have a bee in one’s bonnet— 胡思乱想<br /> To come like a dog at a whistle—一呼即来<br /> Let the cat out of the bag—泄露秘密<br /> 牛鬼蛇神——monsters and ghosts <br /> 虎头虎脑——looking dignified and strong <br /> 强龙难压地头蛇——powerful outsiders can hardly afford to neglect local bullies<br /> 马首是瞻——follow somebody’s lead <br /> 效犬马之劳——serve somebody faithfully <br /> <br /> The Chinese idiom“牛鬼蛇神”means various bad people in Chinese. In English, there is no other animals of similar associative meaning to express its meaning. Therefore, it is translated into “ monsters and ghosts ” by using free translation method. Another example is “虎头虎脑”which means one is strong and honest. In Western cultures, the animal idiom does no exist. So the best method is to use free translation method. Besides, the animal idiom“强龙难压地头蛇”，in which the images of dragon in Chinese and Western cultures are totally different, is translated into “ a filthy mouth cannot utter decent language ” . By applying free translation method, the meaning of animal idioms is clearly shown and the same effect as that of the SL is given to the target readers, which can achieve the functional equivalence to the source language. Besides, individuals also better understand the meanings of various animal idioms.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br /> <br /> ====6.4 Literal Translation with Annotation====<br /> <br /> There are also many animal images in another language that cannot arouse the reassociation of readers at all. Because readers cannot understand the meaning of literal translation of image and free translation will lose its original image，for this kind of animal idiom, literal translation with annotation is the best translation method. That is to say, this kind of translation method can translate the literal meaning of animal idioms and then provide further explanation to idioms, such as backgrounds, figurative meanings, contexts and sources. Then the deep meaning can be pointed out to make the translation vivid, reflecting the charm and style of original text and achieving the maximum functional equivalence. There are some examples. <br /> 画蛇添足——draw snakes and add a feet to it-ruin the effect by adding something superfluous <br /> 羊质虎皮——a sheep in tiger’ s skin-outwardly strong, inwardly weak <br /> 杀鸡儆猴——kill the chicken to frighten the monkey-punish somebody as a warning to others <br /> Fish begins to stink at the end—鱼要腐烂先烂头—上梁不正下梁歪<br /> 挂羊头，卖狗肉—hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off something inferior to what it purport to be<br /> <br /> In the animal idiom“画蛇添足”, the cultural meaning of snake between two languages is similar, but it is not enough to simply use literal translation method. Because it is a traditional animal idioms , Chinese are familiar with it. But SL readers never hear about it. Therefore, it is much better to add annotation based on literal translation to make foreigners better understand the meaning of the idiom. Likewise, “ 杀 鸡 儆 猴 ” should also add annotation to stress figurative images in English. Therefore, by using the strategy of literal translation with annotation, we need to add some annotation to make the TL readers understand better and make the translation version more faithful. In conclusion, according to functional equivalence, translators can best preserve the national flavor of this kind of idioms by employing this method.Lu Yi（2018:130）<br /> <br /> ===7.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> English and Chinese are rich in animal idioms. Animal idioms are rich in cultural connotations and national color, which brings many difficulties to the translation of animal idioms. We must master the four translation methods mentioned above . Besides, to be familiar with the cultural connotations of animals under different cultural backgrounds is the key to accurately grasp the translation. All in all, in the process of translating animal idioms, translators should adopt different translation methods in different situations and not only keep the cultural characteristics in the original text; but also at the same time, translators can not arbitrarily impose Chinese cultural idioms on the target text. Only in this way, the translators can translate animal idioms more originally to achieve the cultural communication .<br /> <br /> ===8.References===<br /> <br /> *Nida, E. A. &amp;Taber, C.R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leidon Netherlands: EJ Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture-Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.<br /> <br /> *Nida, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1998.<br /> <br /> *Lu Yi吕艺.(2018).论功能对等理论在动物习语翻译策略中的应用.[J]. [On the Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Translation Strategies of Animal Idioms].试题与研究 Questions and Research(12):130.<br /> <br /> *Liang Yanmei梁燕媚.(2011).英文动物习语的汉译方法浅析.[J]. [An Analysis of the Methods of Translating English Animal Idioms into Chinese].科教文汇(中旬刊) Education and Culture (mid-century)(04):147-148. <br /> <br /> *Lei Hua雷花.(2010).以功能对等理论浅析英汉动物习语的翻译.[J]. [Translation of English and Chinese Animal Idioms from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence]. 科教导刊(中旬刊) Journal of Science and Education (mid-century)(06):136-137.<br /> <br /> *Yuan Caihong袁彩虹.（1999）.英汉动物词汇的象征意义[J]. [The Symbolic Meaning of English and Chinese Animal Words]. 外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):30-32.<br /> <br /> *Zhang Qing张琴.(2019).英汉成语对比与翻译[J]. [Contrast and Translation of English and Chinese idioms]. 智库时代Think Tank Times (18):194-195.<br /> <br /> *Ying Xiaohong印晓红.(2001).英汉动物习语比喻形象的文化差异.[J]. [ Cultural Differences of Figurative Images in English and Chinese Animal Idioms]. 重庆大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of the Chongqing University (Social Sciences Edition)(01):66-69.<br /> <br /> *Zhu Lehong, Chen Kepei朱乐红,陈可培.(2000).英汉谚语文化差异与翻译策略.[J]. [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Proverbs and Translation Strategies].外语教学Foreign Language Teaching(03):65-68.<br /> <br /> == On the Translation of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words in Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life: From the Perspective of Skopos Theory - 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling ==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling 202020080633 English Language and Literature&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Since translation work plays a determining role in spreading culture, and being an important part in literary works, culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> With the improvement of China's international status, the dissemination of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. Translation of literary works plays a determining role in spreading culture, among which culture-loaded words often bring many difficulties to translation work. Therefore, studying on the translation of culture-loaded words is of great significance in the development of our country's translation cause as well as in the promotion of Chinese culture.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This paper is going to guide from the three rules of Skopos theory, by adopting Nida's classified approach to culture, so as to make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. As a result, we can see that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in translation activities. At the same time, this paper will provide certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works. <br /> <br /> This paper, guided by the three rules of Skopos theory, make researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' with Nida's classified approaches to culture. Through the research, the author finds that Lin flexibly employs various translation methods to deal with different types of culture-loaded words in order to realize the purpose of spreading Chinese culture to the westerners. In conclusion, this paper provides certain references for the translation practices of culture-loaded words in literary works and provides evidence that Skopos theory plays an instructive role in the translation of culture-loaded words.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory; Lin Yutang's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''; culture-loaded words; translation methods<br /> <br /> === 摘要 ===<br /> <br /> 随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。由于翻译工作对文化传播起着决定性的作用，而文化负载词作为文学作品的一个重要组成部分，也常常为翻译工作带来诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。<br /> <br /> 随着中国国际地位的提高，中国文化的传播变得日益重要。文学作品的翻译对文化传播起着决定性的作用，文化负载词作为文学作品的重要组成部分，其翻译工作常常面临诸多困难。因此，研究中国文学作品中文化负载词的翻译方法对发展我国翻译事业，弘扬中国文化有着重大的意义。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。所以我们可以得知目的论对于翻译活动具有指导意义，同时本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义。<br /> <br /> 本文将以目的论的三原则作为理论指导，并采用奈达对文化分类方法来研究林语堂英译本《浮生六记》中一些文化负载词的翻译策略。通过本次研究发现，林语堂为了实现向西方读者传播中国文化的目的，灵活采用各种翻译方法来处理不同类型的文化负载词。总的来说，本文的研究对于文学作品中文化负载词的翻译实践能够起到一定的借鉴意义，并佐证了目的论对于文化负载词的翻译具有指导意义。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 目的论；林语堂《浮生六记》英译本；文化负载词；翻译方法<br /> <br /> === Introduction === <br /> <br /> The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of the culture shocks from many other countries around the world. On the one hand, literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading the Chinese culture. On the other hand, a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. <br /> <br /> The cultural transmission of our country is especially important under the background of economic globalization. Literary translation plays an indispensable part in spreading Chinese culture, among which a lot of culture-loaded words are contained in literary works. So learning to apply appropriate strategies and methods to handle these words is of great significance in translation work. However, translation of culture-loaded words is absolutely not an easy job. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable ones is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper is intended to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. Skopos theory was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s. <br /> <br /> Among many translation strategies, how to choose the suitable one is a big problem. Under this kind of situation, it is more effective to refer to the excellent translations on the specific translation methods of various culture-loaded words. Thus, this paper intends to take some examples in Lin Yutang's (1895-1976) ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos theory, which was initiated by Hans. J. Vermeer in the 1970s and then systematically introduced to China in the 1990s, so that some general translation methods can be concluded for reference. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, Skopos theory emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is developed from the functionalist theory and takes translation as a purposeful action under a particular situation. To be more specific, it emphasizes the translation process and takes various factors into consideration, which is a breakthrough of traditional translation theories. By adopting Skopos theory, the aim of spreading culture can be achieved as much as possible. As a result, through dividing culture-loaded words into five types, the paper will give specific examples in the third chapter on how Skopos theory is respectively applied to them in Lin's translation of ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === I Literature Review on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' ===<br /> <br /> As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English out of his deep affection for the work and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. Owing to Lin's proficiency in both Chinese and English language, his ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' also becomes a famous translation which is highly appreciated by many scholars.<br /> <br /> As a famous autobiography, ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' enjoys a wide population among writers and readers. But why the book is so widely accepted? There must be some reasons behind it. And as a famous Chinese translator, Lin translated ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' into English and was highly appreciated by many scholars out of his in-depth affection for the work,his proficiency in both Chinese and English language, and his intention to spread Chinese culture to the westerners. <br /> <br /> ==== 1.1 Previous Studies on Lin Yutang ==== <br /> <br /> Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924.From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. <br /> <br /> Born in Zhangzhou, Fujian Province, Lin was the fifth of six sons in his family. His father, a Presbyterian pastor, was a passionate zest for all that was new and modern from the West. He believed that his sons must learn English and receive western education (Lin Taiyi, 1998, n. d.). So Lin was sent to attend St. John's University in Shanghai, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1917. And then he received a master's degree in Comparative Literature at Harvard University in 1922 and a doctoral degree in Linguistics at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1924. From his rich studying experience, we can see that Lin is a master of Chinese literature and western literature, which laid a solid foundation in his later creation of literary works. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Lin's informal but polished style in both Chinese and English made him one of the most influential writers of his generation, and his compilations and translations of classic Chinese texts into English were bestsellers in the west. The China Times of Taiwan said, &quot;For some in the west who were not well-informed, they heard about Lin before they heard about China, and heard about China before they heard about the glory of Chinese civilization&quot; (The China Times of Taiwan, 1950). In his 80 years, Lin wrote and translated more than 50 books, his distinguished works include ''My Country and My People'' (1935), ''The Importance of Living'' (1937), ''Moment in Peking'' (1939), ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' (1936), etc. <br /> <br /> ==== 1.2 Previous Studies of ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' and Lin Yutang's English Version ==== <br /> <br /> ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature of the Ming and Qing dynasties, for differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are &quot;Wedded Bliss,&quot; &quot;The Little Pleasures of Life,&quot; &quot;Sorrow,&quot; &quot;The Joys of Travel,&quot; &quot;Experience,&quot; and &quot;The Way of Life.&quot; However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries. <br /> <br /> ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' is a popular and influential autobiography written by Shen Fu (1763-1825), who is a Chinese writer in Qing Dynasty. The book is a distinctive classical literature about Ming and Qing dynasties. Differing from the verbose vernacular language used in lengthy novels and dramas, it was written in a creative style of the literary language of poetry, essays and official histories. In affectionate and unequivocal tone, Shen presented the reader with all aspects of his everyday life with his wife whose mane is Chen Yun. The Original book includes six chapters, which are &quot;Wedded Bliss,&quot; &quot;The Little Pleasures of Life,&quot; &quot;Sorrow,&quot; &quot;The Joys of Travel,&quot; &quot;Experience,&quot; and &quot;The Way of Life.&quot; However, now the last two chapters are missing, only four chapters survive. ''Fu Sheng Liu Ji'' was highly praised by many scholars and has been translated into many languages of other countries.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Lin highly appreciated Chen, and considered the woman as one of the loveliest woman in Chinese literature and Chinese history. Therefore, as a person of great attainments in both Chinese and English language, Lin translated the book into English to show his admiration for the moving love story of the couple as well as to introduce Chinese culture to the Western world. Among three English translations, Lin's translated version is the most famous one, for he applies many appropriate strategies when translating the culture-loaded words in the source text. Besides, being modified over 10 times, ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' became his best translated work and was also published on the British magazine, receiving a wide population from the local people.<br /> <br /> === II A Brief Introduction to Skopos Theory === <br /> <br /> The Functionalist approaches can be traced back to the translation practice of the Bible, which emerges in Germany in 1970s. It places emphasis on &quot;functions of the texts and translations&quot; (Nord, 2001, p. 1) and goes through four main developing phrases, including Katharina Reiss's functional category of translation criticism, Vermeer's Skopos theory, Justa Holz-Manttari's theory of translation action and Christiane Nord's theory. Among these theories, Skopos theory plays the most important role in directly applying to every translation project. Skopos was a Greek word standing for &quot;aim&quot; or &quot;purpose&quot; (Nord, 2001, p. 27). Hans Vermeer applied this concept into the field of translation and proposed Skopos theory. <br /> <br /> ==== 2.1 Basic Concepts of Skopos Theory ==== <br /> <br /> Based on the idea that translation should primarily take into consideration the function of both the source and target text, Hans Vermeer develops his general theory of translation, which is Skopos theory. In his opinion, &quot;translation is a kind of human action, which is an intentional, purposeful behavior that takes place in a given situation; it is part of the situation, at the same time as it modifies the situation&quot; (Nord, 2001, p. 11). Within the framework of Vermeer's theory, one of the most factors determining the purpose of translation is target readers, who have their own knowledge of cultural backgrounds, expectations for the translation and some communicative needs. <br /> <br /> Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an &quot;offer of information,&quot; which the translator turns into an &quot;offer of information&quot; for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 119).<br /> <br /> Every translation is targeting at certain audiences, therefore, to translate means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances. As a breakthrough of traditional translation theories, Skopos theory is target text-centered which even can be independent of the source text. That is to say, the status of the source text is lower than it is in the equivalence-based theories of translation. In Vermeer's opinion, the source is an &quot;offer of information,&quot; which the translator turns into an &quot;offer of information&quot; for the target audience (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, 119).--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==== 2.2 Three Basic Rules of Skopos Theory ====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation, which means that a translation action is determined by its Skopos, which is &quot;The end justifies the means&quot;(Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 101). Vermeer explains the Skopos rule in this way: &quot;Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate or write in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way it to function&quot; (Nord, 2001, p. 29). Therefore, a translator must define their given purpose within the translation context and determine what strategies they should take in conformity with the purpose.<br /> <br /> The second rule of Skopos theory is coherence rule, which means that a translation should conform to the standards of intratextual coherence. Namely, the translation is acceptable and readable and it makes sense for receivers to understand under their communicative culture of the target language. Therefore, as a translator, they should take account of the cultural backgrounds and circumstances of the target receivers and make the translation understandable to them. Besides, there is intertextual coherence, it can also be interpreted as &quot;fidelity rule&quot; (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984, p. 114). It means there should be intertextual coherence or fidelity between the source text and the target text, in other words, translation must be in accordance with the source text. While the faithful degree and forms to the source text are dependent on the translators' understanding of the source text and their translation Skopos. <br /> <br /> The three above-mentioned basic rules of Skopos theory are used to govern the whole process of translation. However, it is common that the three rules cannot be applied at the same time, so the translator should conform to certain principles as follows. The Skopos rule is the predominating rule, intratextual coherence the second and the fidelity rule the lowest; the fidelity rule is in conformity with the coherence rule, and the two rules are considered subordinated to the Skopos rule of the translation. So in the next chapter, the paper is going to briefly introduce some basic knowledge of culture-loaded words, and to explore how they are properly translated by guiding from the three above-mentioned rules in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br /> <br /> === III Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Guided From Skopos Theory === <br /> <br /> Being a popular autobiography that describes a Chinese writer's daily life with his wife, Fu Sheng Liu Ji contains a large number of culture-loaded words. Whereas culture-loaded words possess its unique characteristics of Chinese people, so it is not an easy job to translate them properly and correctly into English. In this chapter, the paper will briefly explain what culture-loaded words is and how it is formed, and by taking specific examples in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the translation of culture-loaded words will be further studied from the perspective of Skopos theory. <br /> <br /> ==== 3.1 General Studies of Culture-loaded Words ==== <br /> <br /> In this section, the author will have a general introduction to the definition and causes of culture-loaded words as well as to provide a brief categorization of culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words <br /> <br /> In language system, the words which can best embody the language carrying cultural information and reflecting the social life of human beings are defined as culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words is also described as lexical gap, which means the cultural information of the source texts' words carried have no equivalents in target text (Bao Huinan and Bao'ang, 2004, p. 10). As the production of a country or a nation's cultural development, every language has its long history and abundant cultural connotation. <br /> <br /> Since each country or each nation differs in their developing history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and ethnic customs, so there are many characteristic words, idioms and allusions in every language. All of them are the reflection of their conventions, values, aesthetic standards and way of thinking. Namely, culture-loaded words signify a certain kind of cultural connotation or association which may not be found in other languages or cultures. <br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Causes of Culture-loaded Words<br /> <br /> A famous British translator Newmark (1988) hold the view that culture-loaded words have internal and unique relationship with the culture it refers, which makes it difficult to have them translated (p. 94). And it is obviously that all of the culture-loaded words carry the typical national characteristics. But what is the cause of culture-loaded words between Chinese and English? To a large extent, it relates to the differences of geography and climate between China and other English countries. <br /> <br /> For example, as a coastal city, the British is rich in fish, so a lot of words are developed in relation to fish such as &quot;a dull fish,&quot; &quot;a big fish,&quot; and &quot;a queer fish&quot; and so on. While China is a country with advanced agricultural culture, a large number of words are tightly connected with its agriculture. Secondly, due to great differences in each country's history, there has no equivalent regarding to certain historical phrases like dynasty. Of course there must be many other contributing factors to culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' <br /> <br /> A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation rests with the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. <br /> <br /> A Chinese translator Wang Zuoliang (1989) points out that the biggest difficulty of translation lies in the differences of two cultures. Perhaps in a cultural environment, there exists something that is no need to explain, but once it is in another cultural environment, it takes a lot of efforts to make it clear for the foreign people (p. 34). Therefore, in order to effectively explore the general rules in translating culture-loaded words and apply them to other translation works, classifying culture-loaded words is of great necessity. The transmission and communication of culture is the fundamental purpose of language translation, accordingly, the categorization of culture-loaded words should be classified on the basis of culture. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although there are several common methods to classify culture-loaded words, a clear and definite categorization of culture is definitely needed in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' since the author is about to analyze the translation strategies according to the classification of culture-loaded words. Next the author will adopt Eugene A. Nida's (1964) classification and categorize culture-loaded words into five types as ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words (p. 91). <br /> <br /> ==== 3.2 Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' From the Perspective of Skopos Theory ==== <br /> <br /> When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts. <br /> <br /> When Liao Qiyi (2000) explore the translation strategies of culture-loaded words, he believes that under quite different cultural backgrounds, translator should employ many translation methods such as literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation, literal translation plus free translation and free translation (p. 33). Considering substitution is also applied in Lin's English version ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the paper will analyze why and how to choose these strategies to translate each type of culture-loaded words in light of Skopos theory in the following parts.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation of Ecological Culture-loaded Words<br /> <br /> Ecological culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' amount to 299, in terms of the translation methods, free translation 122, literal translation (transliteration) plus free translation 87, literal translation (transliteration) 69, literal translation (transliteration) plus annotation 19. It shows that free translation are mainly adopted in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Since Lin's English version has a full consideration of the differences between Chinese and western culture, and through the method of free translation, English readers tend to be easier to receive the translation. Some typical examples are listed below.<br /> <br /> Example 1: 余生乾隆癸末冬十一月二十有二日。I was born in 1763, under the reign of Ch'ienlung, on the twenty-second day of the eleventh moon. (p. 2)<br /> <br /> Example 2: 每逢朔望，余夫妇必焚香拜祷。On the first and fifteenth of every month, we burnt incense and prayed together before him. (p. 48)<br /> <br /> Example 3: 廿四子正，余作新舅送嫁，丑末归来。After midnight, on the morning of the twenty-fourth, I, as the bride's brother,sent my sister away and came back towards three o'clock. (p. 10)<br /> <br /> As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopts the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used is so sophisticated that even some local people cannot understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating &quot;乾隆癸末&quot; into the year of &quot;1763&quot;, &quot;朔望&quot; into &quot;the first and fifteenth of every month&quot; and &quot;丑末&quot; into &quot;towards three o'clock&quot;. Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br /> <br /> As is known to all, in ancient feudal society, Chinese people adopted the reign title of the emperor (lunar calendar) to count years while the English readers are accustomed to employing the Gregorian calendar. The ways that Chinese used was so sophisticated that even some local people could not understand them completely, not to mention the westerners. Therefore, Lin employs free translation to translate the time, for example, translating &quot;乾隆癸末&quot; into the year of &quot;1763&quot;, &quot;朔望&quot; into &quot;the first and fifteenth of every month&quot; and &quot;丑末&quot; into &quot;towards three o'clock&quot;. Apparently, employing Arabic numerals here make it easier for westerners to understand the time sequence, on the contrast, using the times with hard explanations are inclined to confuse them. In a word, Lin's translation has taken the target reader's circumstances into consideration, which is in conformity with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> Example 4: 结构之妙，予以龙井为最，小有天园次之。石取天竺之飞来峰，城隍山之瑞石古洞。I regard Lungching (the Dragon Well) as the best in point of general plan and design, with the Hisiaoyut'ien Garden (Little Paradise) coming next. For rocks I would prefer the Flying Peak of T'ienchu and the Ancient Cave of Precious Stones on the City God's Hill. (p. 208)<br /> <br /> Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, apply this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of &quot;龙井&quot; and &quot;小有天园&quot;, Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also make them become familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br /> <br /> Ecological culture-loaded words mostly represent the unique Chinese scenic spots or geographical names. Although employing literal translation (transliteration) here may be helpful for target readers to know about Chinese regional culture characteristics, but due to great culture differences, applying this method mechanically will decline the interests of the translation. After all, many ecological culture-loaded words have their own charms. So like the translation of &quot;龙井&quot; and &quot;小有天园&quot;, Lin adopts transliteration and literal translation here, which not only helps target readers to understand the connotation of these words, but also makes them more familiar with their Chinese names. In short, when handling the place names, Lin bears in mind the purpose of spreading Chinese culture, which is in lines with the Skopos rule. <br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Translation of Material Culture-loaded Words<br /> <br /> Free translation and literal translation (transliteration) are mainly employed in Lin's translation of material culture-loaded words. Guo Jianzhong (1999) mentioned that material culture-loaded words are national colored words carrying distinct Chinese characteristics, and it refers to all the products of manufacture (p. 57). Since in some occasions, only by free translation, the cultural connotation of the material can be shown to target readers. Some examples in Lin's English version are as follows.<br /> <br /> Example 5: 余曰:&quot;坊间有蝴蝶履，大小由之，购亦极易&quot;。I told her there was a kind of shoes called &quot;butterfly shoes,&quot; which could fit any size of feet and were very easy to obtain at the shops. (p. 58)<br /> <br /> Example 6: 其每日饭必用茶泡，喜食芥卤乳腐，吴俗呼为&quot;臭乳腐&quot;。She always mixed her rice with tea, and loved to eat stale picked bean-curd, called &quot;stinking bean-curd&quot; in Soochow. (p. 40)<br /> <br /> Lin translates &quot;臭腐乳&quot; and &quot;蝴蝶履&quot; respectively into &quot;butterfly shoes&quot; and &quot;stinking bean-curd&quot; by taking the method of free translation, which can help target readers to form some concrete images in their mind about what the food tastes and what the shoes looks like. To conclude, Lin introduces Chinese material culture in this way so that the foreigners can feel the exotic flavor to some degree. In this sense, Lin abides by the Skopos rule.<br /> <br /> Example 7: 街头有鲍姓者，卖馄饨为业。There was a wonton seller by the name of Pao. (p. 118)<br /> <br /> Example 8: 于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。She tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (p. 58)<br /> <br /> The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating &quot;馄饨&quot; into &quot;wonton&quot; and &quot;马褂&quot; into &quot;makua&quot;. Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds behind these words, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so through the above translation, Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.<br /> <br /> The two examples above show that when handling the words with particular Chinese culture, Lin employs transliteration, translating &quot;馄饨&quot; into &quot;wonton&quot; and &quot;马褂&quot; into &quot;makua&quot;. Since it is hard for the target readers to know about the cultural backgrounds, and it is also difficult to find their equivalents in the target text, so Lin's purpose of introducing the Chinese culture to the target readers is more inclined to be achieved. Here Lin's translation complies with the Skopos rule.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 Translation of Social Culture-loaded Words<br /> <br /> Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' is aimed at introducing an ordinary couple's daily life to the westerners, so undoubtedly it includes many Social culture-loaded words. Under Chinese social background, people will develop a corresponding distinctive system of social conventions differing from other nations. When handling these words, Lin also mainly adopts free translation, complemented by literal translation (transliteration). The examples are listed as follows.<br /> <br /> Example 9: 识张兰坡，始精剪枝养节之法。When I know Chang Lanp'o, I learnt from him the secrets of trimming branches and protecting joints. (p. 86)<br /> <br /> Example 10: 芸生一女，名青君。Yun had give birth to a daughter, named Ch'ingchun. (p. 138)<br /> <br /> Here Lin uses transliteration to handle the person names above such as &quot;Chang Lanp'o&quot; for &quot;张兰坡&quot; and &quot;Ch'ingchun&quot; for &quot;青君&quot;. As Chinese names have no equivalents in English, in order to make westerners know about Chinese names, Lin's translations maintain the Chinese culture successfully. Here Lin observes the Skopos rule by putting his purpose of spreading Chinese culture first.<br /> <br /> Example 11: 李太白是知己，白乐天是启蒙师。So Li Po is your bosom friend, Po Chuyi is your first tutor and your husband's literary name is San Po. (p. 22)<br /> <br /> Since the ancient Chinese litterateur have literally names besides their formal names. Without the basic knowledge of Chinese culture, Chinese names like &quot;李太白&quot; and &quot;白乐天&quot; are not easy to be understood. But the westerners may know their given names or family names, so take this into account, Lin substitute the two names with formal names &quot;Li Po&quot; and &quot;Po Chuyi&quot; so that the westerners will not confused about their identities. By taking the target readers' situation into consideration, Lin complies with the coherent rule of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Translation of Religious Culture-loaded Words<br /> <br /> Every nation has its own religious belief, as Chinese believe in Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism while the westerners believe in Muslim and Christianity. The religious belief penetrates into people's daily life and plays an important role in establishing a set of value and moral system that restrict their conducts. Because of the differences in religion, Lin mostly uses free translation when translating religious culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Some examples are shown below.<br /> <br /> Example 12: 七月望，俗谓鬼节。The fifteenth of the seventh moon was All Soul's Day. (p. 28)<br /> <br /> Example 13: 天之厚我，可谓至矣。So altogether I may say the gods have been unusually kind to me. (p. 2)<br /> <br /> Example 14: 回煞之期，俗传是日魂必随煞而归。According to custom, the spirit of the deceased is supposed to return the house on a certain day after his death. (p. 180)<br /> <br /> Apparently, applying free translation, Lin translate &quot;鬼节,&quot; &quot;天&quot; and &quot;魂&quot; respectively into &quot;All Soul's Day,&quot; &quot;gods&quot; and &quot;spirit of the deceased&quot; in order to make them easier for target readers to comprehend. Since as we all know, these words are peculiar to Chinese culture. Like the word &quot;天&quot;, it is translated into &quot;gods&quot; which is a much more familiar word for the westerners and it will not bring obstacles for their understanding. The meanings of the translation above express the similar cultural connotation to both source-text readers and target readers. So all in all, Lin's translations observe the coherent rule of Skopos theory. <br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Translation of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words<br /> <br /> Linguistic culture-loaded words involve every aspect in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', such as proverbs, couplets, poems and idioms and so on. Since Chinese and English derive from different linguistic systems, both of which have their own special grammatical features. So Lin adopts free translation as the leading means to express the main meanings to the westerners, which can be shown in the following examples. <br /> <br /> Example 15: 因思《关雎》冠三百篇之首，故列夫妇于首卷；余以次递及焉。Since the Book of poems begins with a poem on wedded love, I thought I would begin this book by speaking of my marital relations and let other matters follow. (p. 2)<br /> <br /> As we can see from the example，because of the word &quot;关雎&quot;, Lin knows &quot;三百篇&quot; means &quot;The Book of Songs&quot;, while he translates it into &quot;the Book of poems&quot; which is a well-known name to westerners. Besides, &quot;关雎&quot; is considered as a symbol of beautiful love in nowadays, Lin translates it into &quot;a poem on wedded love&quot; makes it easier to understand. In conclusion, all of the three sentences employ the strategy of free translation, which considers the target readers' circumstances and also spread the Chinese cultural connotation. Therefore, Lin's translations abide by skopos rule and coherence rule of Skopos theory. <br /> <br /> Example 16: 惜萍水相逢，聚首无多日耳。Unfortunately, we met only a short time and then parted like duckweed on the water. (p. 238)<br /> <br /> &quot;萍水相逢&quot; comes from a poem written by Wang Bo, who is a famous poet in Tang dynasty. &quot;萍&quot; in English refers to duckweed, which is a kind of fern gathering and parting indefinitely. The duckweed has a cultural connotation in Chinese, it compares to two strangers meet by accident. Here Lin retains the metaphor used in the source text which fully and vividly reproduces the internal and external images of &quot;萍水相逢&quot; to target readers so as to make them feel the same as what the local people do to the source text. As a result, Lin's translation complies with the coherence rule of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> ==== 3.3 Reasons Behind the Choice of Translation Strategies ==== <br /> <br /> Through the analyses in 3.2, we can see that the choice of translation strategies during the process of translating culture-loaded words is determined by three main factors as translator, the readership and the translation purpose. In other words, the reasons behind the choice of translation methods can be found in the three factors mentioned before.<br /> <br /> 3.3.1 Translator<br /> <br /> The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not to a large extent lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As it mentioned above in 1.1, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Thanks to this, Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which lays a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. <br /> <br /> The status of the translator is becoming more and more important in recent years. Clearly, whether the level of a translation is high or not lies in the translator's proficient degree of both source language and target language. As what mentioned above, Lin received a good education both in Chinese and English language. Lin got more comprehensive knowledge of Chinese and western culture, which laid a solid foundation for his later translation work. Intend to introducing Chinese culture, Lin considered the situation of target readers first, which makes his translation version the most widely accepted by the westerners. In a word, translator plays an essential part in the choice of translation methods and strategies. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 3.3.2 Readership<br /> <br /> Besides, readership is also a key factor determining the choice of translation methods and strategies. The target readers' cultural background, knowledge and expectations are tightly in relation to the translation process. Therefore, translator must take the target receivers' situation into account. Besides, the coherent rule of Skopos theory itself places emphasis on the importance of the readership. As for Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', his target readers were mainly westerners who carried deep prejudices towards Chinese people at that time. But they also wanted to know the real China and Lin's translation met their needs. Lin's translation narrows the cultural gap to a large extent which can be verified in 3.2 of the paper. <br /> <br /> 3.3.3 Translation Purpose<br /> <br /> In addition to the two mentioned, translation purpose is also a decisive factor for the choice of translation strategies. As mentioned before, Skopos theory regard translation as a kind of human action and every translation has a purpose. Besides, among Skopos theory, the skopos rule is considered as the principle rule. Like Lin Yutang, besides his deep love towards the story of Shen Fu and Chen Yun, he has an intention to introduce the Chinese culture and spirits through ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life''. Thus, free translation is widely employed in Lin's translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion === <br /> <br /> As for introducing Chinese culture to the western world, Lin makes a great contribution. As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the outside world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. <br /> <br /> As an excellent representative of successfully spreading Chinese culture, Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' received a wide population among the western readers. Nowadays, Chinese culture is stepping out into the world, so the translation of culture-loaded words plays an indispensable role in spreading the fine aspects of Chinese culture. And researching on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words is of great importance in leading the development of translation work and promoting international cultural communication. --[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account of the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.<br /> <br /> In a word, by referring to three basic rules of Skopos theory, the paper generally analyzes how the five types of culture-loaded words are appropriately translated in Lin's translation. Taking into account the readership and translation purpose, Lin adopts various reasonable translation methods when tackling with different types of culture-loaded words, which is of great referential significance for us. As a result, through the above researches on the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Lin's ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'', the author expects to provide some references for the translation of the five types of culture-loaded words in Chinese literature works as well as to further promote the development of Chinese culture in the international community.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> === References === <br /> <br /> Bao, H. N. [包惠南] &amp; Bao. A. [包昂]. (2004). 中国文化与汉英翻译. [Chinese Culture and Chinese-English Translation]. 北京: 外文出版社.<br /> <br /> Guo, J. Z. [郭建中]. (1999). 文化与翻译. [Culture and Translation]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Liao, Q. Y. [廖七一]. (2000). 当代西方翻译理论探索. [General Information]. 南京: 译林出版社. <br /> <br /> Nord, C. (2001). Translation as a Purposeful Activity. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E.J.Brill.<br /> <br /> Newmark, P. (1969). A Textbook of translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Press. <br /> <br /> Reiss, K. &amp; Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Grundlegung Einer Allgemeinen Translations theorie. Tubingen: Niemeyer. <br /> <br /> Shen, F. [沈复]. (2009). Six Chapters of a Floating Life. (Ling, Y. T. [林语堂]. ). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. (Original work published 2008).<br /> <br /> Wang, Z. L. [王佐良]. (1989). 翻译: 思考与试笔. [Translation: Experiments and Reflections]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title - 杨悦 Yang Yue, 202070080617 英语笔译==<br /> &lt;center&gt;杨悦 Yang Yue &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and furthermore, a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is self-evident. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.<br /> <br /> A film title is an audience’s first and direct impression on a film, and has functions of delivering a film’s subject and aesthetics, attracting audiences, conducting cultural exchange and the most important function is a business function--increasing box office sales. Therefore, the importance of a film title translation’s quality is crucial. Guided by skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper explores translation strategies of English film title. Theoretically based on skopos theory and functional equivalence and combined with practical cases, this paper analyses film title translation. Through examples and contrast, this study shows that skopos theory and functional equivalence can play an effective role in guiding a translator to gain wonderful translation text of film title. And through comparison of Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence on the Translation of English Film Title, we can have an in-depth understanding of the English film title translation. It is hoped that this paper is able to be helpful to better display the artistic charm of a film.--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:15, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Skopos theory; functional equivalence; English film title; translation<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅谈目的论和功能对等理论在英语电影片名翻译中的差异<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 电影片名是观众对一部电影的第一直接印象，具有传递电影的主旨与美感、吸引观众、交流文化的作用以及进一步的增加票房的商业作用。因此，电影名翻译好坏的重要性不言而喻。本文主要以目的论和功能对等理论为指导，研究西方英语电影片名的汉译策略,以目的论和功能对等为理论基础，结合实际案例，分析电影名的译文。通过例证与对比，证明了目的论和功能对等理论能够有效指导译者完成精彩的片名翻译。同时，通过分析目的论和功能对等理论在电影片名翻译中的差异，我们能对英语电影片名翻译有更深入的了解，以期更好地展现电影的艺术魅力。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 目的论；功能对等理论；英语电影片名；翻译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy and literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics; it has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)<br /> <br /> Film is a combination of motion photography and slide show. Through development, it has become a sort of continuous video images, a visual and auditory modern art, and also a synthesis of modern science, technology and art. It can accommodate tragicomedy, literature, photography, drama, sculpture, music, dance, painting, architecture and other art form. However, it has its own characteristics. It has features of all other art forms in artistic expression and its ways of expression are beyond all other art forms. (He Ying 2001, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first; its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)<br /> <br /> Film title plays an eye-catching role in attracting audiences to theaters, thus film title translation is essentially important. Since its birth at the end of 19th century, film has always had commercial feature. For its production process, film is a creative activity in artistic and aesthetic realm; but for the purpose of film production, film is a product produced from highly industrialized flow line. Film must have economic value and exchange value at first because its production purpose is to maximize producers’ economic benefit. Take Hollywood as an example, in 2016, the total global film box office sales is 38.1 billion US dollars, of which American Hollywood’s revenue is 28.9 billion, accounting for 76% , and almost becomes a monopoly of film market. (Tartaglione 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory hence, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)<br /> <br /> Film is a purposeful commercialized art, and film title translation is also a purposeful act. The author believes the translation process should be guided under skopos theory, whose core concept is “the main factor in the translation process is the purpose of the overall translation” (Nord 2001, 27). This paper deals with the title translation from English to Chinese. (Nord 2001, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Christiane Nord’ s skopos theory and Eugene Nida’ s Functional Equivalence===<br /> ===2.1 Brief Introduction to skopos theory===<br /> Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, the theoretical core of functionalist translation theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). <br /> <br /> Functionalist Translation Theory is proposed by German scholars Kantharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz Mantari, Christiane Nord and others in the 1970s. Nord has given a clear definition to what “functionalist” means, which means focusing on function or functions of texts and translation (Nord 2001, 1). Functionalist translation theory is a broad term used in a variety of theories arising from such research methods. Apart from skopos theory, functionalist translation school also include a group of scholars who approve functionalist translation theory and are inspired by German skopos theory, although they never call themselves “skopists” (Nord 2001, 1). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida’s studies about language functions and translation (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).<br /> <br /> Therefore, besides German functionalist translation school, there are a number of scholars’ views can be incorporated in the range of functionalist translation theory, certainly including English scholar Peter Newmark and American scholar Eugene A. Nida. (Jia Wenbo 2004, 40).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> “The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine with TT readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to ST (source text) when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)<br /> <br /> “The term skopos usually refers to the purpose of the target text” (Nord 2001, 28). From this point of view, in translation process a translator can definitely base on “expected communicative function of TT (target text), and combine TT with readers’ sociocultural background, expectations to TT, sensitivity or world knowledge and communicative needs etc. to determine the specific translation strategy” (Nord 2001, 12) in specific target language context, and doesn’t have to rigidly adhere to the “equivalence” to source text when TT’s communicative function in target language’s cultural context is affected. (Nord 2001, 12)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translational action” (Nord 2001, 27). Namely, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation is a kind of communicative action, and “the prime principle determining any translation process is the purpose (skopos) of the overall translation action” (Nord 2001, 27). In other words, “the translation purpose justifies the translation process. …’the end justifies the means’” (Nord 2001, 124). Translators deal with translation for specific purposes and for specific recipients in particular circumstances. (Nord 2001, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===2.2 Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence===<br /> In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of &quot;content first, form second&quot;, which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he revised the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, that is, the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). <br /> <br /> In the 1960s and 1970s, Nida proposed &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, emphasizing information equivalence rather than formal correspondence, highlighting the translation idea of &quot;content first, form second&quot;, which caused many misunderstandings. Therefore, in his article From One Language to Another: On Functional Equivalence in (Bible) Translation, he changed the original dynamic equivalence into functional equivalence, which means that the translation requires not only information content equivalence, but also equivalence in form as far as possible (Guo Jianzhong 2000, 68). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. That is, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence means that the translation produces basically the same feeling under the cultural background of the target language as the original text does under the cultural background of the source language. In other words, the effect of a translation on the reader or audience of the target text is generally the same as that of the original text on the reader or audience of the target text. (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).<br /> <br /> Nida's explanation of functional equivalence is based on the comparison between the way that the target reader understands and appreciates the target text and the way that the reader of the original text understands and appreciates the source text. Functional equivalence no longer focuses on mechanical formal equivalence, but conveys the information and content of the source language in the linguistic form of the target language, emphasizing the equivalence of readers' response to the target language (Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 2005, 72-75).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===3. The application of Skopos Theory in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br /> ===3.1 Functions of Film Title Translation===<br /> Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. The most important functions are commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of flexible forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)<br /> <br /> Domestic scholar He Ying summarizes functions of film title into four types: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and commercial function. Commercial function, informative function, and aesthetic function are the most important functions. Skopos theory provides a theoretical framework for Chinese translation of English film titles in a variety of forms. The application of skopos theory in the translation of English film titles is mainly reflected in the realization of the three functions mentioned above. (He Ying 2001, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====3.1.1 The commercial function====<br /> Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for the ultimate goal of production and exchange; it must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make TT attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)<br /> <br /> Film is a cultural and commercial art. Born in Western countries, film has commercial feature at the beginning. It is not simply created for film creators’ entertainment, but for its ultimate goal ---- production and exchange. It must have economic value and exchange value at first. Whether a film is a success or not depends largely on its box office. According to skopos theory, translation skopos is decided by the initiator, and in terms of film title translation, the initiator is film producers and investors, whose production purpose is to maximize economic benefit. Therefore, translators should endeavor to make target text attractive and appealing to audiences in order to arouse their desire to buy tickets to watch the film, so as to realize the commercial purpose. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 13)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br /> <br /> For example, in 2016, the film Zootopia was a great success. It was translated into “疯狂动物城” in Mainland China, and “优兽大都会”, “动物方城市” in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Comparatively, the author deems that the first translation is more intuitive, the audience can imagine the picture of a hilarious story about a city full of noisy animals. It can be cheerful, thus arousing people’s desire to go to the cinema to watch it. The latter two translations also have the same effect; they all achieve the commercial purpose very well. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of conflict. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it’s unattractive and the audience can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)<br /> <br /> In contrast, the literal translation “动物乌托邦” seems to lack a little bit of interest. Another successful translation example which better fulfill commercial purpose is Now You See Me (《惊天魔盗团》). The film tells a story about several magicians of high intelligence using cutting-edge technology and ornate stage as a cover to accomplish grand larceny under the watchful eyes of people. If it’s literally translated into “现在你看到我了”, then it cannot attract audience and they can’t know anything from the title. After winning global box office, Now You See Me deserves sequels, and its second film was shown in 2016. In light of former success, the second one’s translation follows the first one, which is translated into “惊天魔盗团2”. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 14)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.1.2 The informative function====<br /> According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or both, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the information value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).<br /> <br /> According to skopos theory, “a target text is an offer of information in a target culture and target language concerning an offer of information in a source culture and source language” (Munday 2001, 79). Informative purpose is the basic one among the three purposes; any text’s purpose is to convey information. For film title, it needs to send messages about the film’s content or genre or style, so is its translation. “Accurately describing the content of the source film and avoiding misunderstanding is a very important criterion of realizing the informative value of the film title” (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 27).--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, then audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br /> <br /> The animated film Nine tells that in near future, human-made machines launches an attack to humankind. Buildings are destroyed and society’s falling apart. Eventually, the machine will kill the human race. A team of troop begins a war with the machine to protect the last human civilization. If Nine is translated to “九”, audience will have no idea about what this film is and perhaps lots of consumers won’t go to the cinema to watch it. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story centered on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and ensures its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)<br /> <br /> Fortunately, the translation “机器人九号” adds the information “robot”, so we know from the title that it’s about a robot whose number is nine, and this story focused on robots. The Chinese characters “机器人” adds missing information and adds its box office, for lots of boys and adult fans love robots. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.1.3 The aesthetic function====<br /> On the basis of fulfilling commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need TT to be readable and even beautiful; moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br /> <br /> Besides commercial and informative purpose, a vivid and aesthetic title can be more appealing and attractive. According to skopos theory, translation should be fit for the receivers in target language. Translation receivers need target text to be readable and even beautiful. Moreover, translators can have more freedom and room in selection of translation methods considering form, rhyme, rhetoric, etc. so as to create graceful or even poetic TT. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and dainty. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)<br /> <br /> For example, Chinese people have a preference for four-character words and even idioms or proverbs; we can find expression in film title translation: Ordinary People (《凡夫俗子》), Fake Identity (《双重身份》), Intouchables (《触不可及》), Catch Me If You Can (《逍遥法外》), Hail, Caesar (《凯撒万岁》), Some Like It Hot (《热情似火》), The Finest Hours (《怒海救援》), Always (《天长地久》), Brick Mansions （《暴力街区》）. Through the usage of these four-character Chinese idioms, these title translations become catchy and impressive. (Yang Wanqiu 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Three main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br /> According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equally film title’s purposes; this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)<br /> <br /> According to skopos theory, “the end justifies the means” (Nord 200, 124), that is, translation strategies and methods are determined by translation skopos. The author has discussed the functions above, which are equal in film title’s purposes. And this section is about the translation methods. The author summarizes predecessor's research results in recent years, and generally categorized three commonly used methods guided by skopos theory: literal translation, addition and omission. (Nord 200, 124)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.2.1 Literal translation====<br /> Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title; when a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can yet be regarded as the best choice, since in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)<br /> <br /> Literal translation, which means transferring source language to target language directly, is a translation method which maintains both the original content and the original form. Literal translation requires fidelity to the content of the original film title. When a film title can be easily understood or can reflect its main content and theme, literal translation can be regarded as the best choice. Because in this circumstance, it not only conforms to the informative function, but also accords with skopos theory’s fidelity rule and coherence rule perfectly. (He Ying 2011, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Example 1. Mr. Brooks (《布鲁克斯先生》)<br /> Example 2. The Sound of Music （《音乐之声》）<br /> Example 3. Pirates of the Caribbean （《加勒比海盗》）<br /> <br /> Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This faithful translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Large parts of audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br /> <br /> Mr. Brooks revolves around the hero Mr. Brooks, and the literally translated title “布鲁克斯先生” is easy for the audience to know that the film mainly tells a story about a man whose name is Brooks. This literal translation conveys enough information as the original title does, which realizes informative function perfectly, and it doesn’t add any unnecessary information or omit important elements, which conforms to skopos theory’s fidelity rule. Both native language audience and Chinese audience won’t know who Mr. Brooks is until they watch the film. Most of the audience love such simple and informative titles and want to satisfy their curiosity by watching the film, and thus the opportunity of their buying tickets increases. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to audience and thus be attractive to audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)<br /> <br /> Its commercial function can thus be achieved. Similar examples are Jane Eyre (《简爱》) and Romeo and Juliet (《罗密欧与茱丽叶》). To sum up, literal translation can be adopted in biographical film’s title translation, which can create a feeling of suspense to attract audience. In this way, title translation is able to achieve both informative function and commercial function, achieving satisfactory result. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 21)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious: to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)<br /> <br /> The Sound of Music’s literal translation “音乐之声” is a simple title, and it represents the theme and conveys information about the content of the film. Whatever English and Chinese title conveys the same information to the audience, who can naturally guess that the film is of musical play form, because music is all over the world, and there is no specific cultural connotation in the translation. “The end justifies the means” (Nord 2001, 124), and for this film, the purpose and commercial function of its title is obvious that is to attract fans who love film of musical play type, so a simple literal translation can achieve the effect by attracting such audience.(Cai Dongdong 2000, 23)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack, so according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br /> <br /> Pirates of the Caribbean is familiar to Chinese audience as “加勒比海盗”, for Captain Jack’s hilarious acting leaves a deep impression in audience’s minds. Most people know that Caribbean is an area sited in central America, so there is no need to translate it as “美洲加勒比海盗” or “加勒比地区的海盗”. The purpose of the original title is to indicate that the film is an adventurous story about some Caribbean pirates led by Jack. Therefore, according to skopos rule, here the adoption of literal translation is suitable, for Chinese audience can get the same connotation from the translation. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). To summarize, literal translation can be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)<br /> <br /> Similar examples are Wall Street （《华尔街》）and Pearl Harbor (《珍珠港》). Literal translation can also be adopted for a title named after a place. If added with another information, the title could be lengthy and burdensome, and audience won’t be able to remember a lengthy title. But according to skopos theory, skopos goes first. A title’s first purpose is to make audience remember a succinct title. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 25)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.2.2 Addition====<br /> As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)<br /> <br /> As English and Chinese have their own characteristics in vocabulary, syntax and expression methods, coupled with differences in Chinese and Western cultures, some film titles cannot be literally translated, otherwise may lead to loss of information or misleading the audience. In order to make the target audience really understand the connotation of the source title, according to skopos theory’s coherence rule, in such cases, we need to base on literal translation, judge the source title, and combine with film’s plot, theme, style, cultural connotation, etc. to adopt the method of addition to complement and better convey the film’s content. Generally, the method of addition includes addition of nouns, addition of verbs and addition of adjectives. (He Ying 2011, 27)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It follows the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br /> <br /> Addition of nouns is quite common. For example, the 43rd Oscar Best Picture owner Patton (《巴顿将军》) is formed of literal translation “巴顿” (the hero’s name) and addition of noun “将军”, which points out that the hero is the legendary figure General Patton in Second World War. It conforms to the coherence rule and better achieves informative function, for it makes audience more clear about what “巴顿” is: “巴顿” is a name of a General. Rather, a simple “巴顿” will be confusing to Chinese. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The purpose of the title is to show the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to watch the film to know about this history or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)<br /> <br /> The purpose of the title is to show that the film is about this General and this period of history, so here the addition works as an explanation, better conveying information. Once informative function is achieved, audience can thus choose whether to go to the cinema to watch the film or not, and commercial function is embodied here. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates Mahatma Gandhi’s great life. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious: the purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)<br /> <br /> Another example is the 55th Oscar Best Picture owner, an epic work Gandhi （《甘地传》）, which narrates the great life of Mahatma Gandhi. The original title Gandhi （甘地）and an addition of “传”, a character rich of Chinese biography characteristic, makes the translation purpose obvious. The purpose is to tell audience that Gandhi is a person, and this film is about Gandhi’s life story. Here, informative function is reflected in the word “传”, and only when audience know what this film is about will they buy tickets to see what Gandhi’s life is like. Commercial function is realized ultimately. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br /> <br /> In light of semantic or expressive needs, addition of verbs exists. The most popular science fiction movie in 2014, Interstellar, is translated into “星际穿越” in mainland China. “Interstellar” means “星际的” and “恒星的”, but if literally translated to “星际” or “恒星”, it’s lack of expressive force neither in words nor in voice. An unattractive title can’t be appealing to audience, thus can’t realize film title’s ultimate purpose—increasing box office sales. But the addition of the verb “穿越” makes it a four-character title, which is more dynamic and more easy to spread. In terms of voice, it’s more readable and catchy. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)<br /> <br /> For aesthetic function, “穿越” can create a sense of space and time, obviously more attractive than a simple “星际”. For commercial function, the audience can know it’s a sci-fi spectacular full of imagination, attracting more potential audience to watch it. The three functions are thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 32)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can never be comparable. The film’s huge success in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)<br /> <br /> Similarly, The Notebook （《恋恋笔记本》）is also a perfect translation. The additional doubled verbs “恋恋”not only reflects its theme—a love story, but also makes the Chinese title a witticism, leaving a long-lasting tender feelings in audience’s minds that an ordinary “笔记本”can be incomparable. A huge success of this film in China owes largely to its title translation, which directly attracts lots of Chinese audience. It is a good example of realizing all the three functions of film title and realizing film title’s skopos rule perfectly. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 33)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading role’s characteristic, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)<br /> <br /> The addition of adjectives gives life to film titles which originally are composed of nouns. Mr. Bean （《憨豆先生》） is another example. Its literal translation “豆先生” cannot highlight the leading characteristic of this role, while an addition of “憨” makes audience know it is a comedy, and meanwhile makes the title itself more charming and impressive. Actually, this film is also charming and wide-spread in China. Most comedy lovers can’t help watching the film on hearing the title. Its translation fits with its style and content, and attracts more audience, which contributes to box office. Film title’s commercial function is thus realized. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 34)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====3.2.3 Omission====<br /> Due to cultural differences similar to the case of addition, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, such circumstance often occurs that some characters in original title should be omitted and not be translated, because the target text contains original meaning although it doesn’t have the very character. The aim of omission is to ensure target text is clear, concise, and refining. Omission does not mean missing in translation, and omitted translation text should be as complete as the source text both in meaning and in connotation. Omission is often the outcome of consideration of aesthetic function, and it often occurs along with addition. (He Ying 2011, 30)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family, and his father depending on each other for life and finally reconciling with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br /> <br /> A typical example is Kramer vs. Kramer. It narrates a story about Billy, a boy from a single-parent family. His father depend on each other for life and finally reconcile with his mother. The Taiwan and Hong Kong version “克莱默对克莱默” is confusing, lengthy, and of no aesthetic function. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Few audiences can have interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, better conveying the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)<br /> <br /> Most of the audiences have no interest in such translation, so it doesn’t conform to skopos rule. “对” usually means confrontation and is used in games and matches, so it’s not appropriate here. The Chinese meanings of “vs.” like “相对”, “对抗” are also improper. Mainland China’s translation “克莱默夫妇” does not embody the lifelike word “vs.”, but it explicitly points out what the film is about, simple and forthright. Here omission and addition are both adopted, which better conveys the film’s information. (Wang Ying 2016, 67)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”, which audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br /> <br /> Here are some other examples. When Alice in Wonderland: Through the Looking Glass was shown in 2016, most translations on cinema posters were “爱丽丝梦游仙境2”, while its official translation was “爱丽丝梦游仙境：镜中奇遇记”. So most of the audience may wonder whether it’s the famous film Alice in Wonderland’s continuation or it’s an imitation work made by other film makers. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema’s goal of attracting more audience can thus be realized. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)<br /> <br /> Causing misunderstanding does not conform to skopos theory’s coherence rule, which can be realized more directly by the usage of omission of the subtitle and highlight of this film’s continuation role. Once the film’s reputation increases, cinema can attract more audience. (Wang Ying 2016, 68)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated, “独自在家” will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br /> <br /> The comedy Home Alone (《小鬼当家》) is popular in China. If literally translated into“独自在家”, it will be confusing to audience, who may wonder who is at home alone and may think that this film is about some pathetic man’s boring daily life who lives alone or may even deem it as a thriller film, namely, the informative function is not realized. However, the omission of “alone” can fix the problem, eliminating audience’s feeling of solitude.(Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully achieves coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)<br /> <br /> Besides, the addition of “小鬼”, an affectionate form of address, further complement information about the film. By pointing out that it’s a story about adorable children happened at their home, it’s easy for audience to infer that it’s a comedy, and the translation successfully conforms to coherence rule. As long as the translation can arouse comedy fans’ interest, its skopos rule is achieved. (Wang Ying 2016, 72)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language considering thinking habit, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)<br /> <br /> In short, omission is corresponding to addition. It is to delete some words that are inappropriate in target language, language habit and expression, etc. in order to avoid unnecessary translation. (He Ying 2011, 31)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===4. The application of Functional Equivalence in the Translation of English Film Titles===<br /> ===4.1 Two main methods of English film titles’ translation===<br /> ====4.1.1 Transliteration====<br /> Transliteration, that is, the process or result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a big difference between the original language and the target language and there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration is used. Many British and American film and television titles are familiar to the audience or have important historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca &quot;卡萨布兰卡&quot;, Mulan &quot;花木兰&quot;, etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a process or a result of using one character symbol to represent the character symbol of another character system. When there is a huge difference between the original language and the target language or there are semantic gaps, the translation cannot start directly from the form or semantics. In this case, transliteration can be used. Most of the audience are familiar to many British and American films and television titles or have a knowledge of their historical and cultural significance, so transliteration is adopted. Such as: Casablanca &quot;卡萨布兰卡&quot;, Mulan &quot;花木兰&quot;, etc. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into &quot;塞尔玛与路易斯&quot;, the audience would think that it was just two names. Selma and Louis are the two female males in the film. However, due to a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, the two of them began to fight back under unbearable circumstances, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)<br /> <br /> However, there are some situations that require flexible translation. For example: If The Thelma and Louise were transliterated into &quot;塞尔玛与路易斯&quot;, the audience would think that it was just two female males in the film. However, this movie talked about they began to fight back under unbearable circumstances after experiencing a series of sexual violence and harassment on their simple journey, and finally flew to the world. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 15)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting their fate with their lives in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as &quot;末路狂花&quot; (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation is not only basically the same as the content of the film, but also conveys the meaning of the original film appropriately without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)<br /> <br /> The film portrays the story of two hostesses fighting with their fate in order to maintain the dignity of women. The film was paraphrased as &quot;末路狂花&quot; (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176). This translation not only basically expresses the content of the film, but also appropriately conveys the meaning of the original film without being restricted by English. (Cai Dongdong 2000, 176)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ====4.1.2 Free Translation====<br /> Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be freely translated based on the film content and the original name. The so-called free translation means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content when it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). <br /> <br /> Some English film titles have specific cultural connotations, and it is difficult to express them in literal translation. Such film titles must be non-literally translated based on the film content and the original name. That is so-called free translation. It means that the translation can accurately express the original thought content while it is not limited to the form of language expression. Gouadec's free translation is named restructuring translation, which refers to the translation that retains the entire content of the original text without considering the form of the target text. Its purpose is to convey the content of the original text in a language that is as clear and understandable as possible, so that all the original text information is directly accepted by the target reader (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57). --[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Therefore, free translation is generally basically or completely out of the literal meaning of the original topic, and a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as &quot;乱世佳人&quot;. The title more vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as &quot;廊桥遗梦&quot;, which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translated name clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves plenty of room for imagination for the audience. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)<br /> <br /> Therefore, free translation is generally based on the literal meaning of the original topic, and then a new topic is created. For example, the movie Gone with the Wind is translated as &quot;乱世佳人&quot;. The title vividly conveys the rough life of the heroine. Another example is the film The Bridges of Madison County, which was paraphrased as &quot;廊桥遗梦&quot;, which tells about the extramarital affair of two middle-aged people. The translation clearly shows the theme of the film, and also leaves the audience ample room for imagination. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 57)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The free translation method must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conform to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text, and can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: &quot;我最好朋友的婚礼&quot; and &quot;新娘不是我&quot;. In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, the free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)<br /> <br /> The free translation method demands that the translation must be concise and vivid, embodying the theme, and at the same time conforming to the Chinese language norms and the aesthetic appeal of the audience as much as possible. Free translation is not restricted by the language form of the original text so that it can better reflect the essence of functional equivalence. For example: Best Friend's Wedding, there are two different translations: &quot;我最好朋友的婚礼&quot; and &quot;新娘不是我&quot;. In contrast, the latter is more in line with the idea that Nida put forward. Therefore, free translation of the title can attract the audience's attention and leave the audience with suspense. (Fang Mengzhi 2004, 60)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development of times and change. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br /> <br /> Film, as a commercial art form, has to consider its cost and income, so our concept of translation and translation theory itself should keep up with the development and change of times. Unlike other text translations, the reader of film titles is a larger group, so the translation should take into account vast majority of readers’ aesthetic preferences, value orientation, etc.. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation action is determined by the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)<br /> <br /> This paper studies the application of skopos theory and functional equivalence in Chinese translation of English film titles. Skopos theory has three guiding rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which skopos rule is the dominating rule, because in skopos theory, translation is to achieve the skopos of target text. In addition, the application of skopos theory in film title translation is reflected in realizing film title’s three functions: commercial function, informative function and aesthetic function, among which commercial function is the most important function, because to film makers, their skopos of title translation is to maximize the sales for high profit. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 28)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition , omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br /> <br /> In order to better achieve film title’s three functions, the author promotes three commonly-used methods in title translation: literal translation, addition, omission, transliteration and free translation. To the audience, they buy tickets and enter cinemas for entertainment and mental enjoyment. Only attractive titles can be more appealing and impressive to audience; thus the purpose of title translation is to deliver the charm of the film to audience in an appropriate way; this in turn can realize film maker’s purpose. Title translators should give an overall consideration about the balance of the functions and freely choose them under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> All in all, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, under the guidance of skopos theory and functional equivalence, this paper has listed examples, judged their merits and suggested what translation method to be adopted and intended to explain these two theory’s guiding function in film title translation. (Chen Huaiyan 2009, 29)--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ===6. References===<br /> *He Ying 贺莺. (2001). 电影片名的翻译理论和方法 [Translation Theories and Methods of Film Titles]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Teaching (1) 57. <br /> *Jia Wenbo 贾文波. (2004). 应用翻译功能论 [Applied Translation Functionalism]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Company] 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. <br /> *Wang Ying 王英. (2016). 目的论与电影片名翻译 [Skopos Theory and Film Title Translation]. 科技视界 Horizon of Science and Technology (2) 158. <br /> *Yang Wanqiu 杨惋邱. (2011). 目的论视角下英文电影片名的汉译问题探究 [A Study on The Chinese Translation of English Film titles from the perspective of Skopos Theory]. 西华大学硕士论文 27. <br /> *Zhong Hewei, Zhong Yu 仲伟合、钟钰. (1999). 德国的功能派翻译理论 [German Functionalist Translation Theory]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translator Journal (3). <br /> *Guo Jianzhong 郭建中. (2000). 当代美国翻译理论 [Contemporary American Translation Theory]. Hubei: Hubei Education Press 湖北：湖北教育出版社.<br /> *Wang Yanping, Wang Jianwu 王燕萍, 王建武. (2005). 略论翻译对等与翻译策略 [Translation Equivalence and Translation Strategies]. 陕西理工学院学报 Journal of Shaanxi University of Science and Technology (3) 72-75. <br /> *Cai Dongdong 蔡东东. (2000). 当代英美电影赏析 [Appreciation of Contemporary British and American films]. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press 北京：外文出版社. <br /> *Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2004). 译学词典 [The Dictionary to Translation Studies]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社. <br /> *Chen Huaiyan 陈怀彦. (2009). 电影名翻译的现状及方法 [Current Situation and Methods of Film Name Translation]. 韶关学院学报(社会科学) Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Sciences) (8) 30. <br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London and New York: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity--Functionalist Approaches Explained. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> *Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials and Limitations. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> *Nida Eugene. Language, Culture and Translating. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993.<br /> *Tartaglione, Nancy (2017.1.5). “Intl Box Office Sees Projected 3.7% Drop Amid Currency Shifts &amp; China Dips-Studio Chart&quot;. http://deadline.com/2017/01/highest-grossing-movie-studios-of-2016-international-box-office-1201878861/.<br /> <br /> == Comparison Between Chinese and English Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling 202070080611 ==<br /> <br /> &lt;Center&gt; Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲， 202070080611 MTI 英语笔译. &lt;/Center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory; resume; translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；简历；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br /> <br /> A resume is a written communication document that shows to prospective employers in which you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employers' attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Definition of Resume====<br /> <br /> According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present his background and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment. A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.(Zhu Liping,11)<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Resume====<br /> <br /> Resume needs to be optimized and the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about it, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the following features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.（Hu Tingting,12）<br /> <br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Conciseness<br /> <br /> When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.（Hu Tingting,12）<br /> <br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Clarity<br /> <br /> The purpose of clarity is to make the resume easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.（Hu Tingting,13）<br /> 1.2.3 Authenticity<br /> <br /> Don’t try to fabricate work experience or achievements, lies will not let you go too far. Most of the lies will be identified during the interview process, not to mention the fact that many large companies, especially foreign companies, conduct background checks based on their resumes and related materials before providing OFFER. But the truth is not to put out our shortcomings.（Hu Tingting,13）<br /> <br /> <br /> 1.2.4 Pertinence<br /> <br /> If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br /> If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in an amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume. That is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, so this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.（Hu Tingting,14）<br /> <br /> <br /> 1.2.5 Objectivity<br /> <br /> I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.（Xiang Yang，打造优秀简历的七大原则）<br /> <br /> <br /> ====1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes====<br /> <br /> Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in forms and contents, English resumes are not hard copies of Chinese resumes. Recognizing the differences between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs point out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br /> <br /> <br /> 1.3.1 Role of Resume<br /> <br /> If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of Chinese resumes is the first step of the job, English resumes play supplementary roles to the Chinese resumes; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidates, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidates' ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br /> <br /> <br /> 1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume<br /> <br /> According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br /> <br /> Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy contents. Companies are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br /> <br /> <br /> 1.3.3 Focus of Resume<br /> <br /> In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job.(Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br /> <br /> Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. (Huang Lu, Wu Qiying,2013)<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are examples:<br /> <br /> ①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br /> ②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br /> ③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br /> ④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br /> <br /> <br /> Using behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, which connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation. That is to say, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. <br /> <br /> After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose. <br /> <br /> According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purposes of translation determine the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years.<br /> <br /> Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Skopos Rule<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. (Hu Tingting,6)<br /> <br /> However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). (Hu Tingting,6)<br /> <br /> In general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.(Hu Tingting,6)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Coherence Rule<br /> <br /> Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.(Hu Tingting,6)<br /> <br /> When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.(Hu Tingting,6)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Fidelity Rule<br /> <br /> According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purposes of the original text. At the same time, the translators should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.(Hu Tingting,7)<br /> <br /> <br /> 2.2.4 Loyalty Rule<br /> <br /> This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. Firstly, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. <br /> <br /> According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br /> <br /> In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br /> <br /> From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual level respectively. And it is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation====<br /> <br /> The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resumes more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above contents will be introduced separately.(Zhu Liping,22)<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.1 Action verbs<br /> <br /> A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> <br /> 1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br /> <br /> 2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br /> <br /> 3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br /> <br /> 4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br /> <br /> Translation:<br /> <br /> 1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br /> <br /> 2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br /> <br /> 3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br /> <br /> 4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br /> <br /> <br /> These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. <br /> <br /> <br /> When we are translating something, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunters should adjust the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them.<br /> <br /> Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above parts also employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.(Zhu Liping,23)<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation<br /> <br /> Different fields have different terminologies, which are the products of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.(Zhu Liping,24)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> 负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成<br /> <br /> Translation:<br /> <br /> Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br /> <br /> <br /> From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br /> <br /> <br /> Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with the key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position or not, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.（Hu Tingting，25）<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation====<br /> <br /> It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> 担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br /> <br /> Translation 1:<br /> <br /> As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br /> <br /> Translation 2:<br /> <br /> 1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br /> 2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br /> 3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br /> 4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br /> <br /> <br /> In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br /> <br /> In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter. It increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person &quot;I&quot;, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Syntactic Unity<br /> <br /> When translating resumes, we should pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> <br /> 1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br /> <br /> 2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br /> <br /> 3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br /> <br /> Translation:<br /> <br /> 1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br /> <br /> 2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br /> <br /> 3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br /> <br /> <br /> From the translation of examples above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.（Zhu Liping，25）<br /> <br /> Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also finds that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is the reason why the above tense is used.（Zhu Liping，27）<br /> <br /> <br /> ====3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation====<br /> <br /> In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.(Zhu Liping,27)<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information<br /> <br /> There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> <br /> 姓名：张三<br /> <br /> 性别：男<br /> <br /> 年龄：25<br /> <br /> 身高：185<br /> <br /> 政治面貌：团员<br /> <br /> 婚否：已婚<br /> <br /> 地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br /> <br /> 电话：1337658xxxx<br /> <br /> 电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br /> <br /> Translation:<br /> <br /> Zhang San<br /> <br /> Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br /> <br /> Tel:1337658xxxx<br /> <br /> Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br /> <br /> <br /> By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes. And there are a lot of private information that has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.3.2 Concise Style<br /> <br /> As we know, simple and concise are two core principles of resume translation, because they achieve the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.(Zhu Liping,28)<br /> <br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> <br /> 2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br /> <br /> 2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br /> <br /> 2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br /> <br /> Translation 1:<br /> <br /> 2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> 2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> 2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Translation 2:<br /> <br /> Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br /> <br /> National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br /> <br /> Excellent Student(2 Times)<br /> <br /> Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br /> <br /> Outstanding League Members<br /> <br /> <br /> The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.(Zhu Liping,29)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br /> <br /> Resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews and get the job opportunities for job seekers. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br /> <br /> Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br /> <br /> [5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> [8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [9] Chu Tianshu 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[Nine details that cannot be ignored in a job resume ][J]. 中国大学生就业Employment of Chinese University Students, 2008,(8).<br /> <br /> [10] Hu Tingting 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[A Study of the C-E Translation of Resume Under Skopos Theory][D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学Jilin University of Finance and Economics, 2018.<br /> <br /> [11] Lian Shuneng 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[Comparative Study of English and Chinese ][M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社Higher Education Press, 2010.<br /> <br /> [12] Gao Lin 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[Genre Analysis of Chinese and English Resume from the Intercultural Perspective][D]. 天津: 天津商业大学Tianjin University of Commerce, 2015.<br /> <br /> [13] Zhang Peiji 张培基. 英汉翻译教程[English-Chinese Translation Course ][M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1980.<br /> <br /> [14] Zhu Liping 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[Chinese-English translation of Job Resume][D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学Shanghai International Studies University, 2008.<br /> <br /> [15] Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[A Short Course in English-Chinese Translation ][M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2002.<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==The Comparison between Lexical Gap in Linguistics and It in Translatology From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 孟莹 Meng Ying 202020080626 外国语言学及应用语言学==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of globalization, the cross-cultural communication becomes more and more important. The lexical gap causes difficulty in mutual understanding between two cultures. Even though the lexical gap is borrowed from semantics to translatology, they are different. The paper compares the definition, the classification in lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and find that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly concerns the unlexicalized concept within one language, while the lexical gap in Translatology mainly focus on the culture-specific words and denotation and connotation divergence between equivalents in two languages. Besides, the paper also analyzes the causes of lexical gap from cognitive perspective. The experiential and perceptual causes are the main causes of lexical gap. Besides, to solve the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology respectively, the paper provides different translation strategies for the two kinds based on Skopos theory. <br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> <br /> Lexical Gap, Culrure-loaded Words, Skopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 由于全球化的发展，跨文化交际变得越来越重要。词汇的差异导致两种文化之间难以相互理解。虽然词空缺是从语义学借用到翻译学，但两者互不相同。本文从定义,分类比较了词汇空缺在语言学和翻译学中的不同，发现语言学的词汇空缺主要关注在同一语言中没有被词汇化的概念，而翻译学的词汇空缺主要指文化造成的概念空缺和两个语言中对应词汇在外延和内涵上的不同。此外，本文还从认知角度分析了造成词汇空缺的原因。经验缺失和认知差异是造成词汇空缺的主要原因。此外，为了解决语言学和翻译学上的词汇空缺，本文基于目的论为这两种词汇空缺提出了不同的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 词汇空缺；文化负载词；目的论<br />  <br /> ===Introduction=== <br /> <br /> Word is a basic unit of language. “The vocabulary of a particular language is not just a random list of words. As a matter of fact, the vocabulary is organized in terms of lexical fields.” (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748) In a lexical field, if a concept exists, but the word that represents the concept is absent, so the lexical gap within a language will occur, which is the meaning of lexical gap in linguistics.<br /> <br /> The term of &quot;lexical gap&quot; is originated from a French word &quot;lacuna&quot;. (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12) . The “lacuna” means vacancy, therefore, the lexical gap means word vacancy. Researchers in linguistic and researchers in translatology defines lexical gap differently. In translatology, the lexical gap is defined across two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is mainly caused by culture and society difference. However, no researchers until now tries to compare the difference between lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology. Therefore, the paper will try to compare them form definition, classification, translation strategy. (Wang Quanzhi, 2017, 748)<br /> <br /> Besides, some reseachers equates the lexical gap with the culture-loaded words, but the paper does not agree. Therefore, the paper tries to compare them. (Tian &amp; Yang, 2005: 55)<br /> <br /> Nowadays, the cross-cultural communication become more and more important because of the globalization. To break the language barrier, the translation become very significant. However, the lexical gap confuses the translator in a large scale. Therefore, to know it clearly and to grasp its translation strategy is urgent for the successful communication and culture spreading. The skopos theory provides us a new way to see translation. With different purposes, different translation strategies should be applied. translation for successful communication and translation for culture spreading should apply different strategies. (Qian Jing, 2013:11-12)<br /> <br /> The structure of the thesis is given below. Section 1 introduces the three rules of skopos theory. Section 2 introduces the difference between definitions, classifications of lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology and also discusses the causes of lexical gap. Section 3 put forward different translation strategies for the two kinds of lexical gap based on the skopos theory. Section 5 concludes the whole paper. <br />  <br /> ===Introduction of Skopos Theory=== <br /> ====Development of Skopos Theory====<br /> The origin of Skopos theory can be dated back to Katharina Reiss’s book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism in 1971. In Skopos theory, translation is considered as a human behaviors with certain purposes rather than translating processes. The judgement of a successful translation is whether the translation accords with the intended purpose. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14)<br /> <br /> The development of Skopos Theory can be divided into three phases. In 1971, Katherina Reiss firstly proposed the base form of functionalist approach to translation. On one hand, Reiss suggested that the perfect translation should be translation “in which the aim in the TL is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a SL text”. Reiss defines this kind of translation as “integral communicative performance”; On the other hand, she admits that the absolute equivalence is impossible, besides, in some situations, is not required. The translation should have its own translation brief. In some cases, the different function of the original text is different with the target one, so Reiss proposes that the translator is supposed to pay attention to the function not the equivalence. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)<br /> <br /> Hans Vermeer puts forward Skopos theory based on the ideas of his teacher Katherina Reiss. Vermeer believes that translation is a kind of transformation, that is, the transfer of communicative linguistic signs and non-linguistic signs from one language to another. Translation is also a kind of human action. According to the action theory, Vermeer considers translation as the intentional and purposeful behavior under specific circumstances. Translator should translate the original text selectively based on the intentions of translation and the requirements of target readers. Vermeer also emphasizes that translation is not a one-to-one language transformation activity because the human behaviors take place in culturals context and different cultures have different customs and values. (Zhang Jinlan, 2004, 35-36)<br /> <br /> Based on action theory, Justa Holz Manttari (1984) develops the ideas of Vermeer Manttari believes that translation designed to satisfy a particular intention with the coverage of all forms of intercultural transfer, including textural material, pictures, sounds, body movements and so on. Therefore, he emphasizes translating process, the roles of the participants and the situation in which the activities occur. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 14-15)<br /> <br /> ====Principles of Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> There are three rules in Skopos Theory including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Actually, the skopos rule is the primary rule among the three rules. <br /> <br /> The Skopos theory means that the translational purposes of the target text determine the translation process. The skopos rule can be explained as translate or express the original text in a way that admits your translation to satisfy the function the target readers or you clients want. The rule indicates that the translator may use the free or faithful translation or combination of the two extremes depending on the purposes that the target text requires. That is to say, there is no better way between free translation and faithful translation. The point is how to use them properly. ( Nord, Christiane, 2001, 29)<br /> <br /> By Coherence rule, the standard of “intratextual coherence” should be conformed in the target language (Reiss and Vermeer 1984: 109). That is to say, that the target text that a translator translates should be understood by the receivers. Besides, the words and expressions in the target text should be meaningful and understandable in the culture and communicative situation where target language is used, which means that the target reader can easily comprehend the purposes of the target text quickly. (Tian Xiaoqin, 2006, 23) <br /> <br /> Therefore, the translators have to grasp the the social and cultural knowledge of the target receivers and the original text. based on the absolute understanding of the two culture, the translator can comprehend the inherent meaning of the original text, select the useful message that should be translated in the source text and find or create proper expressions in the target language for the better understanding of target text to make sure the successful cross-culture communication. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule, also called intertextual coherence between source text and target text. As we have discussed above, the purposes that the target text want to satisfy is the most important in the translation, which means the translator may subordinate the faithfulness to the source text to the satisfaction of the purposes. However, it does not mean that the faithfulness is not required. The translators should try their best to be faithful and achieve the purposes at the same time. The degree of the fidelity actually relies on the purpose the translator’s understanding of the source text. (Zhao Xiuxing, 2015, 16-17)<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, it is doubtless that skopos rule is the core of Skopos theory. The coherence rule is more important than fidelity rule. If the skopos changes, the degree of inter-textual coherence between source text and target text will change. If the skopos does not require intratextual coherence, the coherence rule is not needed (Nord, Christiane, 2001, 33).<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words===<br /> <br /> ====The Definition of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology==== <br /> <br /> By reading different papers, the paper finds that the different definitions of lexical gap in Linguistics and Translatology. Therefore, the paper discusses the difference between the two definitions and the problems caused by the biased understanding of the lexical gap in Translatology. <br /> <br /> In 1957, Lado R (cf Tan Zaixi, 1982: 6-10) first proposed the concept of &quot;Lexical gaps&quot; in Linguistics across Cultures. In Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, the definition of the lexical gap is “the absence of a word in a particular place in a lexical field of a language.” (Richards et al, 2002: 305). Besides, the lexical gap is also defined “a lexical item which has the potential to be lexicalized, but is not actually lexicalized, in the vocabulary according to the rules governing the phonological system, the morpheme combination and the sememe combination of the language in question.” (Wang Qianzhi, 2017, 749-750) <br /> <br /> Though the lexical gap is firstly appeared in the field of the linguistics, the term is also used in the study of translation. The basic idea “the absence of a word” in the definition of lexical gap is used to describe the phenomenon that “the absence in the target language of a word, an expression that exists in the target language.” (Delisle, Jean et al, 1988,77) <br /> <br /> Therefore, in Translatology, the concept of lexical gap is always infused with the concept of culture, especially in China. <br /> The concept of lexical gap is firstly applied by Tan Zaixi (1982). (Qian Jing, 2013, 11-12). As the researcher proposes, the unique characteristics of a culture will be embodied in the language. When the culture uniqueness is reflected in vocabulary, the lexical gap will arise between two languages. (Tan Zaixi, 1982, 6)<br /> <br /> Guo Aixian( 1998) sums up three definitions of lexical gap according to the previous researches, firstly, it refers to unique words of each culture. Secondly, they are the words of the source language that are easily misunderstood in the target language. Thirdly, they are culture-loaded words and expressions. (Guo Aixian, 1998: 42)<br /> <br /> In Sum up, the Lexical gap in linguistics is discussed with a language and the component of culture is not considered, while the lexical gap in Translatology is studied from the perspective of interlanguage and is infused with culture. <br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics and Translatology==== <br /> =====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====<br /> <br /> Wenxu (2003) believes that the lexical gap is caused mainly by the hyponymy, antonymy, synonymy and part-whole relation. He puts forward to use the three lexical semantic relations that are proposed by Cruse (1986) to classify the lexical gap, which includes proportional series, hierarchies and opposites. (Wen Xu, 2003, 81)<br /> <br /> Wen also illustrate the three classification of the lexical gap. <br /> <br /> For the proportional series, he gives an example like human—corpse, animal—carcass, plant—?. In this example, human and corpse as well as animal and carcass constitute an intact minimal unit, while the vacancy in the place that express the concept of “dead plant” is a lexical gap in English. (ibid)<br /> By hierarchies, Wen suggests that the hyponymy is a kind of hierarchies. His example is that no hypernym in the category of verbs that express moving in the ground, but there are “swim”, “fly” to express moving in the water and sky, so a lexical gap occurs. By the opposites, Wen proposes that there may exist lexical gap in antonymy. For example, blind, deaf, dumb have no lexicalized antonyms. (ibid)<br /> <br /> From the three classification of the lexical gap in linguistics, it is found that the lexical gap in linguistics mainly occur in the lexical sematic relations within a language. (ibid) <br /> <br /> =====The Classification of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====<br /> <br /> However, when the “gap” is used to refer to the difference between two languages. <br /> <br /> Therefore, Han (2009) classifies the lexical gap in translatology into two categories and four subcatergories. The two categories are lexical gap including concept vacancy and expression vacancy as well as semi-lexical gap including denotation divergence and connotation divergence. (Han Luan, 2009, 4-6)<br /> <br /> A. Lexical Gap Proper—No Equivalent <br /> <br /> Lexical gap proper means that there exists no equivalent of the words or expressions of the source language in the target language. Lexical gap proper is manifested by two kinds: concept vacancy and expression vacancy. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)<br /> <br /> a. Concept vacancy <br /> <br /> Concept vacancy is a kind of lexical gap that is related to the difference of culture because of the culture difference. The present concept in source language may be absent in the target language. For example, the concept of “土地庙” does not exist in English, and the concept of “Lazy Susan” cannot find equivalent in Chinese. Those words are created based on the unique characteristics of the culture. That is to say, the culture uniqueness causes the absence of concepts in a language. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)<br /> <br /> b. Expression Vacancy<br /> <br /> Expression Vacancy refers to the non-lexicalized concept in the target language, which means that a concept may be represented by a lexicon but by a free combination of words in the target one. For example, Chinese people may use “笔” to refer to the general name of a category, while there exists no such a general name in English. There is no doubt that the English speakers know what is “笔”. They just have no such a word for reference. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)<br /> <br /> B. Semi-lexical Gap—Partial Equivalent<br /> <br /> Actually, semi-lexical gap means partial equivalence. That is to say, even though words and expressions in source language can find equivalents in target language, but they are not totally same. The divergence may occur in the denotation and connotation of the concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12)<br /> <br /> a. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence<br /> <br /> Here the paper gives examples to illustrate the kind of lexical gap. For example, the “龙” in Chinese and “dragon” in English. They are always translated as each other, but they have difference in denotation and connotation. The “龙” in China represents power and goodness, while the “dragon” in English represents evil and badness. <br /> <br /> The color “red” in Chinese and English may have same denotation, but they are difference in connotation. The “neighbor” and “邻居” also different in denotation. The range of “neighbor” is much greater than that of “邻居”.<br /> To compare the lexical gap in linguistics and in translatology, we can find that the denotation of lexical gap in translatology is richer than that in linguistics. In linguistics, the lexical gap only refers to the absence lexicon or expression that is admitted to exist according to the structure of a language. That is to say, the concept has existed in the language but not be lexicalized. However, in translatology, the lexical gap can not only refer to the lexical gap in linguistics, but also refers to any kinds of lexical vacancy between two languages. The vacancy may be caused by concept absence based on culture difference or caused by semantic difference in the corresponding concept. (Huan Luan, 2009, 6-12) <br /> <br /> ====The Relation and Difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Word====<br /> <br /> It can be found that the definition of lexical gap in Translatology adds the components of culture. Actually, some researchers including Xu Guozhang even equate the lexical gap with culture loaded words. (Tian Xianzhi &amp; Yang Jinxue, 2005, 55). However, the paper believes that the lexical gap is not equivalent to the culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> =====The Overlap Between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> <br /> Tang (2006) defines culture-loaded words as “the words or expressions that carry the meaning of a cultural trait to a certain socio-cultural community, and their referent also exists in other communities, but doesn’t overlap the one in other community completely in semantic category, and therefore that just has, to some extent, a corresponding equivalent when used in cross-cultural communication.” (Tang Xiuqiong, 2006: 126-127)<br /> <br /> Li &amp; Guo &amp; Yuan (2008) defines the culture-loaded words as words and expressions that carries culture connotation in a specific culture of a nation or a region. The culture connotation of a culture-loaded word is culture-specific and conventional abstract and concrete concept. (Li Yingyu &amp; Guo Jirong &amp; Yuan Liling, 2008, 64) <br /> <br /> From the definition of culture-loaded words, we can find that the culture-loaded words has some similarities with lexical gap in the category of semi-lexical gap. The concept exists in the source language and target language, while the denotation and connotation of the concept in the two languages are not same. Based on the definition of Tang (2006), the concept vacancy does not belong to the category of culture-loaded words. However， the definition of Li &amp; Guo &amp; Yuan (2008) admits that the concept vacancy is a kind of culture-loaded words. <br /> <br /> Therefore, the part of denotation of culture-loaded words overlaps with part of denotation of lexical gap, but their connotations are totally different.<br /> <br /> =====The difference between Lexical Gap and Culture-loaded Words=====<br /> <br /> Even though there are some similarities between the denotation of lexical gap and that of culture-loaded words, but some difference can also easily found. For example, in China, we use “出轨“ to refer to ”have an affair“ in English, while we also use “戴绿帽子” to represent the same concept. However, the “戴绿帽子” cannot be considered as lexical gap according to the definition of lexical gap, because the concept of “戴绿帽子” has an equivalent expression in English, which means the concept has been filled in English, but Chinese creates another expression to represent the concept based on its culture. Therefore, the “戴绿帽子” is a culture-loaded words but not lexical gap. <br /> <br /> In sum up, there exists some conventionalized expressions that carries culture traits in a language to represents the lexicalized concept. Because the concept has been lexicalized, so there is no lexical gap that need to fill. That is to say, the conventionalized expressions as “戴绿帽子” is just a culture-loaded words but not a lexical gap. <br /> <br /> ====The Causes of Lexical Gap====<br /> <br /> =====Experiential Causes=====<br /> <br /> There is no such experience in a culture. Therefore, corresponding concept does not exist in the language. For example, most English speaker never know what the “醪糟” is，while most Chinese never know what the Macaroni and Cheese is. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40) <br /> <br /> =====Psychological Causes and Perceptual Causes=====<br /> <br /> The death of an animal may evoke emotions of human, while the death of a plant may not, which may be caused by construal of human. Human always pays their attention to the animate and movable entity as figure firstly, while the unmovable entities are considered as ground. That is why the plant is ignored. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the psychological causes is always combined with the perceptual causes because human’s perception is subjective, which causes the conscious and unconscious absence of an expression. (Han Luan, 2009, 39-40) <br /> <br /> ===Translation of Lexical Gap===<br /> <br /> ====Translatability and Untranslatability====<br /> <br /> Translatability and untranslatability are a famous and still unsolved paradox. “Translatability is mostly understood as the capacity for some kind of meaning to be transferred from one language to another without undergoing radical change” (Baker, 1998/2004: 273). Wilss (1982/2001: 49) put forwards that translatability of a text can “be measured in terms of the degree to which it can be recontextualized in the TL, taking into account all linguistic factors”. Untranslatability is defined as “impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning.” (Catford, 1965, 94) “Translatability is more like a continuum than a well-defined dichotomy. The text or unit of the primitive is more or less translatable, not absolutely untranslatable. (ibid, 93)”.<br /> <br /> From the definition of the translatability and untranslatability, it can be concluded that untranslatable phenomenon definitely exists in language if we see translatability as a continuum. Because of the difference in culture and lexicalization in different languages, the lexical gap in linguistics may not be translated but can be borrowed. However, lexical gap in translatology can be translated in various ways. <br /> <br /> ====The Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap Between English and Chinese Based on the Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> Because lexical gap in linguistics is caused by the concept vacancy and non-lexicalization of concepts. Based on the Skopos theory, the purpose of translation determines what kinds of strategies are selected in translation. In translation of Lexical gap, different translation strategies should be applied while facing different purpose.<br /> <br /> If the purpose is successful communication , we may choose not to translation the lexical gap if it will not influence the success of the communication. However, if the purpose is to introduce the culture of source language to the target one, the translation is necessary. Of course, there are lots of purposes of translation and the purpose depends on the genre of source text. If the translation of lexical gap is necessary, several strategies are provided below. <br /> <br /> =====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Linguistics=====<br /> <br /> The translation strategies of lexical gap in linguistic includes mainly borrowing. As we have discussed above, the lexical gap in linguistics can be divided into three categories including proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites. <br /> <br /> For the translation of the three kinds, borrowing is the main methods. English borrows lots of words from French to fill the lexical gap years ago. For example, beef for the meat of cow, loot for war trophies from India. These concepts exist in the mind of English people, but these concepts are not lexicalized, so English loans words from other languages. <br /> <br /> =====Translation Strategy of Lexical Gap in Translatology=====<br /> <br /> As we have given Above, the lexical gap in translatology is separated into four kinds: concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence.<br /> <br /> a. Concept Vacancy<br /> <br /> For concept vacancy, the first purpose of translation is to introduce the concept to the target readers and let them understand what the concepts are. Therefore, there exists four strategies to translate it.<br /> <br /> For concept vacancy, transliteration are easily used.<br /> <br /> For example, “豆腐”, “饺子”, “混沌”, “叉烧”, “炒面” are translated into “tofu”, “jiaozi” “won ton”, “char shiu” and “chow mein”. (Shun Kaixi, 2013, 30-31). In E-C translation, AIDS is translated into “爱滋病”, “gene” into “基因”, “Internet” into “因特网”, “clone” as “克隆”. This kind of strategy pays attention to the formal fidelity because the concept is absent in the target language. So introducing concept is main purpose in the strategy. (Zhang Lei, 2008, 35-36)<br /> <br /> The literal translation is also applied in translating concept vacancy. For example, we translate “孩奴” as “child slave”, “四书” as “Four Books”. In E-C translation, Ten Commandments is translated into “十诫”, “fast food” into “快餐”，hot dog into“热狗”, “bubble economy” into “泡沫经济”, “e-mail” into “电子邮件”, “honeymoon” into “蜜月”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 45)<br /> <br /> The free translation also can be used. In the process of using literal translation, misunderstandings sometimes occur due to the cultural gap. For example, a famous Sichuan dish “夫妻肺片” is literally translated as &quot;Husband and wife's lung slice&quot;. Then foreigners would never dare to taste it. Therefore, it is translated as “sliced beef and ox tongue in chili sauce”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62)<br /> <br /> In addition, westerners' love of cheese has led to the development of many expressions using cheese, for example, “get the cheese”, “the big cheese”. If these expressions are translated literally as “得到奶酪”, “大奶酪”，nobody will understand what the expressions mean. Therefore, they are translated as “碰钉子”, “重要事物”. (Wu Leya, 2019, 62) In fact, the free translation is for easy understanding. If the easy understanding is the purpose of the translation, the fidelity of meaning prevails.<br /> <br /> Besides, by using notes, we can explain the concept vacancy in translating. Sometimes, due to the limitations of transliteration and literal translation, the target language readers may misunderstand the transliteration and literal translation and fail to understand its loaded cultural connotation. However, we still want to keep some original things to introduce cultures. Therefore, we can improve the transliteration by adding explanatory notes. “风水” is translated into Fengshui (a traditional Chinese practice of determining the location of a house, tomb, etc.). “阴阳” is translated into Yin and yang (the two opposite principles/forces existing in nature and the human world). (ibid)<br /> <br /> Sme literal translation is hard to understand for target language reader, so somenotes should be added to explain it. For example, “Big Apple” is translated as “大苹果”（纽约的别称）; “裹足” is translated as “bound feet: a vile feudal practice which crippled women both physically and spiritually.” (ibid)<br /> From these examples, it can concluded that strategies like transliteration, literal translation, free translation and using notes. <br /> <br /> b. Expression Vacancy<br /> <br /> For expression vacancy, the main strategy is using general or specific words to replace the lexical gap. For example ,“笔” is usually translated into “pen”. In fact, “笔” is the general name of the category including things like “pen”, “pencil” that function as tools for writing. However, “pen” is just a kind of “笔”. Here, the translator uses a more specific word to translate. In many occasion, the translation does not influence the understanding of the readers according to the theory of Skopos, which emphasis purpose than faithfulness.<br /> <br /> In English, pineapple is used to refer to the two kinds of Chinese fruits “凤梨 (fengli)” and “菠萝 (boluo)”. However, in translation, the pineapple is just translated as “凤梨” or “菠萝”. <br /> <br /> c. Denotation Divergence and Connotation Divergence<br /> <br /> For semi-lexical gap, finding its equivalent expression is a good way for purpose of easy understanding. For example, from “邻居” to “neighbor”, from “龙” to “dragon”, from “red” to “红色”. In fact the denotational meaning and connotational meaning between lexical pair is different. The relation of Chinese “邻居” is closer than English “neighbor” and the range of the “邻居” is narrower than “neighbor”. The image of “龙” and that of “dragon” is different in a large scale. Besides, the Chinese “龙” is kind and good, while the English “dragon” is evil. The “红色” in Chinese is a symbol for happiness and enthusiasm, while the “red” in English means violence and damage. These words can be translated into each other because of the existence of context. <br /> <br /> If the context is absent and the purpose is to introduce the source culture more definitely, the transliteration with notes can be used to translate these words. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The paper compares the meaning, the classification, the translation strategy of lexical gap in linguistic and translatology.<br /> <br /> It is found that the definition of lexical gap in linguistics is reflected within one language. it refers to the unlexicalized concepts in a language. That is to say, the word should have existed in the language. However, the definition of lexical gap in translatology is based on the difference between two languages. The lexical gap in translatology is much broader than that in linguistics. the lexical gap in translatology can refer to lexical difference totally because of the difference of culture and some word equivalents that has not only similarities but also divergence in denotation and connotation. <br /> <br /> Based on the definition, the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap is discussed. Because of the lexical gap in linguistics is defined within a language, the classification of this kind includes proportional gap, hierarchies and opposites because the lexical gap can occur in the three sematic relations. However, the lexical gap in translatology is classified based on the reason why the lexical gap exists. The category of the lexical gap in translatology includes concept vacancy, expression vacancy, denotation divergence and connotation divergence. <br /> <br /> Based on the classification of the two kinds of lexical gap, the translation strategies of the two kinds are different. The translation strategy of the lexical gap in linguistics is mainly borrowing. However, the translation strategies of lexical gap in translatology includes transliteration, literal translation, free translation, adding notes and using general and specific words. <br /> <br /> Besides, the overlap and difference between lexical gap and culture-loaded words is discussed. The culture-loaded words include kinds of words that can find definite equivalents in target language, while the lexical gap does not include. <br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> [1]Baker, Mona and Kirstern.(1998/2004).Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [2]Catford, J.C.(1965).A Linguistic Theory of Translation.London: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> [3]Delisle, Jean, et al.,eds.(1988).Translation Terminology.Ottawa: University of Haifa.<br /> <br /> [4]Nord, Christiane.(2001).Translating as a purposeful Activity.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [5]Wang Quanzhi.(2017). Lexical Gaps: Their Filling and Impacts.Journal of Literature and Art Studies.(7)748-754.<br /> <br /> [6]Guo Aixian.郭爱先.(1998).词汇空缺及其可译性.[Lexical Gap and Its Translatability].解放军外语学院学报.[Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages].(05)3-5.<br /> <br /> [7]Han Luan.韩鸾.(2009).认知视角下词汇空缺的对比研究.[A comparative study in lexical gaps from cognitive perspective].东北大学.[Northeastern University].1-49<br /> <br /> [8]Li Yingyu.李颖玉, 郭继荣&amp;袁笠菱.(2008).试论方言文化负载词的翻译——以《浮躁》中的“瓷”为例.[Translation of Culture-Loaded Dialect Words: With the Rendition of “ci” in Turbulence as An Exemplar ].中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal].(03)64-67+96.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Jing.钱静.(2013).跨文化交际角度下的词汇空缺研究.[The Study of Lexical Gap in Intercultural Communication].上海师范大学.[Shang Normal University].1-51.<br /> <br /> [10]Sun Caixi.孙凯西.(2013).汉英翻译中词汇空缺现象探析.[An Analysis of the Lexical Gap in C-E Translation—A Case Study of Contemporary Popular Chinese Words].长江大学.[Yangtze University].1-45.<br /> <br /> [11]Tan Zaixi.谭载喜.(1982).翻译中的语义对比试析.[On The Comparison of Meaning in Translation].中国翻译.[Chinese Translators Journal].(01)6-10.<br /> <br /> [12]Tian Xiaoqin.田小琴.(2006).从目的论角度看电影《英雄》的字幕翻译.[An analysis of the subtitle translation of Hero from the perspective of Skopostherorie]. 华中师范大学.[Huazhong Normal University].1-46.<br /> <br /> [13]Tang Xiuqiong.唐秀琼.(2006).英语文化负载词及汉译.[Culturally-loaded Words: Their Translation From English to Chinses].西南农业大学学报(社会科学版). [Journal of Southwest Agricultural University (Social Science Edition)].(01)126-130.<br /> <br /> [14]Wenxu.文旭.(2003).词汇空缺的发现程序和认知理据.[Lexical Gaps: Their Discovery Procedure and Cognitive Motivation].四川外语学院学报.[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University].(03)81-86.<br /> <br /> [15]Wu Leya.吴乐雅.(2019).跨文化交际中的文化词汇空缺现象及其翻译策略.[The Phenomenon of Culturally Lexical Gap in Cross-Culture translation and Its Translation Strategy]. 文教资料. [Cultural and Educational Information].(32)44-45+62.<br /> <br /> [16]Zhang Jinlan张锦兰.(2004).目的论与翻译方法.[Skopos Theory and Translation Methods].中国科技翻译.[Chinese Science &amp; Technology Translators Journal].(01)35-37+13.<br /> <br /> [17]Zhao Xiuxing.赵秀星.(2015).目的论视角下英剧《神探夏洛克》的字幕汉译研究.[Study of English-Chinese Subtitle Translation of Sherlock from the Perspective of Skopos Theory].山西财经大学.[Shanxi University of Finance &amp; Economics].1-53.--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 13:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=113747 2020-12-17T12:39:49Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- The Old Man and the Sea */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> <br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> <br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> <br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.(标题格式错误，大小写不统一，名利场是书/杂志，需要斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》(标题格式错误）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). （双引号没引完）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory(Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====（标题之间需要隔一行）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64). <br /> <br /> On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68). <br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. (符号之间隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. <br /> <br /> From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤.(2006).奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s Functional Equivalence]. Journal of Fujiann Medical University福建医科大学学报(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;pointed out&lt;/span&gt;) the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;incorrect structure and obscure sentence meaning&lt;/span&gt;) By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;originated from&lt;/span&gt;)his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;linguistics&lt;/span&gt;) was exerted in both of their equivalence theory(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;theories&lt;/span&gt;). Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;meanings&lt;/span&gt;) into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;wanted&lt;/span&gt;) to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;factor&lt;/span&gt;) to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;in front of&lt;/span&gt;) its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language&lt;/span&gt;). In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language&lt;/span&gt;). Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Approaches&lt;/span&gt;)=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;defined&lt;/span&gt;) by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;have offered guidances&lt;/span&gt;) to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;distinguish linguistic from cultural untranslatability &lt;/span&gt;)for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;possessing&lt;/span&gt;) many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to see the world, meanwhile, more and more foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Cultural Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of public signs in tourist attractions is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of various natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Purpose====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990) <br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== English Translation of Scenic Spot Names ====<br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,bbbbbbbb.<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, 南岳庙 (Nanyue Temple), 洞庭湖 (Dongting Lake), 岳麓山(Yuelu Mountain),崀山 (Langshan Mountain), 湘江(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,柳浪闻莺liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), 鬼见愁gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing 吊脚楼, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> 黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> 陈敏.2013.旅游外宣资料翻译中的译者主体性，廷边教育学院学报<br /> 肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> 潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> 陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> 辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> 陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> 王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> 林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> 熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> 贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> 湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译等的翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br /> <br /> ===2.Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Background and development of Texts’ styles===<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> ===2.2 Main functions of texts=== <br /> <br /> ===2.2.1The Referential Function===<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.2The Expressive Function===<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.3The Appellative Function===<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Main Text - types===<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.1 The Expressive Texts=== <br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 The Informative Texts===<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.3 The Vocative Texts===<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===3.Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ===3.1 Language Characteristics===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.1 For literary stylistics===<br /> ===Vividness===<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ===Emotional expression===<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ===Connotation===<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.1.2 For journalistic===<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ===Truthfulness===<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ===Newness===<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ===Objectivity===<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ===Political Relevance===<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 Translation principles=== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original. <br /> <br /> ===For Literary===<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles. <br /> <br /> ===Equivalence-based principle=== <br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle===<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> ===For Journalistic style===<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability. <br /> <br /> ===Purpose-based principle===<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle=== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ===Readability-based principle===<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===4.Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ===4.1Translation strategies in literary style===<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.1 Domestication===<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br /> Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br /> of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.1 paraphrasing===<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.2 Adaptation===<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.3 Replacement===<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.2 Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ===4.1.2.1 phonetic compensation===<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> 4.1.2.2 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> 4.1.2.3 Amplification<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lun-yu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.2Translation strategies in journalistic style===<br /> <br /> ===4.2.1Amplification===<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.2 Omission===<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.3Imitation===<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> ===4.2.4 Restruction===<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.5 Adaptation===<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> ===6. References===<br /> [1] McNair, Brain. (1998). The sociology of Journalism. A Hodder Arnold Publication<br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy, 2001, Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications [M], London and New York: Routledge.<br /> [3] Newmark, P. Approaches to Translation ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6<br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> [6] Venuti, L. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation. London &amp; New York: Routledge.</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=113745 2020-12-17T12:38:30Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- The Old Man and the Sea */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> <br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> <br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> <br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.(标题格式错误，大小写不统一，名利场是书/杂志，需要斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》(标题格式错误）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). （双引号没引完）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory(Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====（标题之间需要隔一行）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64). <br /> <br /> On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68). <br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. (符号之间隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. <br /> <br /> From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤.(2006).奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s Functional Equivalence]. Journal of Fujiann Medical University福建医科大学学报(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;pointed out&lt;/span&gt;) the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;incorrect structure and obscure sentence meaning&lt;/span&gt;) By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;originated from&lt;/span&gt;)his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;linguistics&lt;/span&gt;) was exerted in both of their equivalence theory(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;theories&lt;/span&gt;). Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;meanings&lt;/span&gt;) into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;wanted&lt;/span&gt;) to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;factor&lt;/span&gt;) to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;in front of&lt;/span&gt;) its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language&lt;/span&gt;). In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language&lt;/span&gt;). Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Approaches&lt;/span&gt;)=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;defined&lt;/span&gt;) by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;have offered guidances&lt;/span&gt;) to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;distinguish linguistic from cultural untranslatability &lt;/span&gt;)for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;possessing&lt;/span&gt;) many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.(Eileen Chang 1979: 5) <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to see the world, meanwhile, more and more foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Cultural Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of public signs in tourist attractions is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of various natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Purpose====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990) <br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== English Translation of Scenic Spot Names ====<br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,bbbbbbbb.<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, 南岳庙 (Nanyue Temple), 洞庭湖 (Dongting Lake), 岳麓山(Yuelu Mountain),崀山 (Langshan Mountain), 湘江(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,柳浪闻莺liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), 鬼见愁gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing 吊脚楼, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> 黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> 陈敏.2013.旅游外宣资料翻译中的译者主体性，廷边教育学院学报<br /> 肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> 潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> 陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> 辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> 陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> 王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> 林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> 熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> 贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> 湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译等的翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br /> <br /> ===2.Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Background and development of Texts’ styles===<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> ===2.2 Main functions of texts=== <br /> <br /> ===2.2.1The Referential Function===<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.2The Expressive Function===<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.3The Appellative Function===<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Main Text - types===<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.1 The Expressive Texts=== <br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 The Informative Texts===<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.3 The Vocative Texts===<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===3.Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ===3.1 Language Characteristics===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.1 For literary stylistics===<br /> ===Vividness===<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ===Emotional expression===<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ===Connotation===<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.1.2 For journalistic===<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ===Truthfulness===<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ===Newness===<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ===Objectivity===<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ===Political Relevance===<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 Translation principles=== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original. <br /> <br /> ===For Literary===<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles. <br /> <br /> ===Equivalence-based principle=== <br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle===<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> ===For Journalistic style===<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability. <br /> <br /> ===Purpose-based principle===<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle=== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ===Readability-based principle===<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===4.Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ===4.1Translation strategies in literary style===<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.1 Domestication===<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br /> Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br /> of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.1 paraphrasing===<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.2 Adaptation===<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.3 Replacement===<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.2 Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ===4.1.2.1 phonetic compensation===<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> 4.1.2.2 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> 4.1.2.3 Amplification<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lun-yu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.2Translation strategies in journalistic style===<br /> <br /> ===4.2.1Amplification===<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.2 Omission===<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.3Imitation===<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> ===4.2.4 Restruction===<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.5 Adaptation===<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> ===6. References===<br /> [1] McNair, Brain. (1998). The sociology of Journalism. A Hodder Arnold Publication<br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy, 2001, Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications [M], London and New York: Routledge.<br /> [3] Newmark, P. Approaches to Translation ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6<br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> [6] Venuti, L. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation. London &amp; New York: Routledge.</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=113734 2020-12-17T12:34:43Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> <br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> <br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> <br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.(标题格式错误，大小写不统一，名利场是书/杂志，需要斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》(标题格式错误）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). （双引号没引完）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory(Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====（标题之间需要隔一行）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64). <br /> <br /> On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68). <br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. (符号之间隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. <br /> <br /> From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤.(2006).奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s Functional Equivalence]. Journal of Fujiann Medical University福建医科大学学报(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;pointed out&lt;/span&gt;) the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;incorrect structure and obscure sentence meaning&lt;/span&gt;) By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;originated from&lt;/span&gt;)his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;linguistics&lt;/span&gt;) was exerted in both of their equivalence theory(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;theories&lt;/span&gt;). Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;meanings&lt;/span&gt;) into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;wanted&lt;/span&gt;) to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;factor&lt;/span&gt;) to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;in front of&lt;/span&gt;) its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language&lt;/span&gt;). In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language&lt;/span&gt;). Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Approaches&lt;/span&gt;)=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;defined&lt;/span&gt;) by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;have offered guidances&lt;/span&gt;) to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;distinguish linguistic from cultural untranslatability &lt;/span&gt;)for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;possessing&lt;/span&gt;) many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. <br /> <br /> However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 81）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to see the world, meanwhile, more and more foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Cultural Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of public signs in tourist attractions is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of various natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Purpose====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990) <br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== English Translation of Scenic Spot Names ====<br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,bbbbbbbb.<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, 南岳庙 (Nanyue Temple), 洞庭湖 (Dongting Lake), 岳麓山(Yuelu Mountain),崀山 (Langshan Mountain), 湘江(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,柳浪闻莺liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), 鬼见愁gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing 吊脚楼, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> 黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> 陈敏.2013.旅游外宣资料翻译中的译者主体性，廷边教育学院学报<br /> 肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> 潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> 陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> 辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> 陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> 王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> 林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> 熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> 贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> 湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译等的翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br /> <br /> ===2.Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Background and development of Texts’ styles===<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> ===2.2 Main functions of texts=== <br /> <br /> ===2.2.1The Referential Function===<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.2The Expressive Function===<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.3The Appellative Function===<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Main Text - types===<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.1 The Expressive Texts=== <br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 The Informative Texts===<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.3 The Vocative Texts===<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===3.Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ===3.1 Language Characteristics===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.1 For literary stylistics===<br /> ===Vividness===<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ===Emotional expression===<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ===Connotation===<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.1.2 For journalistic===<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ===Truthfulness===<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ===Newness===<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ===Objectivity===<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ===Political Relevance===<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 Translation principles=== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original. <br /> <br /> ===For Literary===<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles. <br /> <br /> ===Equivalence-based principle=== <br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle===<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> ===For Journalistic style===<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability. <br /> <br /> ===Purpose-based principle===<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle=== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ===Readability-based principle===<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===4.Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ===4.1Translation strategies in literary style===<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.1 Domestication===<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br /> Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br /> of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.1 paraphrasing===<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.2 Adaptation===<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.3 Replacement===<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.2 Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ===4.1.2.1 phonetic compensation===<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> 4.1.2.2 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> 4.1.2.3 Amplification<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lun-yu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.2Translation strategies in journalistic style===<br /> <br /> ===4.2.1Amplification===<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.2 Omission===<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.3Imitation===<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> ===4.2.4 Restruction===<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.5 Adaptation===<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> ===6. References===<br /> [1] McNair, Brain. (1998). The sociology of Journalism. A Hodder Arnold Publication<br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy, 2001, Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications [M], London and New York: Routledge.<br /> [3] Newmark, P. Approaches to Translation ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6<br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> [6] Venuti, L. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation. London &amp; New York: Routledge.</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=113727 2020-12-17T12:32:42Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> <br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> <br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> <br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 英语笔译 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed the theory of functional equivalence, which has boosted the development of translation theory. The theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory.Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between the original language and the target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the key in translation, exerting great guiding significance for translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, Chinese translators also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence and Yan Fu's faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences between these two theories will be presented, aiming to have a better understanding in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.(标题格式错误，大小写不统一，名利场是书/杂志，需要斜体）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》(标题格式错误）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, it can be seen that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43).--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)<br /> <br /> Despite the different social environment and the imperfect translation standards, it is undeniable that these two are still the most authoritative and vital ones in Chinese and Western translation circles.（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180)--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible, and a translation theorist as well. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). （双引号没引完）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text（Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory(Zhang Xi 2014, 2). <br /> <br /> According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> <br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to that the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====（标题之间需要隔一行）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process（Zhu Haotong 2006,64). <br /> <br /> On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information(Nida 1964, 68). <br /> <br /> Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures(Zhu Haotong 2006,64). Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning(Zhu Haotong 2006,65).<br /> <br /> In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty（Guo dingju 2013, 18). It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters(Guo Dingju 2013, 18).<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance(Guo Dingju 2013, 19).<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation(Li Jianzhong 2009, 46). <br /> <br /> There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition(Guo Dingju 2013, 21).<br /> <br /> At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater living in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray(Guo Dingju 2013, 21). <br /> <br /> The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89).<br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation of ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are <br /> <br /> (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; <br /> <br /> (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; <br /> <br /> (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; <br /> <br /> (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; <br /> <br /> (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; <br /> <br /> (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; <br /> <br /> (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on(Nida 1986, 20). <br /> <br /> From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language(Zhang Yanmei 2019,16). <br /> <br /> Exampe 1: <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend. (符号之间隔开）--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 05:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> <br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22).<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty(Guo Dingju 2013, 43). Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating(Zhu Haotong 2006, 64). Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. <br /> <br /> From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). <br /> <br /> What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> Zhu Haotong 朱浩彤.(2006).奈达“功能对等”理论基础的再思考[Some Thoughts on the Theoretical Bases of Nida’s Functional Equivalence]. Journal of Fujiann Medical University福建医科大学学报(3)62-65.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;专业 is missing&lt;/span&gt;--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;pointed out&lt;/span&gt;) the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors.(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;incorrect structure and obscure sentence meaning&lt;/span&gt;) By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;that&lt;/span&gt;)the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;originated from&lt;/span&gt;)his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;linguistics&lt;/span&gt;) was exerted in both of their equivalence theory(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;theories&lt;/span&gt;). Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;meanings&lt;/span&gt;) into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence''. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;wanted&lt;/span&gt;) to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;factor&lt;/span&gt;) to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;in front of&lt;/span&gt;) its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language.From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;From this we can know that it's difficult to achieve the same meaning at a linguistic level between source language and target language&lt;/span&gt;). In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;These two types actually reflect a shallow to deep tendency of Nida's researches on structure of language&lt;/span&gt;). Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory ,Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Approaches&lt;/span&gt;)=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;defined&lt;/span&gt;) by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;perspectives&lt;/span&gt;). The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;have offered guidances&lt;/span&gt;) to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability (&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;distinguish linguistic from cultural untranslatability &lt;/span&gt;)for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess(&lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;possessing&lt;/span&gt;) many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:06, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian 202020080605==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian 2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. <br /> <br /> She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 1)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity, in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities. (Ma Yue &amp; Mu Lei 2010: 67)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations. (Meng Lingzi 2016: 23)<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation. (Ma Ruofei 2007: 46)<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei (whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun Yu 1994: 121). <br /> <br /> In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted. She destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. Besides, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 134)<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Chiang Chi-tse all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Chiang Chi-tse for love. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 142)<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by others. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. (Wang Xiaoying 2015 : 145)<br /> <br /> In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color. <br /> <br /> Instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes. <br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 146)<br /> <br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts. (Wang Jing 2011: 104)<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway also won the Nobel Prize of Literature. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Once the work was published, it attracted a wide attention. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. <br /> <br /> However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. (Wang Jing 2011: 103)<br /> <br /> To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: ）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind. (Mao Pingping 2018: 171)<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.<br /> <br /> For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words. However, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 145)<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the differences of context. Therefore, in her translation, Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity. (Wang Xiaoying 2015: 144)<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> And in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text. (Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. <br /> <br /> On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Ruofei 马若飞. (2007). 张爱玲翻译研究[D]. [Eileen Chang Translation Studies]. 北京语言大学. [Beijing Language and Culture University]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Meng Lingzi 孟令子. (2016). 从女性主义翻译到性别翻译[J]. [From Feminist Translation to Gender and Translation]. 中国翻译. [Chinese Translators Journal]. 23-31. <br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With the deepening of reform and opening up, China has become increasingly connected with the world. A large number of Chinese people go abroad to see the world, meanwhile, more and more foreign friends are also visiting China. Hunan, as a province with abundant tourist resources, has many scenic spots. To attract more foreign tourists, the translation of scenic spots names should also be accurate. Bassnet’s View of Cultural Translation holds that the process of translating Chinese into English is not only a conversion between two different languages, but also a cross-cultural communication between the two languages. Adopting the View of Cultural Translation as the guiding principle of Hunan scenic spots will help foreign tourists understand the cultural connotation behind the scenic spots while enjoying the beautiful scenery. This is of great benefit to promoting Sino-foreign friendship and enhancing the world's understanding of China.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> English Translation Hunan Scenic Spots Names the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 随着改革开放的不断深化，中国与世界的联系日益紧密。大批中国人走出国门开眼看世界的同时，越来越多的外国友人也来中国游览观光。湖南作为旅游资源大省，拥有许多风光迤逦的旅游景点。在欢迎国外游客的同时，旅游景点名翻译也应当准确达意。巴斯奈特的文化翻译观认为，汉语翻译成英语的过程不但是两种不同语言之间的转换，更是两种语言的跨文化交流。采用文化翻译观作为湖南旅游景点的指导思想，有利于增进外国游客在饱览景区美景的同时，了解景区背后的文化内涵。这对于促进中外友谊，增进世界对中国的了解都大有裨益。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 英语翻译 湖南旅游景点 文化翻译观<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Cross-cultural communication is becoming more and more frequent with the development of globalization. Meanwhile, transnational tourism has become the most popular way of communication. It is a kind of pleasure to experience foreign culture in visiting the cultural heritages and scenic spots. As a country with long history, China attracts a large number of foreign tourists every year. (Xin Xin, 2012) Hunan is located in the hinterland of China's southeast, with beautiful and distinctive natural scenery. It has long been known as tourists attraction since ancient times. It is in such an environment that the ancestors of Hunan Province constantly strive for self-improvement, hard work and innovation. All the historical relics and cultural landscapes they left here, such as ancient cities, villages, gardens, temples, memorial archways, academies, dwellings, temples, grottoes, cemeteries, all bear their spiritual quality and cultural connotation. To understand the history and profundity of the culture of Hunan Province, the best way is to go there to appreciate its natural scenery and historical relics, and experience its local customs. (Hunan Provincial Department of culture, 2014) These local tourist attractions can not only display beautiful natural scenery, but also spread excellent culture. Standardize the translation of public signs in tourist attractions is an important opportunity to show the most beautiful side of Hunan culture to foreign tourists. (Xiao Fuliang, 2016)<br /> <br /> The name of tourist attractions refers to the names of various natural and cultural landscapes in tourist attractions. Some of these names are engraved on stone tablets, some are engraved on the signboards of scenic spots, and some appear in various publicity materials such as tourist brochures, scenic maps and websites. In order to leave a good impression on tourists and attract them to visit, the names of tourist attractions are usually short, concise, vivid and attractive. (Pan Hong, 2016)<br /> <br /> This paper attempts to analyze whether the English translations of some scenic spots in Hunan Province have achieved the desired effect of publicity from the perspective of cultural translation. At the same time, if there were some improper translation in the English translation of Hunan scenic spots, the author will give his own translation for reference.<br /> <br /> === The Introduction of the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Before the emergence of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralism school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory. Jakobson, Catford and Nida, the representatives of the linguistic school, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation. They claim that translation is to replace another language with an equivalent language material; while Les, Nord and Mantari, the representatives of functional school, believe that the focus of translation studies should be on the target text rather than the original text. Their research sources are communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics theory. But whether it is linguistic school, functional school or structuralism school, in their research process, all try to achieve language equivalence more or less from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers hope to find a scientific and effective way to solve the various problems in translation, but the cultural diversity determines the cultural connotation of the text. Therefore, these researchers encounter great difficulties when they encounter the context which is quite different from their own cultural background, and the emergence of cultural translation school is meant to solve such problems.<br /> <br /> After the 1970s and 1980s, with the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination and the diversification of communication modes, the relationship between language and culture has become closer. In the process of information dissemination, differences among language become more and more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diversity of cultural values embodied in the translated text. <br /> <br /> In 1990, Translation, History and Culture, co-edited by Andre Lefevere and Bassnett, was published, marking a cultural turn in the field of translation. The concept of cultural translation emphasizes that translation is not only a bilingual communication, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; the purpose of translation is to break through language barriers and promote cultural exchange; the essence of translation is to transmit cross-cultural information and reproduce the cultural activities of the original with the target language; the main purpose of translation is cultural transplantation and cultural blending, but cultural transplantation is a process; Language is not the operation form of translation, but the cultural information . (Bassnett Susan, 1992: 13) Bassnett emphasizes that “translation is the communication within and between cultures”. (Bassnett Susan, 1990: 10-11) She believes that translators should carry out translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators should never carry out translation activities in isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett's “cultural translation view” is that translation is not a mere language activity. It is rooted in and influenced by the culture in which the language is located. <br /> <br /> <br /> ====Translation Purpose====<br /> As for the purpose of translation, Bassnett thinks that the primary purpose of translation is to allow readers from two or more different cultural backgrounds to communicate with each other through the medium of text, and the exchange of information should be placed in the second place of translation purpose. Through effective translation, translators can not only introduce the cultural characteristics of different nationalities to other readers, but also promote the communication between different cultures and promote the comparative study between the two cultures. (Bassnett Susan, 1990) <br /> <br /> ====Translation Methods and Strategies====<br /> As for the translation method, Bassnett thinks that the language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological, the translator should try to use literal translation from the perspective of culture. If the source text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play a relatively free role in translation, make more use of translation skills and pay less attention to the restrictions of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high. As for translation strategy, Bassnett considers that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find out the cultural factors in the original text which are different from those in the target language, and then deeply understand these factors, and try to retain these factors. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and make them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Content and Form of Translation ====<br /> As for the content and form of the translation, Bassnett takes cultural exchange as the focus of translation. She believes that the original flavor of the original language should be retained as much as possible. At the same time, she also proposed that translation of literary must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, poetry translation is not a simple translation of the original text, but a fresh understanding and creation in translation. The translator should use his own translation skills and literary literacy to create new content. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====“Intelligibility” of Translation ====<br /> Before the rise of cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated literary language into plain language and deleted literary metaphor and association in order to make the translation better understood by readers. In this way, the translation will become very easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work is reduced, and the interest and depth can not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett thinks that the “intelligibility” of the translation should not be based on the abandonment of the style and artistry of the original text, but should try to keep the original flavor of the original text. (Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ====Evaluation Criteria of Translation ====<br /> As for the evaluation standard of translation, Bassnett thinks that the evaluation standard of translation is not unique. The standard of translating academic articles is different from that of practical and literary articles. When examining and evaluating the standards of translation, we should start from the service object of the translation, and judge whether the translation can meet the needs of the service object. In short, translation should be based on meeting the needs of readers in different cultural contexts, and appropriate translation should be used to meet the needs.(Bassnett Susan, 1990)<br /> <br /> ===2.The Existing English Translated Versions of Names of Hunan Scenic Spots===<br /> There are 15 major tourist areas and many tourist spots in Hunan, and there are many historic sites with a long history. Such as Mountain Heng, one of the Five Sacred Mountains in China. Dongting Lake, Shaoshan Mountain, the former residence of Chairman Mao Zedong, Wulingyuan, which shows the characteristics of strangeness, danger, seclusion, beauty and wildness, and Yuelu Academy with a thousand years of history. (Chen Jiao, 2013) In order to publicize and spread the culture of Hunan Province all over the world, we should standardize the English translation of Hunan scenic spots names. Meanwhile, we should translate these scenic spot names understandable from the guiding theory of the View of Culture Translation. <br /> <br /> ====Improper English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names====<br /> When tourists enjoy the beautiful scenery, the name of the scenic spot is the first information that leaps into the their sight. In order to attract the attention of tourists, induce the tourists of English speaking countries to have a strong interest in the culture and landscape of the tourist destination, stimulate their desire to buy tourism products and promote the development of tourism, translators should pay attention to the cross-cultural awareness when translating the names of scenic spots, so as to provide accurate information as well as the cultural connotation to the tourists from English speaking countries and those who understand English. <br /> <br /> However, the author finds that there are many improper translations in the English translation of scenic spots nemes in Hunan Province, which brings a lot of inconvenience to tourists from English speaking countries, and also has a negative impact on the publicity of scenic spots. These improper translations mainly exist in the following aspects:<br /> <br /> Firstly, the different versions of translation in the same or different scenic spots.<br /> For example, as one of the four wonders of Mountain Heng, scenic spot “水帘洞” has two translated names, which are translated as “water screen cave” in the official website of Mountain Heng tourism website, while it is translated into “waterfall cave” on the route map. The English translation of “雁峰寺” on Hengyang tourism route map is Yan Feng Si, while on Hengyang tourism website it is “The Goose Mountain Temple”. There are also two different versions of the English translation of the name of the scenic spot “烟雨池”. It was translated as “Yanyuchi” on Hengyang tourism route map, but on Hengyang tourism website, the free translation method is adopted, that is, “Misty Rain Pond”. (Wang Zaiyu, Jiang Shihong, 2012)<br /> <br /> Secondly, the overuse of transliteration.<br /> Huiyan Peak, located on the Bank of Xiangjiang River in Yanfeng District, Hengyang City, is the most famous peak among the 72 peaks of Mountain Heng, also known as the No.1 peak of Mountain Heng, and rank the first of Eight Sceneries in Hengyang. There are many famous beautiful and charming scenic spots on Huiyan Peak. These landscape names reflect the geographical, historical and cultural features of Hengyang, and also contain rich cultural information. However, many scenic spots with rich history and culture on Huiyan Peak are translated by transliteration, which makes the cultural and historical information of theses scenic spots completely lost. For example, “望雁台” ( Wangyantai) , “回雁阁”( Huiyange) , “平沙落雁” ( Pingshaluoyan) ,“回雁亭” ( Huiyanting), “归 雁 亭”( Guiyanting) are all transliterated. Another example is “南天门”, the original translation of which is “Nantianmen”. In fact, Taoists often build gates near the top of famous mountains, implying that they are the gateway to heaven. The “南天门” refers to the south gate leading to the top of Mountain Heng. Therefore, it is better to be translated as “Southern Gate to Heaven”.<br /> <br /> Of course, transliteration is one of the common translation methods of scenic spot names translation, but if transliteration is used too much that without considering the cultural connotation of the original language, the name of scenic spot will be obscure and foreign tourists will be confused. Standing in front of these Pinyin, foreign tourists can not understand the cultural connotation of the names of scenic spots. So it is difficult for them to realize the historical and cultural stories of these scenic spot according to the transliterated names. Therefore, excessive transliteration will affect the transmission of scenic spot name information, make it difficult for English speaking tourists to understand the rich cultural connotation of scenic spot names, which will reduce the readability of the translations and thus affect the development of China's tourism industry and the spread of culture abroad. Therefore, the translator should carefully consider and choose the appropriate translation method.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Strategies of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation ===<br /> Tourism translation is a cross language, cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication activities. Compared with other types of translation, it is more direct, more prominent, more typical and more comprehensive in cross-cultural and cross psychological communication. (Chen Gang, 2004)<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics and Methods of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> According to the view of cultural translation, Bassnett believes that texts in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, so there should be different translation methods. For example, for the original text which is descriptive, contains some cultural beliefs, or is of scientific and technological contents, the translator should try to adopt literal translation from the perspective of culture. In the process of translation, the translator should first find out the cultural factors different from the target language in the original text, and then understand these factors, and try to retain them. Such a strategy is conducive to the readers of other countries to better understand the connotation of the original text and help them have a more accurate understanding of the cultural background of the original text.<br /> <br /> ==== Characteristics of Tourism English Translation ====<br /> The translation of tourism materials is different from the translation of official documents and written materials. The translation of these materials generally emphasizes that the translation is completely consistent with the original content, while tourism English only attracts foreign tourists by explaining the scenic spots and introducing the local customs. Some English tourist materials are concise and accurate. On the contrary, the tourist materials written in Chinese emphasizes style and the beauty of sentences. Therefore, the translation of scenic spots names in English requires creativity, which should be concise, fascinating and easy to remember. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== Methods of English Translation of Scenic Spot Name ==== <br /> In the translation of scenic spot name, in order to let foreign tourists understand Chinese culture and scenic spots, flexible translation methods should be adopted to effectively convey tourism information and Chinese culture. (Jia Wenbo, 2004) The translation of the scenic spot name is of great significance although the names are not contain too much vocabularies. How to use translation methods and skills flexibly by following the translation theory becomes very important. This requires the translators to be faithful to the content and style of the original materials in the process of translation, try to retain the cultural factors in the original text, and at the same time make it easy for the target readers to accept.<br /> Literal translation, free translation, literal translation+transliteration, transliteration+ explanation and cultural analogy are commonly used in scenic spot name translation. Through the study of the translation methods of translating the names of these scenic spots, we can use the translation skills more accurately and ultimately improve the translation ability. (Xin Xin, 2012)<br /> <br /> ==== English Translation of Scenic Spot Names ====<br /> 1. Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation is helpful to convey the information of the source language such as place names, characters and events. (Chen Jiao, 2013) For these particular names or general names of scenic spots, it’s better to adopt the literal translation, namely word for word translation. The allusions of the figures in Nanyue Temple such as “苏武牧羊”（Su Wu Shepherding Sheep）”、“达摩东渡”（Dharm Sailing Eastward）；Fairy tale such as“后羿射日”（Houyi Shooting the Suns）、“盘古开天”（Pangu Creating the Universe）、“精卫填海”（Jingwei Filling the Sea）<br /> <br /> 2. Free Translation<br /> Free translation refers to the translation method to translate the connotative meaning when the literal meaning and connotative meaning of the original text are inconsistent (Niu Xinsheng, 2013). In addition, translation techniques such as domestication and free translation are also discussed. Due to the differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, there are differences in language form and content between the two languages. Therefore, translators need to grasp the differences between the two languages and cultures to ensure that the information of the original text are properly transmitted to the target readers. If the names of some scenic spots contain rich cultural connotations and cannot be translated by literal translation, then the names of such scenic spots are mostly translated by free translation, that is, words with the same meaning but different forms are translated. For example,bbbbbbbb.<br /> <br /> 3.Transliteration + Literal Translation<br /> The front contains the proper name for a specific person or place name, and a fixed general name for the name of a scenic spot. Transliteration and literal translation can be used in translation. For example, 南岳庙 (Nanyue Temple), 洞庭湖 (Dongting Lake), 岳麓山(Yuelu Mountain),崀山 (Langshan Mountain), 湘江(Xiangjiang Rive) etc.<br /> <br /> 4.Transliteration + Explanation<br /> The advantage of transliteration is that it does not need any explanation, and its disadvantage is that it can not fully arouse people's interest and attention. For foreign tourists, it is difficult to connect the original meaning of the original text with the Chinese pronunciation of the scenic spot. In order to follow the original author's intention and its own pronunciation, we adopt the method of combining the two to make up for the shortcomings. For example,柳浪闻莺liu'lang'wen'ying (listening to Orioles Singing in the willows), 鬼见愁gui'jian'chou (sight that disorders devils). (Xin Xin, 2012) in order to help foreign tourists understand the background knowledge of China's human history, local conditions and customs, some relevant information can be appropriately added to the original text when translating. For example, when introducing 吊脚楼, if we just translate it as Diaojiaolou , it is difficult for tourists to understand the literal translation of it, so it is advisable that supplement the explanation of “suspended wood house built on stilts”. For example, in the introduction of traditional festivals in Zhangjiajie, “六月六” is translated into Liu Yue Liu Festival. In order to help tourists understand the specific connotation of the festival, the translation should be followed by an appropriate explanation: It usually takes place on the sixth day of the lunar six month, when all the members of the family get together to have dinner and hold a rite to pay sacrifice to their ancestors. This supplement can help foreign tourists understand the meaning of these traditional festivals quickly. (Chen Jiao, 2013)<br /> <br /> Meanwhile, cultural analogy is also an effective skill in explanation. Analogy refers to the transformation of unfamiliar cultural information in the source language into similar information in the cultural context of the target language in order to eliminate the cultural strangeness contained in the source language and arouse the sense of similarity for the English speaking tourists. In other words, borrow the similar places of interest, legends and historical stories in English to translate the scenic spot name in Chinese, which can narrow the distance between the two different language for the readers and they can better understand the meaning of the original text. For example, Mountain Hengshan the scenic spot “祝融峰” is said to be the residence of Zhu Rong, the God of Fire. Its translation is &quot;Zhu Rong peak&quot;, Zhu Rong, the Chinese Prometheus. (Chen Jiao, 2013) Prometheus, the hero of stealing fire in ancient Roman legend, is a familiar figure for Western tourists. It has great similarity with Zhu Rong, the Chinese God of Fire. When the tourists look at this translated name, they will have a better understanding of the the scenic spot.<br /> <br /> === Conclusion ===<br /> Under the background of globalization, peace and development have become the theme of the times, and the revise of the traditional translation theory is needed. On the other hand, cultural translation, based on the cultural theory of anthropology, advocates that the connotation of other cultures should be properly conveyed in translation, showing respect and understanding of other cultures; translators should highlight the characteristics of different cultures through translation, so that people from different cultural backgrounds can truly realize the communication and exchange in the cultural sense. Therefore, it is in line with the mainstream of the times to deeply study and understand Bassnett's cultural translation theory, which can help us better carry out translation activities under the background of globalization, so as to promote the exchange and dialogue between the Eastern and Western cultures from a macro perspective. <br /> <br /> As a part of the translation of tourist materials, the translation of scenic spot names should not only convey the basic tourism information, but also show the Chinese culture to foreign tourists. One of the main purposes of tourists coming to China is to understand the Chinese culture. Therefore, translators need to have a keen cross-cultural awareness, make the translation conform to the target language, enhance the readability to the target language readers, and choose the most suitable translation method to convey the historical and cultural connotation contained in the name of scenic spots to the greatest extent, so as to promote the development of China's tourism industry globally and spread China's tourism culture abroad. <br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge，1992: 13.<br /> Bassnett Susan. Translation, History and Culture[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社，1990: 10-11．<br /> 黄艳娇.2018.浅谈巴斯奈特文化翻译理论，佳木斯职业学院学报<br /> 陈敏.2013.旅游外宣资料翻译中的译者主体性，廷边教育学院学报<br /> 肖付良.2016.16(06),43-45.湖南主要旅游景点公示语翻译现状与对策研究,英语教师.<br /> 潘虹.2016，跨文化意识对旅游景点名称汉英翻译的影响，艺术文化交流<br /> 陈娇.2013.从文化角度看湖南旅游景点的翻译，西南农业大学学报（社会科学版）<br /> 辛欣.2012.论旅游英语中景点名称的翻译，长春教育学院学报<br /> 陈刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］． 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004，59．<br /> 王再玉，蒋柿红. 2012.从跨文化意识角度看旅游景点名称的英译———以衡阳旅游景点名称的英译为例,北京城市学院学报<br /> 林玉华. 2008. 从文化角度看旅游景点名称的翻译 ［J］．重庆交通大学学报，2008 ( 02) : 105．<br /> 熊玲. 2013. 对张家界景点名称英译的探析，长春教育学院学报<br /> 贾文波．应用翻译功能论［M］．北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004：134－156．<br /> 湖南省文化和旅游厅 http://whhlyt.hunan.gov.cn/whhlyt/wlxx/fwms/201407/t20140717_5385818.html<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，文化差异，应对策略--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略（格式错误）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健,2012）<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（Jian Fang，Zhang Jian,2012）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> No matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能,1993） <br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（Lian Shuneng,1993）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation. (Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. (Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.(Edward Spir,2006)<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.(Jia Dejiang,1998)<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”. （Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. <br /> <br /> Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. “Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng,1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文,2002）<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（Zhang Wen,2002）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive. (Bai Jingyu,2000)（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology. <br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC) <br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. <br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (Ye Zinan，2001:38) This view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. --[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.(Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing,2006)<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang,2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir,2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.(Wang Kefei,1997)<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）（段落过长）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 01:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot;TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. <br /> <br /> This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan,2001）--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 04:13, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language.(Bao Huinan,2001) When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope (Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.(Lu Naisheng,1993)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. <br /> <br /> Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.(Bai Jingyu,2000)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> --[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:59, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，省译等的翻译策略。本文有望为翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br /> <br /> ===2.Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Background and development of Texts’ styles===<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps. Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br /> <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br /> <br /> ===2.2 Main functions of texts=== <br /> <br /> ===2.2.1The Referential Function===<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function. If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.2The Expressive Function===<br /> <br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.3The Appellative Function===<br /> <br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Main Text - types===<br /> <br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the informative and expressive function respectively. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.1 The Expressive Texts=== <br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 The Informative Texts===<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> ===2.3.3 The Vocative Texts===<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> ===3.Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics=== <br /> <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel. <br /> <br /> ===3.1 Language Characteristics===<br /> <br /> ===3.1.1 For literary stylistics===<br /> ===Vividness===<br /> In literary works, writers use words or language to vividly describe or portray people, objects, things to reflect the world’s various situations or expose social reality, they will use appropriate techniques to render the atmosphere and create an immersive feeling for readers. For Example, “The bullfrogs trump to usher in the night, and the note of the whip-poor-will is borne on the rippling wind from over the water.” Through the use of verbs such as &quot;trump&quot;, &quot;usher&quot; and &quot;is borne&quot;, the images of frogs, hawks and wind blowing on the water surface in the evening are vividly depicted. That happens a lot in literary works.<br /> <br /> ===Emotional expression===<br /> As we all know, all things and objects are embodiment of writers’ feelings and emotions. In literary creation, whether it is to portray characters or to describe scenery, often inadvertently or intentionally contains or carries the writer’s own emotions. In other words, expressing emotion includes direct expression and indirect expression. The lyricism of this kind of literature can effectively arouse the emotional resonance of readers.<br /> <br /> ===Connotation===<br /> Connotation means that writers do not always describe people or things in all-round aspects with every details, but can depict in limited number of words to show or imply infinite meaning or artistic conception, leaving readers with imagination. That will be unforgettable for a long time. For example, “ From my mother’s sleep I fell into the State. And I hunched in its belly till my wet fur froze.” In this two sentences, “Sleep” metaphorically means in the mother’s womb, can also refer to the poet’s lofty ideals and ambitions. The capitalized &quot;State&quot; can refer to both the world and the poet’s motherland - The United States.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.1.2 For journalistic===<br /> Journalistic-style texts vary a lot from the the literary-style texts. As an unique texts which are shown to billions of audience, the characteristics of news are mainly in following four aspects: Truth, objective, new and political-related.<br /> <br /> ===Truthfulness===<br /> First, as the definition indicates news is about facts，which first should be true. “News lays claim to the qualities of truthfulness and accuracy-properties often implied by the term objectivity, a concept used to legitimize the journalistic text while at the same time recognizing the multidimensional and elusive nature of truth. News asks to be accepted as, at the very least, an approximation to truth, and certainly close enough to the truth to be worthy of our trust in its integrity”(McNair, 1998:2)<br /> <br /> ===Newness===<br /> If the news isn’t new, it should have been called “olds”. This is more than a joke. News is reported to make a contrast to the convention, strike people by surprise and keep them in suspense. “News is not about somebody bitten by a dog, but about a dog bitten by a man”, “News is just something that can move women to scream: My Gosh!” The two old sayings have been taken as most vivid descriptions of news, featuring its distinctive characteristics of newness.<br /> <br /> ===Objectivity===<br /> The objectivity is one of the most important professional concepts of news and has caught great attention in news circle. “The basic content of this principle is the content must be completely true, fair and neutral, not fictitious, and not biased or subjective” (Yang Xiyou 2009, 6)When writing news or reports, media workers shouldn’t put their subjective feelings into the reports. And the use of vocabulary should also be fair and neutral. When international news media, such as BBC and VOA, report about China Diaoyu Islands issue, they generally use Sankaku Islands and Diaoyu Island. When translating these words, the translator should be faithful to the original text and translate these two names. However, due to ideological, political or historical reasons, the use of vocabulary may deviate from the principle of objectivity, such as: in the report of Russia and Japan’s dispute on islands, only the Russian address- “ Kuril Islands” was used, but the Japanese address- “Four Northern Islands” was not used. When translating, the translator should add “Thousand Southern Islands” and “Four Northern”.<br /> <br /> ===Political Relevance===<br /> Although news is objective, absolutely objective and fair reports do not exist. The media has never been able to completely get rid of the shackles of political and economic power or ideology. The content of the report tends to obey the interests of the country. The use of political vocabulary in English current affairs news must also faithfully reflect the country’s political standpoint. Regarding to the English translation of the Diaoyu Islands, the Chinese news media translate into “Diaoyu Islands”, while the Japanese news media and some Western news media call it “Senkaku Islands”. From the usage of these words, it is obvious to see the political stance. When translating these political words, translators must be very cautious. In addition to be faithful to the original text, translators or interpreters should also consider our country’s interests.<br /> <br /> ===2.3.2 Translation principles=== <br /> Translation is the process of transforming signs or representations into another signs or representations.(Nord, 2001:6) Generally speaking, according to the object of translation, translation can be divided into two kinds: literary translation and non-literary translation. In literary translation the object is only the literary work, such as pot, novel and so on, and it focuses on the expression of contents, emotions and rhetoric of the original. <br /> <br /> ===For Literary===<br /> Although literary translation and non-literary translation share basic principles, literary translation which has its unique ways, is rather different from non-literary translation. Translating literary works is not only a process of transforming languages but also a process of recreating because literature belongs to a part of art. This is the most important feature of literary translation and also the basic translation principles. <br /> <br /> ===Equivalence-based principle=== <br /> Equivalence-based principle equals to “Dynamic equivalence” proposed by Eugene A. Nida, a famous American translation theorist. This principle points that translators should work hard in different languages and different cultures to find translation equivalents between them, and use appropriate methods to reorganize the form and semantic structure of the original text. Dynamic equivalence includes four aspects: one is lexical equivalence, the other is syntactic equivalence, the third is textual equivalence, the fourth is sense equivalence. In literary translation, sense equivalence is the core. For example, the Chinese sentence “青年小伙子们，有事没事，总想和小芹说句话” can be translated in to “Young men sought every excuse to talk with Xiao Qin”.This shows sense equivalence.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle===<br /> No matter how beautiful the texts are, the accuracy is always the most important, rather than the forms. Be Faithful to the content of the original text, the translator must fully express the content of the original text without any tampering, distortion, omission or arbitrary deletion. The more accurate the words be chosen, the better the translation texts will be. For example, when translating “ 微风”, we’d better translate it into “breeze” or “gentle breeze” rather than “gentle wind” since the breeze is more accurate.<br /> <br /> ===For Journalistic style===<br /> Journalistic-style texts belong to the informative texts according to the above analysis. Translation principles of Journalistic are mainly mainly purposiveness, accuracy and readability. <br /> <br /> ===Purpose-based principle===<br /> Purpose&quot; is the basic principle of journalistic-style texts translation, and other principles are based on this principle. For information-based texts, “ translation skopos ”, the German functionalist translation theory, was put forward by Rice, Vermeer, and Nord. Skopos has great significance in guiding of translation. This is because the purpose of information-based translation is very strong, that is, the translation has a clear goal - to provide information. Snell Hornby believes: “More practical the texts is, more clear its function is. The more the translation tends to focus on the target language.” As far as the journalistic text is concerned, the purpose of its translation is conveying the information and communication, allowing readers to easily understand the intention of the speaker. The translation should conform to the audience’s needs, cultural expectations, beliefs and cognitive status as much as possible, and it is meaningful in the communication environment of the target language culture. For example, in news, sometimes vocabulary vacancies are caused by the absence of equivalence in the translation, and it is impossible to use completely equivalent and accurate words to express its connotation during translation. In this case, domestication can be applied. Considering the specific translation purpose, context and characteristics of the target language, if the purpose of translation is to spread foreign cultures, foreignization strategies can be adopted. That’s the purpose-based translation principle.<br /> <br /> ===Accuracy-based principle=== <br /> The purpose of informative text is to convey information. Therefore, the translation work of the information text should be accurate, clear and precise. The translator can’t deliberately or unintentionally miss any original author’s information. In journalistic style, the accuracy is critical. A slight difference of words can make huge results. Especially, for those news related with politics and business. A word with different emotional sense can make a complete opposite statement. A small movement of a point can cause millions capital loss. For example, 1.33 million and 13.3 million has the huge difference. This principle is similar to the “faith” proposed by Yan Fu. “Faith” means “faithfulness”. The translation of linguistic-style texts should confirm to accuracy.<br /> <br /> ===Readability-based principle===<br /> Generally speaking, the terminology of information-based texts is neutral and has no obvious personal characteristics or regional colors. In news, even though there are more facts that personal emotions and feeling, translators or interpreters can make small adjustment of the speakers to make the report readable. In short, when translating, based on the readers’ language level, various translation methods should be mobilized on the premise of not changing the original intent of the article and report. It may make the content and layout of the article easier to understand, fluent and concise. But be sure to keep the source language texts’ characteristics. <br /> <br /> ===4.Translation strategies===<br /> Translation strategies refer to the thoughts, process, methods and procedure during the process of translation. Towards original texts with different texts styles, translation strategies also vary in a large degree. The thesis will discuss from two typical stylistic texts - literary style and journalistic style. According to The Modern Chinese Dictionary, strategies indicate guidelines and means which are deigned on the basis of the situations concerned. While methods are the ways and procedures in solving real problems. However, the two are relative to each other. In simple words strategies are the guidelines of the concrete methods. The concrete methods should be adopted in the direction of their strategies. Based on the above, a conclusion in drawn that translation strategies are the guidelines for realizing a particular translation aim, yet translation methods the concrete ways employed by translators to make the particular translation aim come true.<br /> <br /> ===4.1Translation strategies in literary style===<br /> In the book Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations, Reiss pointed out that “Translation of literary works would better be called free rendering than translations, especially when the personality of the translator and the force of his artistic temperament result in a TL version standing on its own, indebted to the original as a model and a source of inspiration. (Reiss, 2004:91) This description indicates the characteristics of literary translation. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.1 Domestication===<br /> Domestication is firstly coined by L.Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility called “guihua” in Chinese. Domestication is a strategy by which the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the original text is erased in the translation in order to meet its readers’ aesthetic and reception psychology. As Venuti argues the adoption of domesticating strategy is the cultural disparity and imperialism. In the 1980s translation studies underwent “cultural turn”, and since then translation has being studied in the cultural and social contexts. The dominance of transparent discourse in English-language translation was decisively challenged at the turn of the twentieth century.<br /> Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication by his assertion on dynamic equivalence that “A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness <br /> of expression… and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture.” (Nida, 2004:159) He maintains that the function of translation is to communicate and it is important for the reader to understand what is conveyed by the translation, which takes the reader’s response into consideration. He claims that the reader of the target text should have the similar comprehension and appreciation as does the reader of the source text. Domestication tries to avoid cultural dispute and eliminate cultural barriers to achieve successful cross-cultural communication. The domesticating translation is one of naturalness and smoothness, <br /> which is the advantage of domestication. Here are three main methods that can achieve domestication strategy. They are paraphrasing, adaptation and replacement.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.1 paraphrasing===<br /> <br /> Domestication by the method of paraphrasing is effective in dealing with a simple expression behind which there is a heavy cultural load. We should adapt paraphrasing strategy.<br /> <br /> Example1<br /> <br /> ST: 如囊萤 如映雪 家虽贫 学不辍 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT1: Then we have one who put fireflies in a bag, and again another who used the white glare from snow. Although their families were poor, these men studied <br /> unceasingly.<br /> <br /> TT2: One enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag, another read by the light reflected by the snow. Although their families were poor, they never ceased learning. <br /> Annotation: in order to read by their light. <br /> <br /> TT3: Che-yin, when a boy, being poor, read his book by the light of a glow-worm which he confined. And Sun-kang, in winter, read his book by the light reflected from snow. Though their families were poor they studied incessantly. <br /> <br /> The original text is from a classical book in china named Three-Character Classic.“囊萤”and “映雪” are Chinese allusions urging children to work hard at their study. Each of the contracted expressions has a story behind it. By reading T1 and T2, readers cannot understand the allusion to the full and the logic between the expressions of “put fireflies in a bag/enclosed some glow-worms in a transparent bag”and“used the white glare from snow”and the expressions about the persons’ industry at their studies. T3 paraphrases the sentence and makes logic explicit by introducing the heroes in the allusions and explaining what they used the fireflies/glow-worms for. This is effective in translation.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.2 Adaptation===<br /> <br /> In order to achieve naturalness of expression, grammar, lexicon and culture. Adaptations are necessary. For terms which identify culturally different objects but with somewhat similar functions, adaptation shows its advantage in translation.<br /> <br /> Example2 <br /> <br /> ST: 老少爷们，从麻木的状态中苏醒过来吧。(Moyan，2003:85)<br /> <br /> TT: Come out of your stupor, my friends. ( Goldblatt, 2004:293)<br /> <br /> Address terms, as an indispensable part of conversations and communications, can reflect the tradition and culture of a nation. In all languages, address terms play an important role in social intercourse. Set in Northeast countryside of China, “ 老少爷们”is a typical address term of China’s northern dialect. And it is usually used by a man, showing some masculinity. It’s an oral expression often addressed to males. Goldblatt translate it as “my friends”, often used in an English speech to strike a chord in listeners and get them united or in favor of the speaker, conspicuously in an adaptation way. <br /> <br /> Example3<br /> <br /> ST: 凡训蒙 须讲究 详训诂 明句读 （Wang Yinglin,1986）<br /> <br /> TT1: In the education of the young, there should be explanation and elucidation, careful teaching of the interpretations of commentators, and due attention to paragraphs and sentences. <br /> <br /> TT2: Whoever teaches boys, ought to discuss and examine deeply (the meaning of the characters); Explain their derivation, mark distinctly the periods and the punctuation. <br /> <br /> TT3: Every one that instructs youth should explain fully what he teaches; should illustrate the present and the past, and distinguish clearly the comma and the period. <br /> There are two kinds of adaptation in the translation of this Chinese line. First, it is the domestication of the Chinese term “句读”. Actually, ancient Chinese classics do not have any punctuation marks and the “句读” refers to the longer or shorter pause in the classics according to the meaning of the text. All three translators domesticate the Chinese term by the concept of punctuation in the English language and render it respectively as “paragraphs and sentences”, “the periods and the punctuation” and “the comma and the period”. Although the three kinds of rendering differ from each other on the level of punctuation, they have much the same function—the target text reader can easily understand in what way “句读” functions in a Chinese text. Thus dynamic equivalence is achieved. The second adaptation is the change of parts of speech—the change from verb to noun. Giles changes the verbs “训”, “讲究” and “训诂” in the Chinese text into nouns “education”, “explanation and elucidation”, “interpretations” and “attention”.<br /> <br /> ===4.1.1.3 Replacement===<br /> <br /> Example 4 <br /> <br /> ST:勤有功 戏无益 戒之哉 宜勉力 (Wang Yinglin, 1986)<br /> <br /> TT: Diligence has its reward; play has no advantages. Oh, be on your guard, and put forth your strength. <br /> <br /> This is an example of domestication on the lexical level. “哉” in Chinese is a particle of exclamatory or of interrogative value. In this line, it functions as an exclamatory particle. It helps to make up the syllable in the Chinese version and express the author’s emotion of instructing the young. Giles translates it into the correspondent English exclamatory particle “Oh” which retains the tone of a similar function as is in the source text. It achieves dynamic equivalence in terms of reader’s response to the rhetoric. <br /> <br /> ===4.1.2 Foreignization===<br /> <br /> Foreignization designates the type of translation in which a target text is produced which deliberately breaks the target conventions by retaining the foreignness of the original. It functions to preserve the foreignness and value of the foreign language culture in the source text. It takes the readers of the target language culture to a foreign culture, making the readers of the translated text feel the differences and enjoy the alien atmosphere. It is more faithful to the language features of the source text than domestication does, and it keeps the flavor of the original language. Venuti and other scholars who advocate foreignization hold that foreignization enable readers of the translated text to learn about the alien culture of the source language text, which is often the reading aim of the readers who are capable of understanding the alien culture. (Venuti, 1995)<br /> <br /> ===4.1.2.1 phonetic compensation===<br /> <br /> Among the three translators, Giles is said to be an excellent English language master who was able to compose English poems. His translation of poems is generally in accordance with the composing and rhyming schemes of English poems, often with good rhythm. (Mu Shixiong, 2004:166) Though Giles is good at translating poems, he does not translate this text into a completely rhythmical one. Instead, he adds pronunciation to every Chinese character in the text to make a phonetic compensation so that the readers can still appreciate the ending rhyme of the original Chinese text. Giles does make an effort to create rhythmical effect whenever it is possible. In literary texts, phonetic compensation is always applied in translation of poem and prose. <br /> <br /> Example5 <br /> <br /> ST:养不教 父之过 教不严 师之惰 <br /> <br /> TT: To feed without teaching is the father’s fault. To teach without severity is the teacher’s laziness. <br /> <br /> Each line of the translation has a rhythmic focus. Respectively they are:“feed”,“without”and“teaching”in the first line; “father” and “fault” in the second line;“teach”,“without”and“severity” in the third line; and “teacher” and “laziness” in the fourth line. In this way, and together with the phonetic compensation, formal equivalence is achieved and by reading the phonetic compensation, target readers can feel the same rhythm of the original text and response the same as the readers of the source text. <br /> <br /> 4.1.2.2 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is a method that an item is translated according to its pronunciation rather than its meaning. This technique is often applied to translate ecological culture-loaded terms, like names of places, person, rivers, mountains or countries. There are two systems in use for transliteration Chinese characters: the Wade-Giles system of Romanization and the pinyin system of Romanization. For better transference of Chinese culture, the latter system is suggested. For some material culture-loaded terms, such as “仁”, “义”, “君子” and so on, transliteration might be preferable to any other methods. These terms represent the key concept of Confucianism, and any other English equivalent expressions may lead to misunderstanding. Thus, it is the most convenient and effective way to expose target readers in Chinese culture. For some time, the pinyin translation of these terms may be as acceptable and comprehensible as “kongfu” or “mahjong”. Certainly, for the sake of target readers’ understanding, an annotation is always needed to provide the further explanation of the cultural meanings of these terms. <br /> <br /> Example6<br /> <br /> ST: 南容三复“白圭”，孔子以其兄之子妻之。(Liu Dianjue, 46) <br /> <br /> TT1: Nan Jung in reciting the I Song repeated the verse about the sceptre of white jade three times. (In consequence of which) Master Kung gave him his elder brother’s daughter to marry. (Waley, 131)<br /> <br /> TT2: Nan Rong repeated over and over again the lines about the white jade sceptre. Confucius gave him his elder brother’s daughter in marriage. (D.C. Lau, 181)<br /> <br /> 4.1.2.3 Amplification<br /> <br /> Amplification refers to add information behind some terms that is familiar to source language readers but unfamiliar to target language readers. By amplification, the connotation can be better conveyed to foreign readers. <br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST:论语者 二十篇 群弟子 记善言 <br /> <br /> TT: The Lun-yu (the book of discourses and dialogues) contains twenty chapters. The disciples (of Confucius) have therein related his excellent sayings. <br /> <br /> In this example, the Chinese text does not mention the ancient Chinese sage Confucius, and the information on whose sayings had been recorded in the book “Lun-yu” is implicit, which can be inferred from the context by native Chinese, once they combine the notion of “论语”with their background knowledge. However, western readers do not have enough knowledge to appreciate the value of the “Lun-yu”if the title was translated without the mention of Confucius. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===4.2Translation strategies in journalistic style===<br /> <br /> ===4.2.1Amplification===<br /> <br /> Sometimes, the translator needs to add proper words to complete the structure of the target texts, because mews sometimes needs more information to explain the inner meaning. The following examples are offered to illustrate the point. <br /> <br /> Example 8 <br /> <br /> ST: The real James Bond? (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 250) <br /> <br /> TT:谁是真正的邦德? <br /> <br /> There are no subject and predicate in the target text if the translator renders the headline by literal translation. Therefore,“谁是” is added in order to clarify the text. <br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST: Kings rout rockets, 101-74 (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 225) <br /> <br /> TT: 国王队击败火箭队，比分为 101 比 74 <br /> <br /> “比分为”is added in the target text to make the translation complete in sentence structure and meaning. <br /> <br /> <br /> Example 10<br /> ST:Reuters bests and worsts of the world cup (Huang Ruihong, 2004-06-15) <br /> <br /> TT:路透社评出世界最佳和最差球队 <br /> <br /> “评出” is added in the target text. Otherwise, there will be no predicate in the target text. Consequently, the translation will make no sense to the target reader. Translator should transfer new messages accurately and clearly to the target reader. To achieve this goal, amplification is often adopted to supplement necessary words or background information, which effectively avoids misunderstanding on the part of the target reader. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.2 Omission===<br /> <br /> Omission refers to the strategy to delete unnecessary words or phrases from the target text. News headlines are featured by its brevity. Redundant words can be omitted either to conform to the norms of the target language or to achieve the effect of succinctness. <br /> <br /> Example11 <br /> ST: You need to sleep less than you think (Zou Shuang, 2005) <br /> TT: 适当少睡有益健康 <br /> As we know, English is a hypotactic language, which pays great attention to overt cohesion. Without the pronoun‘you’, the source text will be ungrammatical. By contrast, Chinese belongs to paratactic language, which attaches importance to covert coherence. When the translator does not render the word‘you’ into“你”, it won’t affect comprehension at all. In addition, the target text is succinct by leaving out the pronoun‘you’. Therefore, omission is adopted in this example. <br /> <br /> Example12 <br /> <br /> ST: Vogue says Queen Elizabeth II among world’s most glamorous (China Daily, 2007-11-07) <br /> <br /> TT:英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜 <br /> <br /> As it is well known to most Chinese readers that the Queen of UK is Elizabeth II (伊莉莎白二世), there is no need to keep it in the target text. Otherwise, the translation will be too long as a headline. The recommended version, thus, becomes 英女王跻身“全球最具魅力女性”排行榜. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.3Imitation===<br /> English news are featured by its vivid language, such as play on word, figures of speech, etc. They add special flavor to the text with the aim to attract readers’ eye. Obviously, to reproduce these aesthetic effect enjoys the privilege among the available methods. Throughout the history of translation theory, the idea of imitation has been manifested clearly by Alexander Fraser Tytler when he wrote: the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original in his famous essay on the Principles of Translation. (Munaday, 2001: 26) The following examples may illustrate the above idea.<br /> <br /> Example 13 <br /> <br /> ST:A tale of two hearts (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 199).<br /> <br /> TT:双心记 <br /> <br /> This headline tells a story that a patient has an artificial heart planted in his body. The headline is a parody of the novel A Tale of Two Cities written by Charles Dickens. The target text (双心记) is also a parody of “双城记”.<br /> <br /> Example14 <br /> <br /> ST: Soccer kicks off with violence (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 200) <br /> <br /> TT:足球开踢，拳打脚踢 <br /> <br /> This is a humorous news headline because of the use of pun. The phrase ‘kick off’ refers to the start of a football match, and it also implies that there is a fight in the football field. The meanings of the pun are successfully transferred by the target text with the recommended translation. The translator does a good job in reproducing the humorous sense.<br /> <br /> ===4.2.4 Restruction===<br /> The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers' think and reading. It can be treated as an important technique used in translating news headline from Chinese into English or English to Chinese. <br /> <br /> Example 15 <br /> <br /> ST: A third of Londoners must work from home during Olympics to avoid tube <br /> <br /> TT: 奥运交通压力大 1/3伦敦人须在家上班 (2011-09-27 08:33)<br /> <br /> “A third” occurred in the beginning of the source text, but “奥运会” comes first in the target text. The source text can be translate into “1/3的伦敦人必须在家上班,在奥运会期间避免交通混乱”if there is not any translation strategies used. The translator rearranges the words order to emphasize the special time---Olympics. <br /> <br /> Example16<br /> <br /> ST: Mahfud proposes ‘Special Zoo’ for corrupt officials <br /> <br /> TT: 印尼高官提议建“贪官动物园” (2011-11-30 16:02)<br /> <br /> In order to satirize the corrupt officials, the translator exchanges the order of “special” and “贪官” during the translation process. It can be achieve some good effect to expose the corrupt officials in language sense. <br /> <br /> Example 17<br /> <br /> ST:‘Ready for winter’ campaign launches <br /> <br /> TT: 苏格兰打响“迎冬战役”(2011-10-24 12:06)<br /> <br /> The translator reorders the expression “Ready for winter” and “launches” during the translation process. Besides, the translator adds a subject to this sentence so that it can appeal to the readers’ thinking patterns. In order to make the readers or audiences understand the translated version smoothly and easily, the words or phrases are adjusted to accord with their thinking pattern. Restructuring refers to rearranging the words in logic order to make the translation more potential readers or audiences into the first consideration, making them understand the translated version easily. <br /> <br /> ===4.2.5 Adaptation===<br /> Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to use an especially free translation, it relates to selecting, adding, deleting, and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim So adaptation is an activity which the news translators absorb the most important content from the source text on the basis of the particular requirement of the readers or audiences, then make some suitable adjustments. When the translators are doing some adaptation, though the form and style of the source text are altered in a way, the main idea of the source text must be kept.Though adaptation is not acted as a main translation method by some traditional translation theorists, adaptation is getting more and more popular and arousing more and more <br /> attention these days. You can see the term adaptation frequently showed in some authoritative journals and newspapers, etc. <br /> <br /> Example 18<br /> <br /> ST: Poor People May Be Quicker to Be Kind <br /> <br /> TT:穷人更有同情心 (2011-12-29 08:56)<br /> <br /> “Quicker”means“更快”, but here it is translated into “更有”, “快” is an adjective, “有”is a verb, they have different characters.“Kind”means“友善的”, it is an adjective, but it is translated into“同情心”, which is a noun. If the translator does not use some translation strategies like adaptation, the target text is unreadable. <br /> <br /> Example 19<br /> <br /> ST: Americans say Asia more important than EU: survey <br /> <br /> TT：多数美国人看好亚洲 (2011-09-16 08:43) <br /> <br /> “Important” is an adjective, and a comparative degree used in the source text. But the source text is translated in a totally different way, for it is translated into a verb “看好”. Adaptation should be used here to make sure the translation aim is achieved. <br /> <br /> Example 20<br /> <br /> ST: Lend your voices to ‘talking bins’ <br /> <br /> TT:“能说会唱垃圾桶”将亮相伦敦。<br /> <br /> If“talking bins” is translated into “会说话的垃圾桶”, it is so ordinary. But the translator adopt the adaptation strategy to translated it into“能说会唱垃圾桶”, it becomes very vivid, and it may leave a deep impression on the readers.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> The research conducted in this thesis is a fairly thorough study on the translation strategies of literary-style texts and journalistic-style texts. Through detailed discussion, several translation strategies have been analyzed and summarized. This thesis also studies the texts’ functions and main types of texts. The texts functions are referential function, expressive function and appellative function. The texts can be divided into three types- informative, expressive and vocative texts. On the basis of characteristics of different texts, detailed methods are applied. For literary-style texts, there are domestication and foreignization strategies. For journalistic-style texts, there are strategies like omission, restructure,adaption, imitation and amplification. Journalistic texts and literary texts are quite different, so the translation strategies are different. This thesis has a clear analysis about the translation strategies. However, it still owns a lot of drawbacks, such as the structure is too complicated, lack some of the former people’s study fruit. Hoping this thesis can make some contributions to the translation study and exercise process.<br /> ===6. References===<br /> [1] McNair, Brain. (1998). The sociology of Journalism. A Hodder Arnold Publication<br /> [2] Munday, Jeremy, 2001, Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications [M], London and New York: Routledge.<br /> [3] Newmark, P. Approaches to Translation ［M］. New York: Prentice Hall, 1981: 39.<br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. Translating as A Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained [M]. Shanghai : Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:6<br /> [5] Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism the Potentials &amp; Limitations [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004:91.<br /> [6] Venuti, L. 1995. The Translator’s Invisibility—A History of Translation. London &amp; New York: Routledge.</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=113240 2020-12-16T14:56:45Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Li Haiquan 李海泉 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br /> <br /> Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence. <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> '''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br /> <br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br /> Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br /> <br /> I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces. <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 &quot;呸呸呸&quot;的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 &quot;叭叭叭&quot;的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this. <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br /> Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br /> <br /> '''East Station'''<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old. <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br /> <br /> This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br /> <br /> Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br /> <br /> Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay. <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> '''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br /> In the Context of Fable of September''' <br /> <br /> Jie Lu<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br /> Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ] <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br /> Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture. <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times. <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II). <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.” <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous. <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television). <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence. <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September. <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br /> <br /> 阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br /> <br /> 与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br /> The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br /> The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br /> <br /> This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.” <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends. <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br /> The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br /> <br /> 如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br /> <br /> 小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br /> <br /> The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br /> <br /> As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br /> <br /> 正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br /> 南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br /> <br /> 金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 &quot;活生生的即时性 &quot;的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br /> <br /> Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time. <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br /> <br /> In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events. <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br /> <br /> The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br /> <br /> So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br /> <br /> ''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption. <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis. <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world. <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> '''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's &quot;Religious Sublime&quot;''' <br /> <br /> ''Xinmin Liu<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''Abstract<br /> '''<br /> <br /> Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this &quot;war of words,&quot; no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br /> <br /> Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br /> <br /> In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.” <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar. <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards? <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br /> <br /> Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br /> <br /> Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 &amp; 2, 113-29. ] <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br /> <br /> On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br /> If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br /> <br /> It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br /> <br /> Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br /> <br /> No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br /> <br /> A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br /> Zhang 1999a, 37.<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br /> Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br /> <br /> What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br /> <br /> 作为一个 &quot;他者 &quot;的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。&quot;... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱&quot; &quot;寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力&quot; 。<br /> <br /> 他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 &quot;纯洁性 &quot;和 &quot;真实性 &quot;可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 &quot;最自得其乐 &quot;的人，&quot;这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br /> <br /> Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br /> <br /> Zhang 1994a, 125.<br /> Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br /> Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br /> For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br /> <br /> 这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br /> <br /> 这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br /> For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br /> <br /> The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable. <br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br /> <br /> One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br /> <br /> Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br /> <br /> 其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 其结果是，&quot;人民 &quot;等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br /> <br /> Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br /> <br /> For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br /> <br /> '''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br /> <br /> ''King-Fai Tam''<br /> <br /> I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br /> 《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br /> <br /> In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century. <br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture. <br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br /> <br /> '''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br /> <br /> In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br /> <br /> In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br /> <br /> Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br /> <br /> The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> '''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br /> <br /> 1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> <br /> “Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> <br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> <br /> The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> 这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br /> <br /> 进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> 在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> <br /> '''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br /> <br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> <br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br /> <br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br /> <br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. <br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> <br /> This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> <br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> <br /> '''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br /> <br /> Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br /> <br /> Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br /> <br /> One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br /> <br /> Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br /> <br /> Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br /> <br /> For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> <br /> The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br /> <br /> Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> '''3.Trends<br /> <br /> 3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br /> <br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> <br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> -The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> <br /> -The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> -A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> -The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> -The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> -Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br /> <br /> -In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br /> <br /> The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> -Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br /> <br /> 1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br /> <br /> 2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> -The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br /> <br /> '''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler<br /> <br /> The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the &quot;League of Left-Wing Writers&quot;. <br /> <br /> Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a national &quot;traitor&quot;. Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> <br /> The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his &quot;degeneration&quot; and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經­ (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br /> <br /> 3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br /> <br /> 4 (&quot;Mai tang 卖糖&quot; 1924).<br /> <br /> 5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> <br /> So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; , literature should make the society more humane.<br /> <br /> The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> <br /> Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays &quot;''Independent Thoughts''&quot; and &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br /> <br /> &quot;''Independant Thoughts''&quot; dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> <br /> &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br /> <br /> '''&quot;The Small Dog Baodi&quot; as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br /> <br /> Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> <br /> One of this essays is the story-like &quot;''Small Dog Baodi''&quot;. Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> 1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, &quot;if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?&quot; Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br /> <br /> 狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> 6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br /> <br /> 7 (Zhou 1923).<br /> <br /> 8 (The Family in 1951)<br /> <br /> 9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br /> <br /> 10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his &quot;Random Thoughts&quot; into the soul of Ba Jin..<br /> <br /> 11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br /> <br /> 2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay &quot;''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''&quot;, which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> <br /> 3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> 4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> <br /> 5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist &quot;I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.&quot;. In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot; he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> 6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br /> <br /> &quot;To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, &quot;the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart.&quot; [...]<br /> She also mentions that &quot;[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the &quot;uneducated&quot; writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=113185 2020-12-16T13:51:06Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br /> <br /> Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence. <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> '''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br /> <br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br /> Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br /> <br /> I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces. <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 &quot;呸呸呸&quot;的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 &quot;叭叭叭&quot;的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this. <br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br /> Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br /> <br /> '''East Station'''<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old. <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br /> <br /> This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br /> <br /> Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br /> <br /> Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br /> <br /> 1989. 9. 13 <br /> <br /> Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay. <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> '''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br /> In the Context of Fable of September''' <br /> <br /> Jie Lu<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br /> Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ] <br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br /> Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture. <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br /> <br /> 当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times. <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II). <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.” <br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous. <br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television). <br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br /> <br /> 张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence. <br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September. <br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself. <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description. <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br /> The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br /> The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br /> <br /> This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.” <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends. <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br /> The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265). <br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br /> <br /> The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses. <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br /> <br /> As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br /> <br /> 这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br /> <br /> 正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br /> <br /> Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time. <br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br /> <br /> In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events. <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br /> <br /> Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br /> <br /> The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br /> <br /> So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br /> <br /> ''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption. <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis. <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world. <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> '''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's &quot;Religious Sublime&quot;''' <br /> <br /> ''Xinmin Liu<br /> <br /> ''<br /> '''Abstract<br /> '''<br /> <br /> Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this &quot;war of words,&quot; no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br /> <br /> Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent. <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br /> <br /> In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.” <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar. <br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards? <br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br /> <br /> Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br /> <br /> Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 &amp; 2, 113-29. ] <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br /> <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br /> <br /> On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br /> If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br /> <br /> It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br /> <br /> Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br /> <br /> No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br /> <br /> A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br /> Zhang 1999a, 37.<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br /> Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br /> <br /> What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br /> <br /> 作为一个 &quot;他者 &quot;的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。&quot;... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱&quot; &quot;寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力&quot; 。<br /> <br /> 他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 &quot;纯洁性 &quot;和 &quot;真实性 &quot;可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 &quot;最自得其乐 &quot;的人，&quot;这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br /> <br /> Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> <br /> When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br /> <br /> Zhang 1994a, 125.<br /> Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br /> Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br /> For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br /> <br /> Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be. <br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br /> For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br /> <br /> The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable. <br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br /> <br /> One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br /> <br /> Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br /> <br /> 其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br /> <br /> Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br /> <br /> For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br /> <br /> '''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br /> <br /> ''King-Fai Tam''<br /> <br /> I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br /> <br /> Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br /> <br /> 鉴于我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 &quot;小品 &quot;文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 &quot;小品 &quot;文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br /> 《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br /> <br /> In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century. <br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture. <br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br /> <br /> '''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br /> <br /> ''Martin Woesler''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br /> <br /> In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br /> <br /> In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century? <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br /> <br /> Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br /> <br /> The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> <br /> '''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br /> <br /> 1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br /> <br /> Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br /> <br /> “Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br /> <br /> Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br /> <br /> In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br /> <br /> The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> <br /> This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br /> <br /> Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br /> <br /> 这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br /> <br /> 进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> <br /> '''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br /> <br /> Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br /> <br /> In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> <br /> Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br /> <br /> Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> <br /> If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br /> <br /> Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> <br /> In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br /> <br /> The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> <br /> Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br /> <br /> I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. <br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> <br /> This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> <br /> The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> <br /> '''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br /> <br /> Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br /> <br /> Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br /> <br /> One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> <br /> During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> <br /> The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br /> <br /> Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br /> <br /> Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br /> <br /> For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> <br /> The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br /> <br /> Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br /> <br /> 大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br /> <br /> 从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> <br /> Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> <br /> '''3.Trends<br /> <br /> 3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br /> <br /> What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br /> <br /> The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> <br /> The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> <br /> Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br /> <br /> From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br /> <br /> -The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> <br /> -The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br /> <br /> -A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br /> <br /> -The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br /> <br /> -The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> <br /> -Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br /> <br /> -In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> <br /> In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br /> <br /> The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> <br /> -Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br /> <br /> 1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br /> <br /> 2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> <br /> -The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br /> <br /> '''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br /> <br /> Martin Woesler<br /> <br /> The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> <br /> In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the &quot;League of Left-Wing Writers&quot;. <br /> <br /> Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming &quot;needs&quot; of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- &quot;a genre of self-reflection&quot;. Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> <br /> '''Zhou Zuoren'''<br /> <br /> The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius &quot;degenerated&quot; and later became a national &quot;traitor&quot;. Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> <br /> The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his &quot;degeneration&quot; and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as &quot;paralyzing&quot; . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經­ (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br /> <br /> 3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br /> <br /> 4 (&quot;Mai tang 卖糖&quot; 1924).<br /> <br /> 5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 &quot;堕落 &quot;和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 &quot;麻痹&quot;。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> <br /> So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to &quot;treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives&quot; and to &quot;make children the essence of children's literature&quot; , literature should make the society more humane.<br /> <br /> The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> <br /> Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays &quot;''Independent Thoughts''&quot; and &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br /> <br /> &quot;''Independant Thoughts''&quot; dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> <br /> &quot;''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''&quot;, a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br /> <br /> '''&quot;The Small Dog Baodi&quot; as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br /> <br /> Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> <br /> One of this essays is the story-like &quot;''Small Dog Baodi''&quot;. Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> <br /> 1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, &quot;if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?&quot; Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> <br /> 6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br /> <br /> 7 (Zhou 1923).<br /> <br /> 8 (The Family in 1951)<br /> <br /> 9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br /> <br /> 10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his &quot;Random Thoughts&quot; into the soul of Ba Jin..<br /> <br /> 11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br /> <br /> 2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay &quot;''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''&quot;, which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> <br /> 3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> <br /> 4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> <br /> 5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist &quot;I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.&quot;. In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In &quot;''The Small Dog Baodi''&quot; he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> <br /> 6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br /> <br /> &quot;To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, &quot;the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart.&quot; [...]<br /> She also mentions that &quot;[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> <br /> To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the &quot;uneducated&quot; writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=112514 2020-12-14T14:17:04Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> <br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> <br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> <br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei(whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang, 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．(Hemingway 1985: 23)<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(Hai Guan 1979: 15) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(Wu Lao 2009: 21) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(Eileen Chang 1979: 16) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”(Hemingway 1985: 96)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”(Eileen Chang 1979: ）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（Hai Guan 1979: 79）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（Wu Lao 2009: 99）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface that the old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings. Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.(Eileen Chang 1979: 12)<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1985). ''The Old Man and the Sea''[M]. Printed in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 海观译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2009). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 吴劳译, 上海译文出版社. [Shanghai Translation Publishing House]. <br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies on C-E translation. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of C-E translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对中文英译的翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，遗漏等的翻译策略。本文有望为中文英译翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process, especially for Chinese to English translation. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps.(1993) Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. (1994) So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br /> ===2.1 Main Functions of Texts=== <br /> <br /> ===2.1.1The Referential Function===<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function.(Ping, 2002) If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> ===2.1.2The Expressive Function===<br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> ===2.1.3The Appellative Function===<br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Main Text - types===<br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the expressive, informative and vocative function. <br /> <br /> 2.2.1 The Expressive Texts <br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Informative Texts<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> 2.2.3 The Vocative Texts<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> 2.3 Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 05:00, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=112497 2020-12-14T13:41:51Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> <br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> <br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> <br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei(whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang, 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (Hemingway 1985: 39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱? 好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”(Eileen Chang 1979: 29)<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 202070080597==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies on C-E translation. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of C-E translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对中文英译的翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，遗漏等的翻译策略。本文有望为中文英译翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process, especially for Chinese to English translation. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps.(1993) Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. (1994) So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br /> ===2.1 Main Functions of Texts=== <br /> <br /> ===2.1.1The Referential Function===<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function.(Ping, 2002) If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> ===2.1.2The Expressive Function===<br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> ===2.1.3The Appellative Function===<br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Main Text - types===<br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the expressive, informative and vocative function. <br /> <br /> 2.2.1 The Expressive Texts <br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Informative Texts<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> 2.2.3 The Vocative Texts<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> 2.3 Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 05:00, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=112471 2020-12-14T13:11:49Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language, under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> <br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> <br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> <br /> (2) 各位来宾:<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> <br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> <br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. (2002) 论中西思维方式【J】 On Chinese and Western modes of thinking. 大连：外语与外语教学. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1992) 《汉英对比翻译》【M】 Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese, 南昌: 江西教育出版社, Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press.<br /> *Qian Mu. 钱穆，(1977)《世界局势与中国文化》The World Situation and Chinese Culture【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD.<br /> *Shen Xiaolong. 申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters《学术月刊》 1994 第14期, 74. Academic Monthly, 1994 (14), 74.<br /> *Wang Dehua. 汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36. Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *Zhang Li. 张 黎. (1994) 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】on Chinese Parataxis Grammar. 长春：吉林教育出版社Changchun: Jilin Education Press.<br /> *Zhang Sijie &amp; Zhang Boran. 张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, 中国翻译 Chinese Translation. 2001 (7), 13.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603 专业 is missing--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 08:38, 14 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people's overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'' was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, ''On the Construction of the System of Translatology''. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book ''A Series of Translation Studies in China'', Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translations of the above terms are as following:<br /> <br /> [[File:Shu Yu.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published ''On the Construction of Translation Theory'' , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper ''Translatology must be established'', which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei(whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang, 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” (39)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation. As Robert Frost said, for its concise words, specific forms, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind as has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study poetry translation according to the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 08:39, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan 202070080642 MTI==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking====<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused from values====<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery====<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs====<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> ====Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors====<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> ====Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation====<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> ====Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods====<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> =====Direct translation method=====<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> =====Substitution Method=====<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> ====Intentional translation method=====<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> =====Interpretation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> =====Simple translation and no translation=====<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the consistent development of the cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, translation plays a more and more pivotal role in the world stage. It can not only help Chinese to have a better understanding of foreign cultures and promote the cooperation, but also spread the Chinese cultures to the international world. Translation strategies are the focus of translation works, especially during the process of translating Chinese to English. It’s very necessary to have a thorough study about the translation strategies on C-E translation. While towards different styles of text, different translation strategies should be applied relatively. This thesis focuses on translation strategies of two styles - journalistic style and literary style. <br /> The thesis firstly introduces the background and development of translation strategies. Then it depicts the characteristics and translation principles of journalistic style text and literary style text. In the main part, the thesis combines the characteristics of the two kinds of texts to explore the translation strategies that suits for the two types, including domestication, foreignization, omission and etc. This thesis is expected to make some contributions to the study of translation strategies and the practice of C-E translation.<br /> <br /> ===KEY WORDS===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies; text-types; journalistic style; literary style.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===中文摘要===<br /> <br /> 随着中外文化交流的不断发展，翻译在世界舞台上扮演着越来越重要的角色。它不仅可以帮助中国人更好地了解外国文化，促进合作，而且可以将中国文化传播到世界。翻译策略是翻译工作的重点，特别是在汉译英过程中。对中文英译的翻译策略进行深入研究是有必要的。在针对不同样式的文本时，应相对地采用不同的翻译策略。本文主要研究两种体裁的翻译策略：新闻体裁和文学体裁。<br /> 本文首先介绍翻译策略的背景和发展，然后描述新闻风格文本和文学风格文本的特点和翻译原则。论文的主体部分结合了两种文本的特点，探讨了归化，异化，遗漏等的翻译策略。本文有望为中文英译翻译策略的研究和翻译的实践做出贡献。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译策略; 文本类型; 新闻体裁; 文学体裁.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies are critical in translation process, especially for Chinese to English translation. Towards texts in different styles which have different models of texts’ structure and communicative functions, translation strategies are quite variable. There are a great number of scholars both from China and the international world who have devoted themselves to dive into and research the most effective and practical strategies. <br /> However, there are still lack of thorough researches about translation strategies for different text styles. In this thesis, the first part is about the introduction and analysis of former scholars’ researches and the whole picture of this thesis. Then, the thesis will discuss the background, development, characteristics and functions of different-style texts from the perspective of linguistics. The main part is about the translation strategies of source texts in journalistic style and literary style respectively, such as the domestication, foreignization in literary-style texts and the omission , restruction and generalization in journalistic-style text. In concluding part, the thesis will generalize the main idea and make an objective appreciation about the thesis, as well as point out the drawbacks and advantages. <br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> According to the research, there is still no specific definition of distinguishing differences of texts styles. Some scholars claim texts’ styles to be registers, even some equal them to speech events. Qin Xiubai, a famous Chinese language and teaching professor, introduced that there were two main schools of the study of Texts styles’- the Swalesian School represented by John M.S wales and V.K.Bhatia and the Australian School represented by J.R.Martin. John Martin believes that styles of texts means a bunch of social events in which the members have the same communicative goal. While V.K.Bhatia believes that styles of texts are identifiable communicative events that have obvious inner structural features, conventionally happening in specific careers or academic communities. We can tell from the two schools’ views that styles of texts are a kind of communicative events with its special communicative purpose and clear structures. From this point, translators or interpreters can exert theory to analyze texts’ styles and recognize the intentions of writers as well as keep the functional and sense equivalence between the source texts and target texts. J.R.Martin take texts’ styles as a communication-orientated process of social communication with steps.(1993) Eggins view texts of styles as a type of activity with steps that orientated on communicative purposes. (1994) So that the difference of texts styles is on the level of values in use rather than the contents of discourse, characteristics of forms or other rules. <br /> Huang Guowen once said that every text plays a communicative role in a specific social and cultural environment, and people belonging to a specific social and cultural background can usually see its communicative purpose. (Huang Guowen,2001) The text is a combination of communicative symbols for the exchange of information between the sender and the recipient. In order to achieve a certain communicative purpose, the sender must choose an appropriate genre and corresponding manifestation to convey the information, and the recipient is expected to respond accordingly. Thus, the function of texts can be realized. Christiane Nord summarized four functions of texts from the perspective of translation. They are referential function, expressive function, appellative function and phatic function. (Nord, 1997) <br /> ===2.1 Main Functions of Texts=== <br /> <br /> ===2.1.1The Referential Function===<br /> The referential function of a text means the reference to or description of objects or phenomena of the world. It is mainly expressed through the denotative value of the lexical items presented in the text and can be analyzed through the nature of the objects. It is orientated toward objects in real or fictitious worlds. There are several functions of referential function: informative function, directive function and didactic function.(Ping, 2002) If the referent is a fact or state of things unknown to the receiver, such as an accident, the text function may consist in informing the readers. If the referent is the description of an object, such as the illustration of using a washing machine, the text function may be directive. If it is a whole field that the receivers are to learn, such as physics, the function may be didactic.<br /> <br /> ===2.1.2The Expressive Function===<br /> The expressive function refers to the sender’s attitude to toward the objects or phenomena. This function is sender-orientated. The expressive function of the text may be subdivided according to what it is expressed. If the sender expresses individual feelings or emotions, such as a public speech, it will be an emotive sub-function. If what is expressed is an evaluation, like comments, the sub-function will be evaluative.<br /> <br /> ===2.1.3The Appellative Function===<br /> The appellative function refers to use of language to make the receiver feel or do something. The appellative function “receiver-orientated. It aims at the receivers’ sensitivity or disposition to act and tries to induce receivers to respond in a particular way. It can be broken into several sub-functions: illustrative function, persuasive function, advertising function and pedagogical function. If we want to illustrate a hypothesis by an example, we appeal to the reader’s previous experience to knowledge, That’s what called illustrative function. If we want to persuade someone to do something or to share a particular viewpoint, we appeal to their sensitivity and their secret desires. That’s what called persuasive function. If we want to let someone by a particular product, we tend to describe those qualities of the product that are presumed to have positive values in receivers’ value system. That’s advertising function. If we wan to educate a person, we may appeal to their susceptibility to ethical and moral principles. That’s pedagogical function.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Main Text - types===<br /> Katharina Reiss, founder of German translation functionalism, put forward text-typology theory in Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism. She believes that there are four texts, including the context-focused text, the form-focused text, the appeal-focused text and the audio-media text. <br /> Peter Newmark, representative of the British linguistic school of translation theory, based on the study of former linguisticians, he put forward the following six functions of texts - expressive function, informative function, the vocative function, the aesthetic function, the phatic function and the meta-lingual function. A text may has several functions at the same time, but only has one major function. Taking a whole consideration of the two theories, the main texts are the following three, expressive texts, informative texts and vocative texts. Journalistic-style texts and literary-style texts are mainly connected with the expressive, informative and vocative function. <br /> <br /> 2.2.1 The Expressive Texts <br /> <br /> Language is a tool for people to communicate with each other. Through language, people can express their thoughts, affection, wills, desires, opinions, attitude, etc. This is the expressive function of language. The core of expressive function is the speaker's thoughts. The speaker uses words to express feelings, regardless of the reaction of others.Typical expressive-function texts include the following three types. The first ones are serious and imaginative literature which contain lyrics, short stories, long novels and plays. The second type is authoritative texts, including a variety of genres, whose authority comes from the status of the author or language skills, such as senior government officials and political party leaders’ speeches, such as declarations, legal regulations, documents as well as literary and academic works written by authority figures etc. The third type is texts that express writers’ ideas directly, without direct readers, like autobiography, private letters, etc. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Informative Texts<br /> <br /> In interactions, people often have to describe, narrate or explain the situation of relevant things. This involves the information function of language. The core is the external environment, which is the reported insights and theories. The informative text usually has a fixed format, such as textbook, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, meeting minutes, etc. <br /> <br /> 2.2.3 The Vocative Texts<br /> <br /> People often use words to evoke others' sympathy or prompt them to take some actions. That shows the imperative function of language. The core of this function is the readers or audiences. The speaker wants readers or audiences to feel and follow the intent of the text and act as expected. Typical vocative texts are notices, advertisements, instructions, requests, appeals, etc.<br /> <br /> 2.3 Literary Stylistics and Journalistic Stylistics <br /> With the appearance of societal pragmatics, pragmatics and functional grammar, scholars recognized the importance of language functions. They tried to classify the texts in the light of language functions and divided them into two main types. One is literary style, the other is non-literary style. Snell-Hornby classified literary texts as Bible, drama, film, lyric poetry, modern literature, classic works, children literature, literature in 1990 and pastime novel.--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 05:00, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111897 2020-12-14T03:56:39Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J].论中西思维方式【J】. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]《汉英对比翻译》【M】. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei(whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang, 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111894 2020-12-14T03:55:37Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation -- Jinsuo Ji */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J].论中西思维方式【J】. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]《汉英对比翻译》【M】. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang' s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Hsia, while Fu Lei(whose early pseudonym is Xun Yu) also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''(1921).<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor' s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son' s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter' s marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang' s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Chiang Chi-tse. However, the reality proves to her that Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！(Eileen Chang, 1992: 108)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 163)<br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 130)<br /> <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 191)<br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。(Eileen Chang, 1992: 104)<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. (Eileen Chang, 1971: 157)<br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Chiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, and everyone is a survivor of suffering. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111859 2020-12-14T02:56:38Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 2. Gender and Translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J].论中西思维方式【J】. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]《汉英对比翻译》【M】. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women' s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang' s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this chapter breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111856 2020-12-14T02:53:40Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 1. Introduction */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> ===2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> ===2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> <br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking===<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking. As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> ===2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking===<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography===<br /> * Lian Shuneng. 连淑能. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J].论中西思维方式【J】. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> *Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]《汉英对比翻译》【M】. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”（Luo Xinzhang &amp; Chen Yingnian，2009：413）, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111723 2020-12-13T15:15:35Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 5.1 Cultural Context */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua 2017, 121)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111703 2020-12-13T15:05:27Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* References */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1964).''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著.(1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''《翻译理论与实践》. Leiden: Brill Archive博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达, and Jan de Waard.(1986) ''From One Language to Another''《从一种语言到另一种语言》. Nashville: Thomas Nelson托马斯·纳尔逊出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert奈达.(1993). ''Language, Culture and Translating''《语言、文化与翻译》.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Thackeray,William萨克雷.（2006）. ''Vanity Fair''《名利场》.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Minjie陈岷婕.(2013).浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[On Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Nida’s “functional Equivalence”].科教文汇The Science Education Article Collects(236)94-97.<br /> <br /> Guo Dingju郭丁菊.(2013).功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness Expressiveand Elegance from the Translation of Vanity Fair].Harbin:Northeast Forestry University东北农业大学.<br /> <br /> Li Jianzhong李建中.(2009)中国文学批评史[History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Beijing:Peking University Press北京大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Tan Kai谭凯.(2011)严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[A Comparative Study on Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness Expressive and Elegance” and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence].青年作家Young Writers(1)43-44.<br /> <br /> Wang Yunxi王运熙,Gu Yisheng顾易生.(2007).中国文学批评史新编[A New History of Chinese Literary Criticism].Shanghai:Shanghai Classics Publishing House上海古籍出版社.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复(2009).《天演论》译例言[Preface to Evolution and Ethics].Beijing:The Commercial Press商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yang Bi杨必.(2013)《名利场》[Vanity Fair].Beijing:People’s Literature Publishing House人民文学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yanmei张妍梅.(2019).功能对等理论视角下《名利场》的翻译[A Study on The Translation of Vanity Fair from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory].Lanzhou:Lanzhou Jiaotong University兰州交通大学.<br /> <br /> Zhang Xi张曦.(2014).翻译硕士备考指南[A Guide Book to MTI].Shanghai:Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press上海交通大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[A Comparison on :Faithfulness Expressiveness and Elegance].China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House中国学术期刊电子出版社(2)180-181.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. (1971). ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. (1955). 金锁记[M]. [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. [Shanghai Press].<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. (1979). 老人与海[M]. [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. [Hong Kong: Hong Kong Today World Press].<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. (2009). 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection'']. 北京: 商务印书馆. [Beijing: The Commercial Press].<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. (2010). 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. [Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies]. 解放军外国语学院学报. [Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages]. 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. (2018). 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J]. [Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']. 大众文艺. [Popular Literature]. 171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. (1996). Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge. <br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. (2011). 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. [Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation]. 中国外语. [Chinese Foreign Language]. 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. (2015). 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. [''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation'']. 广州:中山大学出版社. [Guangzhou: Sun Yat-sen University Press].<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. (2017). 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. [On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. [Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education]. 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky. (Xu Yuanchong, 2011, 35-38)<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period. (Fang Xiaoyuan, 2011, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin; English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。(Ge Yunfeng, 2008, 34-35)<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text. (Zhu Chunshen, 2002, 101-103)<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”. (Zhang Bing, 2000, 98-100)<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.(Zhang Jintong, 1987, 78-79)<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization. (Zheng Engyue, 2003, 19-21)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ). (Li Ruijie, 2013, 56)<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless. (Li Xuexin, 2009, 13-15)<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism. <br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem. <br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> <br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> <br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> <br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> <br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> <br /> I search but search again.<br /> <br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> <br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> <br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> <br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> <br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> <br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> <br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> <br /> dreary,<br /> <br /> and dismal,<br /> <br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> <br /> seeking<br /> <br /> Searching<br /> <br /> searching<br /> <br /> over and over<br /> <br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> <br /> Sighing;<br /> <br /> grieving<br /> <br /> sighing<br /> <br /> In the same round (Kwock&amp;McHugh) <br /> <br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> <br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> <br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. (Liu Wuji) <br /> <br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem. <br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> <br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> <br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> <br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> <br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (Liu Guoshan)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> <br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Verbs====<br /> <br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> <br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> <br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> <br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> <br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind (Gong Jinghao)<br /> <br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> <br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> <br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> <br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> <br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> <br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> <br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> <br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. (Xu Zhongjie) <br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> <br /> My old friends,<br /> <br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> <br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> <br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> <br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> <br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> <br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> <br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception. (Zhan Chongyang, 2013, 46-47)<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one. (Xu Yuanchong, 2013, 67)<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation. (Gan Wanni, 2012, 95-98)<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> * Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> * Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> * Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> * Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> * Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> * Zhan Chongyang. Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> *陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> * 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> *房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> * 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> *胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> * 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> * 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> * 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> *孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> * 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> * 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> *郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> *张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111623 2020-12-13T13:49:03Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4. Eileen Chang' s Gender Identity in Her Conventional Translation -- The Old Man and the Sea */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Toward A Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Charles R. Tabor. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Jan de Waard. ''From One Language to Another''[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1986.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> William. M. Thackeray. ''Vanity Fair''[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> 陈岷婕，浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[J].外语翻译，2013(236).<br /> <br /> 郭丁菊，功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[D].哈尔滨：东北农业大学，2013.<br /> <br /> 谭凯，严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[J].青年作家，2011(1).<br /> <br /> 杨必，《名利场》[M],北京：人民文学出版社,2013.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. 金锁记[M] [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M].[''The Old Man and the Sea''] 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection''] 北京: 商务印书馆, 2009.<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J].[Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies] 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].[Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J].[Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation] 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M].[''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation''] 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J].[On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature] 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization.<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ).<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless.<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem.<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> I search but search again.<br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> dreary,<br /> and dismal,<br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> seeking<br /> Searching<br /> searching<br /> over and over<br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> Sighing;<br /> grieving<br /> sighing<br /> In the same round <br /> (Kwock&amp;McHugh)<br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. <br /> (Liu Wuji) <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng, 《名作精译》，p145-146)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (刘国善、王志江，徐树娟 《历代诗词曲英译赏析》，P239)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> 3.2 Translation of Verbs<br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind <br /> (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain <br /> (Mao Yumei)<br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind <br /> (Gong Jinghao)<br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain <br /> (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken?<br /> (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? <br /> (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> My old friends,<br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception.<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one.<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References====<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> [2] Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> [3] Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language <br /> Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> [4] Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> [5] Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> [6] Zhan Chongyang.Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> [7] 陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> [8] 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> [9] 房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> [10] 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> [11] 胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> [12] 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> [13] 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> [14] 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> [15] 孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> [16] 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> [17] 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> [18] 郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> [19] 张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111619 2020-12-13T13:47:03Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 5. Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Toward A Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Charles R. Tabor. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Jan de Waard. ''From One Language to Another''[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1986.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> William. M. Thackeray. ''Vanity Fair''[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> 陈岷婕，浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[J].外语翻译，2013(236).<br /> <br /> 郭丁菊，功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[D].哈尔滨：东北农业大学，2013.<br /> <br /> 谭凯，严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[J].青年作家，2011(1).<br /> <br /> 杨必，《名利场》[M],北京：人民文学出版社,2013.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. Eileen Chang' s Gender Identity in Her Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the Transformation of Gender Identity===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 Cultural Context====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The Gender of the Translator and the Purpose of Translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. 金锁记[M] [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M].[''The Old Man and the Sea''] 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection''] 北京: 商务印书馆, 2009.<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J].[Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies] 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].[Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J].[Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation] 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M].[''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation''] 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J].[On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature] 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization.<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ).<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless.<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem.<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> I search but search again.<br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> dreary,<br /> and dismal,<br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> seeking<br /> Searching<br /> searching<br /> over and over<br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> Sighing;<br /> grieving<br /> sighing<br /> In the same round <br /> (Kwock&amp;McHugh)<br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. <br /> (Liu Wuji) <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng, 《名作精译》，p145-146)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (刘国善、王志江，徐树娟 《历代诗词曲英译赏析》，P239)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> 3.2 Translation of Verbs<br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind <br /> (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain <br /> (Mao Yumei)<br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind <br /> (Gong Jinghao)<br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain <br /> (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken?<br /> (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? <br /> (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> My old friends,<br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception.<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one.<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References====<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> [2] Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> [3] Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language <br /> Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> [4] Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> [5] Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> [6] Zhan Chongyang.Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> [7] 陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> [8] 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> [9] 房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> [10] 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> [11] 胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> [12] 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> [13] 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> [14] 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> [15] 孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> [16] 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> [17] 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> [18] 郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> [19] 张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111609 2020-12-13T13:44:17Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 3.3 The Disguise of Translator' s Gender Identity */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Toward A Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Charles R. Tabor. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Jan de Waard. ''From One Language to Another''[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1986.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> William. M. Thackeray. ''Vanity Fair''[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> 陈岷婕，浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[J].外语翻译，2013(236).<br /> <br /> 郭丁菊，功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[D].哈尔滨：东北农业大学，2013.<br /> <br /> 谭凯，严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[J].青年作家，2011(1).<br /> <br /> 杨必，《名利场》[M],北京：人民文学出版社,2013.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. Eileen Chang' s Gender Identity in Her Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. 金锁记[M] [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M].[''The Old Man and the Sea''] 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection''] 北京: 商务印书馆, 2009.<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J].[Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies] 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].[Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J].[Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation] 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M].[''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation''] 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J].[On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature] 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization.<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ).<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless.<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem.<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> I search but search again.<br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> dreary,<br /> and dismal,<br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> seeking<br /> Searching<br /> searching<br /> over and over<br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> Sighing;<br /> grieving<br /> sighing<br /> In the same round <br /> (Kwock&amp;McHugh)<br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. <br /> (Liu Wuji) <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng, 《名作精译》，p145-146)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (刘国善、王志江，徐树娟 《历代诗词曲英译赏析》，P239)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> 3.2 Translation of Verbs<br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind <br /> (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain <br /> (Mao Yumei)<br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind <br /> (Gong Jinghao)<br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain <br /> (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken?<br /> (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? <br /> (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> My old friends,<br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception.<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one.<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References====<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> [2] Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> [3] Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language <br /> Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> [4] Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> [5] Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> [6] Zhan Chongyang.Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> [7] 陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> [8] 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> [9] 房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> [10] 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> [11] 胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> [12] 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> [13] 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> [14] 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> [15] 孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> [16] 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> [17] 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> [18] 郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> [19] 张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111607 2020-12-13T13:43:25Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 4. Eileen Chang' s gender identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of The Old Man and the Sea as an example */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. 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A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Toward A Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Charles R. Tabor. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Jan de Waard. ''From One Language to Another''[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1986.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> William. M. Thackeray. ''Vanity Fair''[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> 陈岷婕，浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[J].外语翻译，2013(236).<br /> <br /> 郭丁菊，功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[D].哈尔滨：东北农业大学，2013.<br /> <br /> 谭凯，严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[J].青年作家，2011(1).<br /> <br /> 杨必，《名利场》[M],北京：人民文学出版社,2013.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> <br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> <br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> <br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> <br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> <br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> <br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> <br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> <br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> <br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> <br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> <br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory ==<br /> &lt;center&gt; 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===目的论和严复理论的比较研究===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. (1997). ''Translating as a Purposeful Activity''. Kinderhook: St. Jerome Publishing.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. (1984). Groundwork for a general theory of translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. (1995). Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, (14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. (1996). Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1982a). Translation als informationsangebot. Lebende sprachen, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1987a). What does it mean to translate. ''Indian journal of applied linguistic'', 13(2):25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. (1989a). Skopos and Commission in Translational Action. Chersterman: ''Translation Theory'', 173-187.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2000). ''中国译学理论史稿'' [A History of Translation Theory in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> He Xiaoling 閤小玲. (2012). 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性 [An Analysis of Translator Subjectivity in the Perspective of Purpose Theory]. Journal of Liuzhou Teachers College ''柳州师专学报''. (4):45-47.<br /> <br /> Liu Qijia 刘期家. (2000). 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹 [On the historical development trajectory of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Journal of Sichuan International Studies University ''四川外语学院学报''. (2):96-101.<br /> <br /> Shen Suru 沈苏儒.(2001). 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈 [The Highest Level of Translation - A Compendium of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance]. Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版公司.<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [ A Short History of Translation in the West]. Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu严复. (1897). ''天演论·译例言'' [Evolution and Ethics· Yiliyan]. News Collection ''国闻汇编''.<br /> <br /> Zhou Mengzhen 周锰珍. (2007). “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较 ['Skopos Theory' and 'Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance': A Comparison of Two Translation Theories in China and the West. Academic Forum ''学术论坛''. (8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disguise of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. Eileen Chang' s Gender Identity in Her Conventional Translation -- ''The Old Man and the Sea''===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The Disappearance of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The Performance of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. 金锁记[M] [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M].[''The Old Man and the Sea''] 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection''] 北京: 商务印书馆, 2009.<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J].[Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies] 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].[Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J].[Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation] 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M].[''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation''] 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J].[On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature] 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==A Contrastive Study on the Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Shengshengman and Zuihuayin from the Perspective of Defamiliarization 祝美梅 student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Poetry is what lost in translation as Robert Frost said, for it’s concise words, specific form, unique cultural allusion and images, the translatability of poetry has always been a controversial topic in translation field. However, since all human beings are endowed by nature with the same mind which has similar function so that they can communicate with one another. Thus, as a product of thought, poetry is understandable, enjoyable and translatable from author’s view. This thesis aims to study with poetry translation under the theory of defamiliarization, which was proposed by Russian formalist Shklovsky.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, though a technique for literature writing, has a very intimate relationship with translation. In literature writing, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. Translation, as Andre Lefevere said, is a kind of rewriting. This translation strategy is extremely adapted to poetry translation concerning to its characteristics, comparatively speaking, literal translation of poetry would just like watered wine, not only tasteless but also easily misleading. Li Qingzhao, as one of the most important Song dynasty poetess in history, her works have been studied by mass of scholars at home and abroad. The style of Li’s poem was named “Yi’an Ti”, whose features were taking vulgar as elegance, old for the new. Therefore, the way Li tackles with poetry creation achieved the same purpose with defamiliarization. Shengshengman and Zuihuayin are as representative works in her two entirely distinctively life period.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization Theory; Shengshengman; Zuihuayin English Versions<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 译诗则诗。诗歌以其凝练的词语，特定的形式，涵盖的独特文化典故和意象，是否可译一直是译界极具争论的话题。本文旨在由俄国形式主义什克洛夫斯基提出的陌生化理论下研究诗歌翻译。陌生化，虽然是文学写作技巧，同样适应于翻译。在文学作品中，作家通过使熟悉的事物陌生化引起读者的兴趣和好奇，延长审美感知长度。勒菲弗尔说，翻译即改写。这一翻译策略尤其适合于诗歌翻译。直译只会是译诗平淡乏味，如同兑水之酒，甚至产生误解。李清照，作为历史上最有名的女词人之一，其“易安体”本就以其化故为新，以俗为雅的特点与“陌生化”有异曲同工之处。《声声慢》、《醉花阴》是她前后截然不同两个时期的代表作。本文试以俄国形式主义者什克洛夫斯基提出的“陌生化”为理论指导，以李清照词《声声慢》、《醉花阴》的多个译本为研究对象，分析对比不同译者的英译，尝试研究在译文中怎样重现文本陌生化和制造译本的陌生化，以期证明陌生化理论对李清照词英译的指导作用。<br /> <br /> 本文共分为四部分，由引论、正文、结论三部分构成。引论部分主要介绍陌生化理论，优势和劣势，李清照词特点和国内外研究现状。正文分为两个部分，词和意象两个方向并辅以具体实例。结论部分将主要总结陌生化理论在诗歌翻译的应用，本文作者认为用陌生化理论研究翻译文本仍有很大的发掘空间，对诗歌翻译有启迪意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 陌生化理论；《声声慢》；《醉花阴》；英译版本<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The best way to know a nation is to enjoy her poetry. (Gong Guangming, 2004:395).As an art of language and an invaluable treasury of national language, poetry distinguishes itself by its distinct style, refined language and fresh artistic conception. Poetry is conceived the store of human knowledge and experience. Therefore, to enable people of different languages to have a successful grasp of the meaning of poems, poetry translation is one of the most important sections in the cross-cultural communication in the globalization time.<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization is an important feature of poetic language. It is about poets’s consciousness and aesthetics pursuit. To realize defamiliarization of language, poets must use particular words and images or other skills which new to readers to create a sense of surprise and freshness. Defamiarization not only applies to poetry creation but also to poetry translation. The application of defamiliarization to translation can faithfully reproduce the artistic manner of the original poems and give their readers aesthetic enjoyment. It also allows, in some degree, creating treason in translated texts against original. Of course, defamiliarization should never be overdone whether in poetry creation or in poetry translation. The purpose of artistic translation techniques is to make objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms and image unusual, and to increase the difficulty and length of perception on the part of the target audience because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself so must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar are made to appear unfamiliar and innovative in one way or another. All these creative manipulations of the target text enhance the target audience’s discernment of the artistic merit in the target text.<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao was born (1084-1151) in Zhangqiu into a family of officials and scholars, her father was apprenticed to Su Shi. Li was unusually vivacious and knowledgeable for a woman of noble birth at that time. Before she got married, her poetry was already well known among intellectual. In 1101 she married Zhao Mingcheng, with whom she shared interests in art collection and epigraphy. After Zhao started his official career, she often felt lonely and suffered lovesickness. Hence these experiences inspired some of the love poems that she wrote. Her husband and she shared much poetry and mutually wrote poems. When Northern Song capital of Kaifeng fell in 1126 to the Jurchens during the Jin–Song wars, fighting took place in Shandong and their house was ruined. The couple fled to Nanjing, where they lived for one year. Zhao died in 1129 when route to an official post. The death of her husband was a cruel stroke for her life. Li described her married life and the turmoil of her flight in an afterword to her husband's posthumously published work, Jin shi lu（金石录）.Her earlier poetry portrays her carefree life as a young lady of high society, and is marked by its elegance. Li subsequently settled in Hangzhou, in which the Song government was established. She insisted in writing poetry and published the Jin shi lu. According to some contemporary records, she had a briefly marriage with a man named Zhang Ruzhou who treated her relentlessly, and she divorced him within months. She overcame the criticism of her marriage. Though only around a hundred of her poems are known to survive, mostly of them in the form of Ci are tracing her winding fortunes in life. Li is credited with the first detailed critique of the metrics of Chinese poetry. She was regarded as a master of WanYue School “the delicate restraint”.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Shklovsky’s Definition of Defamiliarization====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization, as a literature writing technique, was first put up by the Russian formalist, Viktor Shklovsky in the early 20th century. He explained the concept in his essay Art as Technique which comprised the first chapter of his seminal A Theory of Prose, first published in 1925:&quot;The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged”.(Shcklovsky.1991) Shcklovsky believes “defamiliarization” is the nature of literature language and the essential feature of literature as art. Therefore, “defamiliarization” stands for the quality of art and literature. In literature, writers should defamilirize the familiar things to the readers in order to arouse their interest and curiosity, prolong their length of perception to discover the beauty of art. The process of literature writing bears in itself of foreignness and freshness.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Features of Defamiliarization in Translation====<br /> <br /> In Chen Lin and Zhang Chunbai’s Defamiliarization Effect in Literature Translation (2006:93), they named up two distinctive features of defamiliarization in translation.One is alienization and the other is hybridization. <br /> <br /> Alienization, is the similarity among defamiliarization, alienating and foreignizing, means to retain the language and culture differences of the source text, maintain the visibility of the foreign, in order to give the target readers a fresh experience of authenticity.<br /> <br /> Hybridization claims to combine foreign and domestic elements to produce a hybrid text, it has both the features of the foreignness and the domestic, thus it gives the receivers a sensation of newness and freshness. The author of this thesis takes domestication as one aspect of hybridization, for no matter how strict foreignization is, it could not avoid domestic element during translating. In Jin Bing’s doctoral dissertation (2007), he propo sed to represent defamiliarization technique of the original text in translated text as much as possible, and foreignization is an effective translation strategy to achieve defamiliarization. However, foreignization is not the only way to achieve defamiliarization, as it’s opposite, domestication is another way. That is to say, different translation strategies can be applied in realizing defamiliarization.<br /> <br /> =====1.2.1 Advantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> To create the translated version newness, promote intercultural communication and complementary advantages, the tactics of defamiliarization also embodies translator’s subjectivity, as the appearance of cultural-turn proposed by Susan Bassinet, against the culture invasion, this theory is accepted by more and more people. This technique is meant to be especially useful in distinguishing poetry from prose, for, as Aristotle said, “poetic language must appear strange and wonderful” (Shklovsky 19).Defamiliarization draws attention to the use of common language in such a way as to alter one’s perception of an easily understandable object or concept. The use of defamiliarization both differs and defers, since apply of the technique alters one’s perception of a concept (to defer), and forces one to think about the concept in different, often more complex, terms (to differ).<br /> <br /> =====1.2.2 Disadvantages of Defamiliarization=====<br /> <br /> Defamiliarization increases the difficulty of comprehension, the new express or form distance itself from target receiver, thus lost many audiences, and prohibit culture spreading. Sometimes, translator would sacrifice faith and fluency in order to create novel effect, so demand reader’s patience and sensibility. Excessive making works with coinage word, unusual format or rebel against the target grammar, only found that works meaningless.<br /> <br /> ===2. A brief Introduction of Li Qingzhao===<br /> <br /> Before analyzing the translation versions of Li Qingzhao’s Ci, a general understanding of the characteristics and aesthetic value of Li’s Ci is very necessary. <br /> <br /> ====2.1. Li Qingzhao’s life and her Poem====<br /> <br /> Li Qingzhao, a talented and prolific poetess, exerted great influence on the classic Chinese lyric poetry. In Song Dynasty, lyric poetry reached its most thriving period. Among numerous poets, Li Qingzhao, as a female, shocked the male-dominated field of lyric poetry and formed her unique style. She is deemed the founder of Wanyue School of Song Poem.<br /> <br /> Her tortuous life experience and extraordinary fate made the keynotes of her poem various from one period to another. In the early years of her life, they are full of joy and happiness; but in her later life, there are filled with loneliness and sorrow. Her early work---Zuihuayin, is the reflection of life without difficulties and worries, this work written during she was apart from her husband. Shengshengman was created at the time when she lost her husband whilst the country was shattered and at stake. Through her poem, readers would see the ups and downs in her life. Poem records her life experience. Her lyrics poetry was called “Yi’an Ti” due to the particularities of her own style. Firstly, as a poetess, she gave us vivid images of women, digging into their inner emotions and beauty. Secondly, her choosing of words comprises a large proportion of daily languages, making a beautiful fluency in tune by ways of colloquialism.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Research on Li’s Poem in Domestic and Abroad====<br /> <br /> A comprehensive knowledge of history and state quo of researches on Li Qingzhao at home and abroad is a significant premise of the comparative study of Li’s poem.<br /> <br /> The study of Li Qingzhao’s poem in western word, mainly in America, raised scholars’ interest in the 1950s and 1960s.Wang Honggong’s One Hundred Poems from the Chinese and Hu Pinqing’s Li Qingzhao were published. In 1965, Cyril Birth’s Anthology of Chinese Literature from Early Times to the Fourteenth Century was published in New York. In that book, five poems of Li Qingzhao’s were translated by C.H.Kwock and Vincent Mc Hugh; three were translated by a Chinese American scholar, Xu Jieyi. In 1980s, the study thrived in America. Two all-translated were published. One is the co-translated edition by Wang Honggong and ZhongLing. The other is James Cryer. Those translated poems were chose as textbook materials by American universities. However, because of the abstruse language, culture barrier, and the difficulty in translating poem itself, overseas scholars usually could not make their rendering faithful to the original. At home, Bing Xin(冰心) is the first person set out to translate Li Qingzhao’ poem. Many domestic translators like Xu Yuanchong, from the theory of “Three Beauties”, Lin Yutang published The Importance of Understanding: Translations from the Chinese by LIN YUTANG, the celebrated couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published Song Lyrics in 2001, Xu Zhongjie published 100 Chinese Ci Poems in English Verse in 1986, Chen Zumei, who studied Li’s poem from feminism and other translators include Zhu Chunshen, Gong Jinhao, Mao Yumei and so on. Through different translation criteria and strategies, those perspectives cast new light to the translation study of Li Qingzhao’s poem.<br /> <br /> ===3. Defamiliarization on Words Level in Shengshengman and Zuihuayin===<br /> <br /> Poetry is the most personal and concentrated of the four literature forms (poetry, short story, novel and drama), no redundancy, no phatic language, where, as a unit, the word has greater importance than in any other type of texts. This paper mainly discusses reduplicated words, verbs, colloquialism supported by detailed examples. Poetry presents thing in order to convey a feeling, and therefore concrete the language, each represents something else---a feeling, a behavior, a view of life as well as itself.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Analysis of Translation of Reduplicated Words====<br /> Reduplicated word, as the name suggests, is to repeat the same character two or more times to form a format which bears the identical meaning of a character repeated. It is a kind of lexical devices to deepen the tone or sentiment in literature. Applied appropriately, reduplicated word could make literary works sound beautiful, fluent and forceful. However, applied inappropriately, it could make works awkward and blunt. It is rationally to say that Li Qingzhao favors reduplicated word, for in one fourth of her poem remain now, she successfully used reduplicated words to express her emotion.<br /> <br /> Her typical work which applies reduplicated words is Shengshengman. <br /> <br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。乍暖还寒时候，最难将息。<br /> 三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急？雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识。<br /> 满地黄花堆积。憔悴损，如今有谁堪摘？守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑？<br /> 梧桐更兼细雨，到黄昏、点点滴滴。这次第，怎一个、愁字了得！”（陈祖美 2003：108）<br /> <br /> This piece of work enjoys the largest number of translation versions from different translators among all her works. The first fourteen characters are: “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”,they precisely describe the loneliness , melancholy and nostalgia of the homeland of the poetess after losing her husband. Six different translation versions collected are as follows:<br /> 1. I seek but seek in vain,<br /> I search but search again.<br /> I feel so sad, so drear,<br /> So lonely, without cheer. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2. So dim, so dark.<br /> So dense, so dull,<br /> So damp, so dank, so dead! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. Seeking,seeking,<br /> Chilly and quite,<br /> Desolate, painful and miserable. (Yang Xianyi）<br /> <br /> 4. Searching and searching, seeking and seeking,<br /> So chill, so clear,<br /> dreary,<br /> and dismal,<br /> and forlorn. (Stephen Owen)<br /> <br /> 5. Seeking<br /> seeking<br /> Searching<br /> searching<br /> over and over<br /> lonely and forlorn <br /> Sighing;<br /> grieving<br /> sighing<br /> In the same round <br /> (Kwock&amp;McHugh)<br /> <br /> 6. Seek…seek, search....search;<br /> Lone...lone, cold...cold;<br /> Sad...sad, pain...pain, moan...moan. <br /> (Liu Wuji) <br /> Li Qingzhao used fourteen repetitious Chinese characters to vent the heart-broken feeling and her worry about the convulsive country. In order to imitate the acoustic effects created by the fourteen reiterated words, almost all the translators adopted the words with sound symbolism characteristics, for the sake of conveying similar emotions.<br /> <br /> For instance, search, seek, chill, dismal, forlorn, desolate, dreary, mournful, miserable, gloomy etc. Among the six versions,No.1 Xu paraphrases them into the sentence in rhythmic way, using end rhyme throughout the whole poem to create the musical beauty, but he abandons reduplicated words and just illustrate the meaning which slacking down the artistic conception of the original poem to some extent. No.(3,4)use single, non-repeated words. Leave alone whether those versions fully express the spirit of fourteen characters, those using single repeated or non-repeated words sound better than paraphrased sentences for keeping the freshness and novelty of the original. Especially, Kwock&amp;McHugh(N0.5) vividly represents the original both in form and content, the novel arrangement of the words, successfully imitated the scenes in the original poem. The specially designed lines of verse gave the readers the feelings of seeking and searching over and over again. The visual beauty is a means to complement the deficiency in acoustic beauty, thus, in author’s opinion; his version is the best of all versions in realizing defamiliarization effect. Lin Yutang(No.2) doesn’t repeat the same words, but he carefully picks out words with the same beginning letter “d” to create the feeling of duplication and use exclamation “so” to enhance the theme. His version also is a good example to retain and create defamiliarization effect, giving readers a fresh shock of sadness. From the aspect of form, this version depicted the beauty of balance in English and also corresponded with beauty of antithesis in Chinese. It was a wonderful interpretation and a unique creation in itself.No.6, the translator adopted literal translation. Although the translated version bears similarity in form with the original one, it lacks true beauty in sound and meaning. The literal translation obviously damaged the sorrowful atmosphere, thus this version lost the melancholy and deep grief reflected in the original version. By piling up words, the translators get nothing but the empty shell of the original poem.<br /> <br /> Another example is “点点滴滴”,also from the same verse. Following are translation versions collected:<br /> 1.On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br /> As twilight grizzles. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 2.In a drizzle so light, dripping-dropping into the oncoming night,<br /> In the garden wutong trees stand blurred. (Zhu Chunsheng, 《名作精译》，p145-146)<br /> <br /> 3.On drying leaves of plane trees should there be<br /> A drizzle pattering, pattering towards the eve! (刘国善、王志江，徐树娟 《历代诗词曲英译赏析》，P239)<br /> <br /> 4.Against the tung and plane trees, the wind rises high.<br /> The drizzle becomes trickles, as eve draws nigh. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 5.And the drizzle on the kola nut, keeps on droning: Pit-a-pat, pit-a-pat! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 6.The drizzles falls on the wutong trees, raindrops drip down at dusk. (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> No.1, to pursue the rhythmic beauty, Xu uses drizzles describing the sound of rain, as well as forming rhyme harmony on the last word. This kind of translation blurred the defamiliarization effect since ignorant repeated words.No.2,No.3,No.5,translators uses different repeated words, such as dripping-dropping, pattering-pattering, pit-at-pat, pit-at-pat. From the author’s viewpoint, Lin’s translation is the best, pit-a-pat is onomatopoetic word, and conforms to the English expressive convention. The version of No.4 seems disagree with the poem mood, as poetess can hear clearly raindrops drips on the leaves, the rain should become mild gradually, “the drizzle become trickles” is the situation of a storm, not the rain draws to stop.No.6 picks the word “drip down” also wanting forceful and sound beauty.<br /> 3.2 Translation of Verbs<br /> Unlike English, Chinese poetry is skillfully using verb to vivify the image, often linked with rhetorical devices. Word transformation is mostly common, such as adjective or noun transformed to verb. There existed many instances; the author would like to choose two verbs from the Zuihuayin which would analyzed in this paper.<br /> Taking “帘卷西风”from Zuihuayin as an example:<br /> “薄雾浓云愁永昼，瑞脑消金兽。佳节又重阳，玉枕纱厨，半夜凉初透。东篱把酒黄昏后，<br /> 有暗香盈袖。莫道不消魂，帘卷西风，人比黄花瘦。”<br /> This verse was written to express Li Qingzhao’s yearning for her husband. It’s the Double Ninth Day---the Chinese festival of the senior and family get-together. The west wind blows, makes people feel chilly and distressed, especially when the poetess was alone. Translation versions are assembled as following:<br /> 1. What with curtains being folded—<br /> by violent blasts from the west <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 2. The curtain lifted by the western wind <br /> (Qiu Xiaolong)<br /> 3. When the west wind rolls up my bamboo curtain <br /> (Mao Yumei)<br /> 4. With the door-curtains flapping in the west wind <br /> (Gong Jinghao)<br /> 5. Only, when the west wind stir the curtain <br /> (Lucy Chow Ho)<br /> In the original, there is hyperbaton used to achieve the harmonious beauty of rhymes, actually only could west wind blast curtain actually but the original text is “帘卷西风”,the reasonable sequence is “西风卷帘”.Among five translation versions above, the verb was translated into different words.No.1, “blast” emphasizes on strength and makes a loud noise.No.2, “lift” presents position changed of curtain roused by wind, but the curtain should whirl in that situation, not just lift seems as holding by something.No.3, “roll up” is an ordinary word, though faithfully to the source text, still not good enough.No.4,the word “flap” sounds like we heard the sound of wind makes curtain toss with power. From the view of author of this essay, No.5 is more preferable. “Stir” vividly describes the situation; furthermore, revealing the mirthless of the character, thus, translator prolonged the perception length, increased the aesthetic sensibility, which defamiliarization is pursuing all the time, translation is a creation instead of the slave of original without soul.<br /> <br /> “三杯两盏淡酒，怎敌他、晚来风急?”The verb in this sentence used very vividly, how few cups of liquor withstand the wind at the dusk; Li Qingzhao personifies the natural thing, which is widely applied to express defamiliarization. Follows are various translation versions.<br /> 1.By cup on cup of wine so dry oh,<br /> How can I endure at dusk the drift<br /> Of wind so swift? (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> 2.Three cups of thin wine would utterly fail.<br /> To cope with the rising evening gale. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 3.How can a few cups of thin wine,<br /> Bring warmth against the chilly winds of sunset? (Lin Yutang)<br /> 4.Three or two cups of light wine,<br /> How can they ward off the strong? (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> Among the four versions, No.1 chooses the first person view to express coldness felt at dusk by poet, which slash the effect of defamiliarization as change rhetoric to narrative speech.No.2, the verb “cope with” is not as strong as the original, “cope with” means solving something, working out or settling down, but not very positively and actively.No.3 employed the preposition “against” also not so forcefully. From the point of author, Yang translates best, on the one hand faithfully keep the form of resource text, on the other hand reproduce the defamiliarization by using the verb phrase “ward off”, meaning to shun, avoid, or escape the chilly wind. There is no absolute equivalence between the SL and TL, only the most natural closest to the former.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Translation of Colloquialism====<br /> Colloquialism refer to the types of speech or to usages not on a formal level, is often mistakenly used with a connotation of disapproval, as if it meant “vulgar” or ”bad” or “incorrect’ usage，whereas it is merely a familiar style used in speaking and writing. Li was adept and noted for refining colloquial words from folk languages, which was full of musical quality and vividness after her polishing. Her colloquial words seemed plain and amiable like daily dialogues with friends or just whisper to herself, but extraordinary beautiful and pleasant to the ear.<br /> <br /> Shengshengman, for instance, is typically colloquialised for the whole. Here, the author picks up “守着窗儿，独自怎生得黑”to set as an example. “怎生得黑”is an ancient Chinese vernacular expression of “how to spend the night.” The defamiliarization effect of the original lies in its familiar wording but fresh feeling of lonely depiction. Collected translations are as follows:<br /> 1. Sitting alone at the window, how could I but quicken the pace of darkness <br /> Which won’t thicken?<br /> (Xu Yuanchong）<br /> 2. Standing by the window---watching in anguish stark.<br /> Could I bear alone the sight until it is dark? <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> 3. I remain by my window. Why is the day so dark, all alone? <br /> (Mao Yumei)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s version (No.1) and Xu Zhongjie’s(No.2)version sound influent and not easy to read. In order to keep the rhyming, Professor Xu Yuanchong makes a pair of “quicken” and “thicken”. However, his witty rhyming is not appropriate in the aspect of keeping defamiliarized colloquial style. Rhyming seems exquisitely modified that is not as natural and causal as daily language. Xu Zhongjie’s “anguish stark” sounds sophisticated and wordy which disobeys the features of vernacular or colloquial language. Mao Yumei’s translation（No.3)sounds simple and it is oral daily language.” All alone” put at the end prolongs the tone which makes the structure loose. Hers represents the original style best of the three, thus best keeps the defamiliarization effect of the casual style.<br /> Another sentence is“这次第，怎一个、愁字了得?”<br /> <br /> 1.How, in the word “Miserable,” can one find------<br /> The total effects of all these on the mind! (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.Oh, what can I do with a grief<br /> Beyond belief! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 3.Is this the kind of mood and moment, to be expressed by one word “sad”? <br /> (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 4.At the time like this, what immense sorrow I must bear! (Yang Xianyi)<br /> The above four versions are all translated by domestic translators. They chose different word to express “愁”,like miserable, grief, sad and sorrow. But the No.3 similar to the original forms thus more loyalty. The poetess was touched by the dismal sight and feeling melancholy of her life and the shattered country, so the Lin Yutang’s translation “the kind of mood and moment” is more proper, and the word “sad” also fit for the colloquial style. Defamiliarization in this sentence means to express complicated sentiment in a flat way, Lin successful retains the flavor in simple words.<br /> <br /> ====4. Defamiliarization on Image Level====<br /> <br /> Image is often the final touch that distills and sharpens the meaning of poetry. In ancient Chinese poetry which boasts the construction of a profound meaning with very succinct language, image is especially central to its artistic value among the various composing elements. Image in itself as an intuitive language that transcends the barriers between different semiotic languages, therefore can be sensed across those different nations. Just as the Chinese poetic convention suggests, a work of art is best enjoyable when it transmits a sense of beauty in an implicit way. And image is such a way of talking silently. Moreover, as Zhu Guangqian(朱光潜)says, the pleasure of poetry resides in the sound and imagery.(《诗论》): “诗以情趣为主，情趣见于声音，寓于意象。”)This paper divides image into cultural-loaded images and natural images.<br /> <br /> =====4.1 Cultural-Loaded images=====<br /> <br /> This kind of category is the juxtaposition of allusion and complicated sentiment in certain culture.<br /> 1.Translation the image of “雁” in the Shengshengman<br /> The sentence “雁过也，正伤心，却是旧时相识.”The translation versions collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. Myself, into woe, a flight of wild geese has thrown.<br /> But with them, very familiar I have grown. <br /> (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2.I recognize the geese flying overhead:<br /> My old friends,<br /> Bring not the old memories back! (Lin Yutang)<br /> <br /> 3. It breaks my heart, alas,<br /> To see the wild geese pass,<br /> For they are my acquaintances of old. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> 4. Wild geese fly past, while I’am broken-hearted;<br /> But I recognize they are my old friends. (Yang Xianyi&amp;Gladys Yang) <br /> <br /> 5. Overhead,a heart-rending line<br /> South-bound wild geese at morn<br /> Yet old acquaintances of mine. (Zhu Chunshen)<br /> <br /> After study some versions, the author find most translators tend to translate “雁” into “geese”(Lin Yutang),or “wild geese(Xu Yuanchong),also “swan geese” translated by some people. But translators must can’t ignore the connotation meaning in target culture, geese in English means idiot, fool, reflecting derogative emotion.The slang “wild geese chase” indicates doing something in vain. Zhu Chunshen translated “雁”into “a heart-rending line--south--bound wild geese”, then he explained in the footnote, “geese in ancient China was message carrier, the poetess see geese passed, but doesn’t receive any letter, creating a melancholy feeling”. “雁” is a migrant bird that migrates from south to north in spring and return in autumn. Sometimes, their migrant movement is a sign of season. Besides, in Chinese ancient culture, “鸿雁传书”indicates love letter transferring written by lovers. At that time, Li was compelled to move to the south and her nation was invaded by enemy, she had no sense of belonging where her family were and didn’t know when her wandering days would end. Upon hearing the sound of geese, she can’t help being broken-hearted because of nation defeated and family lost. The image make readers resonate with the poetess. Considering of the culture diversity, translators should add footnote accordingly. The complementary information endeavors to convey original’s culture connotation, it’s also the defamiliarization goal, avoiding blunt and obscurity of different culture.<br /> <br /> Another important image is “梧桐”,is an image rich in cultural meanings. It is a straight, huge and tall. As early as two thousand years ago, it was closely related to the mysterious legendary bird---phoenix. It was said wutong was the only tree where a phoenix would choose to inhabit and land on. According to the ancient tale, “ 梧”was the male and “桐” was the female. They were noted for the marital bliss and harmony. Therefore, it is often used to symbolize loyalty in love in Chinese literature. The sorrow triggered by autumn is often found in old poetry. In poem, this image stands for “sorrow, bitterness, distressed” when the tree was linked with rain, giving people the feeling of coldness. From the mainly English versions collected, “梧桐”was translated into “kola nut”(Lin Yutang), “platan (Xu YuanChong), “the tung and platan tree”(Xu Zhongjie), lola nut is a tree in tropical Africa, this kind of translation was mistaken, platan refers to French platan, tung is a specie of tree, producing oil, those translation definitely lost its cultural connotation. The author of this paper prefers Zhu Chunsheng’s translation version: Wutong tree. Wutong carries exotic charming to the fullest, evoking readers imagination, at the same time promote culture communication. Readers can understand this kind of tree after read the poem. Borrowed words always enlarge another language in this way.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Natural Images====<br /> <br /> Pure scenery depiction means the scene is universe, such as some flower, tree, mountain, stream but usually combined with emotional revelation.<br /> <br /> The image “黄花” usually translated into “yellow flower”, “chrysanthemum”, “yellow chrysanthemum”. Different versions are collected as follow:<br /> <br /> 1. As compared with chrysanthemums,<br /> I look slimmer e’en at my best. (Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> 2. I would show a thinner face than yellow flowers. (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> 3. I look thinner than the chrysanthemum. (Mao Yumei)<br /> 4. I find myself thinner than the yellow flowers. (Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> Chrysanthemum is a formal word while yellow flower is more blurred, “yellow” in Chinese always tinged with sickness or fading, for this reason, readers may arouse curiosity of what this flower looks like and associate with figure of poetess, who is languid and haggard in plight. This image appears in both lyrics, carefully compare, it expresses different mood, in Zhuhuayin, Li is lonely missing her far-away husband, the flower stands for her noble,unsullied and aloof character, while in Shengshengman, the flower is withered, fallen, inanimate. From that point, translators may adopt two translation versions to same noun, the first fit chrysanthemum, easily be related with certain shape, fragrance and color, the second translated into yellow flower, would be more imaginary about the unfamiliar word, thus prolong the aesthetic reception.<br /> <br /> =====Conclusion====<br /> <br /> Poetry is the superior form of literature with the characteristics of it’s terseness in language, indeterminism in words, abstruseness and ambiguity in meaning, sharpness in emotion, felicity in rhetorical strategy and distinctiveness in rhythm. To reproduce the style and reveal the beauty of the original text will absolutely confronted with resistance form restricted factors both in linguistic and cultural aspects. After weighing various methods, the author of this paper think defamiliarization could best retain the spirit whilst making freshness in the translated one.<br /> <br /> The concept of defamiliarization translation can facilitate understanding and appreciation of Li Qingzhao’s poem from a new perspective. The artistic techniques of translation are employed to render objects in the target text unfamiliar, to make forms alienized, and to increase the difficulty and duration of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Something commonplace, customary or familiar is made to appear unfamiliar and fresh in one way or another. All of these creative manipulations enhance the recipient’s discernment of the artistic material in the target text. And that stimulate the translator, one who is adept at subjective manipulation, and who treasures freedom and artistry, to devote him to the pursuit of the alienizing translation effect for art’s sake. The defamiliarization translation theory provides some fascinating insights into Li’s verse translation practice. Breaking the initial norm of sticking to the source culture, translation version is closer to the target-culture end in the continuum between the source culture and target culture. The type of translation coinage of nonce words and using of colloquialisms, rhetoric devices, unconventional form, distinguish itself from others translation method, thus breaks the expectation of target reader, for nonce words or unfamiliar word endowed new meaning that belong neither to the diction of western poetry nor to the diction of translational Chinese poetry, though this deviation gives rise to tortuous and impeded fluency in reading. That’s the essence of poetry. Unlike novel, prose, drama, with plot, dialogue or background, poetry is limited to the fixed format, words. Translation of poetry should take the poem’s specificity into account, literal translation, foreignizing translation, or prosify a poem, all can’t perfectly competing the original without lose flavor. Defamiliarization translation pursues aesthetic perception, novel and creation, also respecting translator’s rewriting properly, and the most faithful translation is not the best, at least for poetry. This paper tries to apply defamiliarization translation theory to analyze Shengshengman and Zuihuayin of Li Qingzhao’s poem, to contribute a humble effort to the translation classical Chinese poetry. Sometimes, we could use transliterated words combined with footnote, such as “wutong”in this paper, or another example also a frequently used image in Li’s verse, bajiao, attaching the word explanation after the poem, “Ba jiao belongs to the musa family, grown for the ornament of their large striking foliage.” Translation Chinese poetry, translator must bear in mind that Chinese flavor and poetry spirit should make ends meet, thus, readers could understand Chinese culture while they appreciate translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===References====<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A.Nida. Language and Culture Contexts in Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001. <br /> <br /> [2] Gan Wanni.A Defamiliarization Perspective to the Study of Translation of Li Qingzhao’s Ci[D].Southwest Jiaotong University,2012.<br /> <br /> [3] Peter Newmark.A Textbook of Translation[M].Shanghai Foreign Language <br /> Education Press,2011.<br /> <br /> [4] Schulte,R.and John Biguenet.Theories of Translation:An Anthology of Essays from Dryden to Derrida[C].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1992.<br /> <br /> [5] Xu Yuanchong. 300 Tang Poems [M].China Intercontinental Press，2011.<br /> <br /> [6] Zhan Chongyang.Defamiliarization and Translation:A Case Study of the Chinese Versions of Jamaica Inn [D].Nanjing University，2013.<br /> <br /> [7] 陈琳.论陌生化翻译[J].中国翻译，2010(1).<br /> <br /> [8] 陈琳.文学翻译审美的陌生化性[D].清华大学学报，2006(06)：21.<br /> <br /> [9] 房孝园,李清照:一言难尽的花与酒——《李清照词两首》个性解读[J].语文教学之友,2011,06:34-35.<br /> <br /> [10] 葛云峰,季淑凤.中国典籍英译的风格再现，易安词英译个案分析[J].淮北煤炭师范学院外国语学报，2008(5):30.<br /> <br /> [11] 胡银根.文化语境视角下李清照八首词翻译的对比研究[D].湖南工业大学，2012.<br /> <br /> [12] 刘晰.拥抱差异：诗歌翻译的“陌生化”取向[J].淮南师范学院学报,2013（04）:15.<br /> <br /> [13] 李学欣.易安词作中叠词的美感传译[J].作家杂志，2009(12).<br /> <br /> [14] 李睿婕,张轶前.许渊冲译者主体性在李清照《声声慢》英译本中的体现.[J].河北联合大学学报，2012(6):12.<br /> <br /> [15] 孙国华.鲁迅作品中的陌生化语言现象[J].无锡高等师范学校，2012.<br /> <br /> [16] 张冰.陌生化诗学：俄国形式主义研究[M].北京师范大学出版社，2000.<br /> <br /> [17] 朱纯深.宋词英译(2)[J].中国翻译,2002(3):93-94.<br /> <br /> [18] 郑恩岳,李清照《声声慢》词英译研究[J].浙江教育学院学报，2003(05).<br /> <br /> [19] 张金同.“怎一个愁字了得”——读李清照的《醉花阴》和《声声慢》[J].固原师专学报(社会科学版),1987,04:41-46.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111581 2020-12-13T13:30:00Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 3. The gender identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A case study of the English translation of Jinsuo Ji */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Toward A Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Charles R. Tabor. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Jan de Waard. ''From One Language to Another''[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1986.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> William. M. Thackeray. ''Vanity Fair''[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> 陈岷婕，浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[J].外语翻译，2013(236).<br /> <br /> 郭丁菊，功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[D].哈尔滨：东北农业大学，2013.<br /> <br /> 谭凯，严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[J].青年作家，2011(1).<br /> <br /> 杨必，《名利场》[M],北京：人民文学出版社,2013.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation -- ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Performace of Translator' s Female Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Performace of Translator' s Male Identity====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The Disguise of Translator' s Gender Identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. Eileen Chang' s gender identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'' as an example===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work' s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The translator' s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. 金锁记[M] [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M].[''The Old Man and the Sea''] 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection''] 北京: 商务印书馆, 2009.<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J].[Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies] 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].[Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J].[Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation] 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M].[''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation''] 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J].[On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature] 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111563 2020-12-13T13:13:46Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Toward A Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Charles R. Tabor. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Jan de Waard. ''From One Language to Another''[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1986.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> William. M. Thackeray. ''Vanity Fair''[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> 陈岷婕，浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[J].外语翻译，2013(236).<br /> <br /> 郭丁菊，功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[D].哈尔滨：东北农业大学，2013.<br /> <br /> 谭凯，严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[J].青年作家，2011(1).<br /> <br /> 杨必，《名利场》[M],北京：人民文学出版社,2013.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The gender identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A case study of the English translation of ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translator' s female identity used to show the emotional resonance to female characters====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The translator' s male identity used to show the passive position of women====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The translator reveals the reality objectively under the disguise of gender identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. Eileen Chang' s gender identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'' as an example===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work' s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The translator' s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. 金锁记[M] [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M].[''The Old Man and the Sea''] 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection''] 北京: 商务印书馆, 2009.<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J].[Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies] 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].[Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J].[Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation] 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M].[''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation''] 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J].[On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature] 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=111559 2020-12-13T13:10:04Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12) At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture. Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang 202070080578==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In the late 1960s, the famous American translator Eugene Nida proposed functional equivalence, which has an overwhelming significance in the development of translation theory. This theory is based on modern linguistics, social semiotics and information theory. Its equivalence is not confined to the corrrespondence in vocabulary and grammar between original language and target language. Meanwhile, the correspondence of response between the original readers and the target language readers is also paid attention. Nida points out that translation should accord with original text in meaning, rather than form, and he also pays much attention to the response of the target language readers. He thinks that expressing the target language properly and appropriately is the central task in translating, which has an important guiding significance for translators.<br /> <br /> With the further effect of western translation theories on Chinese translation theories, translators of China also propose different translation theories. Based on Chinese classical aesthetics and literary criticism, Yan Fu, a famous translator of China, proposes the famous translation standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, which has a deep influence on China’s translation circle and provides an important translation theory for Chinese translators. <br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance all provide important translation standards for translators and have a pivotal role in the history of translation theories. At the same time, by analyzing the Chinese translation of ''Vanity Fair'' written by Thackery, the similarities and differences of thse two translation theories will be presented, which will promote the understanding of them.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Functional equivalence; Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance; similarities and differences; Vanity Fair.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪60年代末。美国著名翻译家尤金·奈达提出了翻译理论发展史上具有里程碑意义的“功能对等”翻译理论，该理论以现代语言学、社会符号学以及信息论为理论基础，其对等并未局限于原语和目的语之间词汇和语法的转换，对原语读者的感受和目的语言读者的感受是否一致也同样关注。奈达提倡翻译并未形式的对等而是客观内容的对等，他还重视目的语接受者的反应，以合适、贴切的目的语表达视为翻译的中心任务，这对翻译工作者具有重要的指导意义。<br /> <br /> 随着西方翻译理论对中国翻译理论的影响日益加深，中国翻译家也逐渐提出了自己的翻译理论。中国著名翻译家严复基于中国传统美学和文学评论，提出了著名的“信达雅”翻译标准。这一翻译标准在中国翻译界影响深远，为翻译工作者提供了很重要的翻译理论。<br /> <br /> 奈达和严复的翻译理论都为翻译工作者提供了重要的翻译标准，在翻译理论史上都具有举足轻重的作用。同时，这两大理论具有许多相似之处和不同点。本文通过对萨克雷《名利场》的中文译本进行分析，并通过对信息文本的处理来对比分析两大理论，找到两者的异同点，希望能对两大翻译理论的理解有一定的促进作用。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===：功能对等；信达雅；异同；《名利场》<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Looking back on the history of Chinese and western translation, we can see that translation theories are rich and colorful. In the western translation field, Nida is recognized as an outstanding representative. His “ Functional equivalence” theory has broken through the traditional formal equivalence theory and has had a broad and far-reacching impact. In the Chinese translation circle, Yan Fu is the most influential one. He puts forward the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” translation standard, which is a milestone in the history of Chinese translation theory and promotes the development of Chinese translation theory(Tan Kai 2011, 43). Although Nida and Yan Fu are in different social environment, and their translation standards are once questioned and denied, it is undeniable that these two translation standards are still the most authoritative and vital in Chinese and Western translation circles. <br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known contemporary western linguistics, an expect that researches Bible as well as a translation theorist. His translation view, which is called functional equivalence, has set off a wave of enthusiasm in the translation field(Zhang Yimei 2020,180). <br /> <br /> In 1964, Nida put forward “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence” in the book ''Toward A Science of Translating''(Nida 1964, 45). However, he did not give a clear definition of “dynamic equivalence” until 1969 in the book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''(Nida 1969, 34). In 1993, the expression “dynamic equivalence” was superseded by “functional equivalence” in his work ''From One Language to Another'' (Nida 1993, 67). Dynamic Equivalence is defined “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it is essentially the same manner as the receptors in the source language(Nida 1969, 24). Functional equivalence emphasizes the response of equivalence rather than the form of equivalence. In the process of evaluating the quality of a translation, one should not only see whether the form is consistent with the original text, or whether the content is fluent and smooth, but also check whether the response of the target language readers is consistent with the original readers or whether the effect produced by the target text is consistent with the original text. As we all know, it is impossible for a transltion to be faithful to the original to full extent. There are many reasons for this. For example, the language ability and knowledge background of translator can cause differences in translation. In ''Language, Culture and Translating'', Nida divided functional equivalence into two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level(Nida 2001, 78). The minimal level of functional equivalence is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”(Nida 1993,118). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level ideal. For Nida, good translations always lie between the two levels (Nida,1995,224).<br /> <br /> ====Introduction of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is a famous enlightenment thinker and educator in modern China, as well as an outstanding translation theorist. His three principles of translation—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, were widely accepted as essential criteria for understanding translations since the early 20th century. It appeared in Yan Fu’s preface to his translation of Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898)（Zhang Xi 2014,1):<br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (Xin), expressiveness (da) and elegance (ya). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so(Yan Fu 2009, 202).”<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and translation practices, Yan Fu advanced “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has a great contribution to the history of China’s translation and has become the fundamental tenets of the 20th century Chinese translation theory. According to Yan’s three principles, the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression of the target language, and elegant in the writing style. “Faithfulness” emphasizes the fidelity to the original text. Yan pointed out that translator couldn’t begin his work until he has grasped the spirit and logic of the original text. “ Expressiveness” stresses the fluency and acceptability that the translation expresses. “Elegance” reflects that Yan pays much attention to readers’ thought. Yan said in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics''(Yan Fu 2009, 202):<br /> “Confucious said, ‘Diction should be expressive.’ He also said, ‘Diction without elegance cannot reach far.’ The three principles should be the basic elements of any writing, and the tenet for the translator. Apart from faithfulness and expressiveness, I seek elegance.(Yan Fu 2009, 202)”<br /> <br /> Many people reagrd Yan’s translation standard as a golden rule, however, there are also some criticisms of it. Most criticisms come from the denial of standard “ elegance”. According to Yan Fu, elegance means using Chinese charcters of pre-Han dynasty to express original text. He is inclined to use classical style of writing in pursuing elegance because of two reasons: firstly, he believes that boring language cannot expand the influence of translated text; secondly, most of the readers of that time are knowledgeable people from the upper class and the translations are foreign philosophy and social science(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Therefore, the common readers cannot understand the real meaning of the original text. “Elegance” people mentioned now has been modified by later generations, which refers to rthat the translation should be literary and elegant. Although there are still some doubts about the standard “elegance”, the contribution and influence of Yan’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” are undeniable. <br /> <br /> ===Theoretial Foundation===<br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Nida’s Functional Equivalence====<br /> <br /> =====Modern Linguistic=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is based on modern linguistic and it has a close relationship with linguistics(Guo Dingju 2013, 15). Nida successfully applied the research of modern linguistics into translation theory. He used semantic theories, especially the method of semantic componential analysis to analyze referring meaning and associative meaning of vocabulary objectively and accurately(Guo Dingju 2013, 16). He transformed Chomsky’s core sentence theory, deep structure and surface structure, created a relatively complete process of interlingual conversion, and proposed a three-stage theory of the translation process. On Nida’s opinion, various language structures have many similarities and deep structure is more common than surface structure(Nida 1964, 68). Therefore, through the interlingual conversion of deep structure, the fidelity to the original text can be ensured to the greatest extent. At the same time, since the surface structure of the translated text is the free expression of the conversion of deep structure, the smoothness of the translated text can be ensured as much as possible. The faithful and smooth translations create conditions for the equivalence of readers’ reaction, which makes it possible to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 68).<br /> <br /> =====Information Theory=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on information theory. Nida believes that translation is an activity of transforming the information expressed in one language into another, that is to say, the information encoded in one code is transformed into another(Nida 1984, 34). The purpose of translating is to communicate by conveying information. Only when the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, the relationship between the target language readers and target information is basically the same as the relationship between original language readers and original information. Nida notices that the original readers’ ability to accept information is different from that of target language readers. Generally speaking, the information receptive ability of original language readers is better than target language readers, especially when the original language and target language belong to different language systems and cultures. Nida stresses that in order to let the target language readers obtain the same information as the original readers, translators can change appropriately the form of the original for the target readers to better understand the translation(Nida 1984, 34). <br /> <br /> =====Social Semiotics=====<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence is also based on social semiotics. Nida believes that translating is to translate the meaning of the original, and social semiotics is the most comprehensive system to analyze the meaning. In the book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida points out that using social semiotics, the science that researches all codes and symbols in human society, to study translation is the most comprehensive way, and the key that it is superior to any other translation methods to carry on interlingual translation is that social semiotics studies all codes in human society, and it focuses on studying language, the most comprehensive and complex semiotic systems used by human. Therefore, in terms of decoding and encoding, the translation method of social semiotics is more comprehensive than any other translation methods(Nida 1993, 67). <br /> <br /> ====Theoretical Foundation of Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> =====Chinese Aesthetics=====<br /> <br /> Aesthetics is at first a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty and taste with creation and appreciation of beauty. It has a great impact on traditional Chinese translation theories and standards. In 1898, Yan Fu put forward the famous translation standard “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which has always been the central idea of Chinese translation theory and aesthetics(Yan Fu 2009, 202). Its influence is far-reaching and almost no one can match with it today. “Faithfulness” means the meaning of the target text should be faithful to the original text with accurate words and without arbitrary omission or deletion. “Expressiveness” means that the form of the target text is not constrained and the translation is smooth and clear. “Elegance” refers to that the words of translation should be appropriate and vivid, and the translation should be concise and elegant like the original. “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reveal the essence of translation. Compared with the long-winded theoretical explanation abroad, these three words cover almost all the content of translation aesthetics, and fully reflect the concise beauty of Chinese characters.<br /> <br /> Chinese aesthetics mainly comes from the ancient asetheics, which is the theoretical foundation of Yan Fu’s translation theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance.<br /> <br /> =====Literary Criticism=====<br /> <br /> Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods(Guo Dingju 2013, 19). <br /> <br /> On the whole, literary criticism can be divided into two categories. One is a body of study focused on ethics and human emotions. The other is a bulk of explorations centered round the craftmanship of literary works(Li Jianzhong 2009, 45). The core of Chinese literary criticism is the theory of literary creation. There are mainly three types of literary criticism in the early 20th century from the aspect of functions of criticism. The first type of literary criticism focuses on literary works proper. The critics of this type analyze literay works with their own experience and wisdom, which is called art-oriented criticism and Lu Xun is its representative. The second type is aimed at an independent cultural value. The critics try to dig out its philosophical, psychological, ethnic and linguistic significance of works. The third one is society-oriented criticism and it serves politics. It works well in the period of political struggels(Wang Yunxi 2007, 78).<br /> <br /> ===Comparative Studies on Translation theories of Nida and Yan Fu===<br /> <br /> ====Introdution of ''Vanity Fair'' and Yang Bi’s Translation Versions====<br /> <br /> =====About ''Vanity Fair''=====<br /> <br /> ''Vanity Fair'' is Mr. Thackeray’s most important work. The novel takes place during the Napoleonic Wars and tells the lives of two contrasted girls: Amelia Sedley, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, a good natured, loveable though simple-minded young girl, and Rebecca (Becky) Sharp, an orphan who is a strong-willed and cunning young woman. These two girls met at Miss Pinkerton’s Academy for young ladies, the former driven by delicate heart and the latter by social ambition. At the begining, Becky lived in a rich life and her social state was promoted step by step relying on some ignoble means. But Amelia suffered great sorrow because of her father’s bankruptcy. However, several years later, their lives were totally changed. They seemed to go back to their origianl work. Becky gained nothing, and Amelia returned to happy life again(Thackeray 2006，178).<br /> <br /> This novel gains great success and shapes the image of a bad woman, Becky. You may hate her, but you will never forget her once you read this wonderful novel. Although she is a charater lives in a different time and world, you can feel her presence in our world, even in any society. ''Vanity Fair'' is one of the greatest literary works describing society at that time written by William Makepeace Thackeray. The capitalists’ accumulation and the 19th society are all presented to readers through Thackeray’s description. This novel reflects the degradation and social hypocrisy and people at time time try every means to keep in contact with the upper class. The title of this novel reveal the theme: the treasures of vanity fair, that is money and position, are desirable but transient. Thackeray’s idea is that although one may live in vanity fair, one doesn’t need to be a slave to its values, which will eventually turn into emptiness(Thackeray 2006, 89). <br /> <br /> =====Yang Bi’s Translation Version=====<br /> <br /> There are many Chinese translation version of ''Vanity Fair''. Among these versions, Yang Bi’s translation version ranks the first, which has been published for four times by different publications. Yang Bi’s version of Vanity Fair was firstly published by People’s Literature Publication in 1957. Then it was published in 1997 and 2000. The latest version was published in 2012 by The Commercial Press in 2012. Yang Bi’s translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' was praised and encouraged by many translators, such as Fu Lei(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). Yang Bi shows target language readers a sense of wholeness by smooth sentence structure amd takes related cultural background into consideration. Owing to her proficiency in Chinese, she can convey the meaning of original text appropriately to Chinese readers and Chinese readers can have a good understanding of western literary works(Guo Dingju 2013, 23).<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Nida’s Functional Equivalence from Translation of Vanity Fair====<br /> <br /> Thackeray has a sharp eye on his literary works, especially in ''Vanity Fair'', which requires an outstanding understanding and expressive ability of the translator. When comparing the English and Chinese version of Vanity Fair, it’s easy for us to find that Yang Bi’s translation is good at dealing with words, sentences, chapters, and rhetorical devices. Her translation is natural and smooth that the target language readers feel like reading the traditional novels(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 16). In this paper, two main aspects will be analyzed by the author.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical Level=====<br /> <br /> In traditional grammar, one of the kernel parts is Part of Speech. Some regular rules are deeply rooted in our minds, such as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify verbs and adjectives, and conjunctions connect parts of sentences. People who learn foreign languages are familiar with these rules. However, the quality of translation will be influenced if these rules are brought into the translation. Under this circumstance, Nida suggests abandoning the traditional grammar and adopting new seven-part-of-speech system(Nida 1943，89), those are (1)entities, such as woman, desk, dictionary, and so on; (2) activities, such as walk, run, swim and so on; (3)states, such as dead, excited, happy and so on; (4)characteristics, such as tall, huge, fat and so on; (5)processes, such as shorten, grow, enlarge and so on; (6)links, such as when, during, below and so on; (7)deictics, such as that, there, this and so on. From the translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'', we can find that the target text is flexible and functional equivalence of Nida is achieved at the lexical level. Free translation is the main translation method that she adopts. What’s more, she combines different translation techniques, such as combination, addition, and omission to reproduce the origianl meaning in the target language. <br /> <br /> Exampe 1 <br /> <br /> ST1:...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty？(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT1:痴情男子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST1, “Love” and “Beauty” are two entities according to Nida’s classification of words(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).. In the original text, Thackeray describes a scene in which Baron proposes to Rebecca. He uses abstract words “Love” and “Beauty” to represent Baron and Rebecca. In TT1, Yang Bi translates “Love” and “Beauty” into “痴情男子“and “美貌佳人”to reproduce the meaning of the original text. Although the words in ST1 are abstract and the words in TT1 are concrete, the meaning of the origianl text is greatly reproduced in the translation, and the translation is even more vivid than the original one. What’s more, the translation contains a humorous tone, and the target language readers can feel humorous and interesting(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19). If we translate “Love” and “Beauty” into “爱情” and “美人”, the literal menaing and charm of original text are lost and the style of original text is not reproduced in the target language.<br /> <br /> =====At Syntactical Level=====<br /> <br /> A sentence is the basic unit of language. In the process of translating Englsih sentences into Chinese, the translator should comprehend the original writer’s intention and then express it in the target language. Thus, the arrangement of sentences should be considered. On the syntactical level, English has long compound sentences which belong to hypotactic sentence, while Chinese has more short sentences which belong to paratactic sentence. What’s more, there are many distinctions between English and Chinese sentences which requires the translator to make proper adjustments. In order to overcome the obstacles of long sentences in translation, Nida put forward a suggestion that one long difficult sentence can be divided into several core sentences (Nida, 1946). Nida uses the concept of core kernel sentence(Nida 1946, 55). He think there are seven types of kernel sentence in English:<br /> <br /> (1)subject+predicate+adverbial, such as, John wrote slowly;<br /> <br /> (2)subject+predicate+object, such as, John hit Bill;<br /> <br /> (3)subject+predicate+object+object, such as, John gave Mary a gift;<br /> <br /> (4)subject+be+subject complement, such as John is in the restaurant;<br /> <br /> (5)subject+be+attributive, such as, John is kind;<br /> <br /> (6)subject+be+indefinite article+noun, such as, John is a man.<br /> <br /> (7)subject+be+pronoun+noun, such as, John is my friend.<br /> <br /> The above seven sentences are understandable in human language. No matter what language you speak in communicating with others, the people you talk with can understand your meaning as long as you use simple sentences(Guo Dingju 2013, 32). Nida believes that experienced translators often break down complex sentences into simple sentences when translating the origianl text(Nida 1946, 56). The translator often needs to make proper adjustments and rebuild the sentence structure in the target text. Many examples in Yang Bi’s translation of Vanity Fair are discovered to simplify the sentences. From her translation, we also find out that functional equivalence is achieved at the syntactical level in Yang Bi’s translation. <br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> <br /> ST2:His first marriage with the daughter of the noble Binkie had been made under the auspices of his parents; and as he often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime she was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade that when she died he was hanged if he would ever take another of her sort, at her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise, and selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr.Johm Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury. (Thackeray2016,75) <br /> <br /> TT2:他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是平葛家里的女儿。克劳来夫人活着的时候，他就常常当面说她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又碎；并且说等她死了之后，死也不愿意再娶这么一个老婆了。他说到做到：妻子去世以后，他就挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> （Yang Bi 2013,76) <br /> <br /> In ST2, there is a long and complex sentence and the word quantity of this sentence is eighty. According to Nida’s theory, this long sentence can be divided into several kernel sentences(Nida 1946,76). Yang Bi carefully simplified this long sentence into several short sentences.<br /> <br /> (1)他第一次结婚的时候，奉父母之命娶了一位贵族小姐，是葛平家里的女儿。<br /> <br /> His first marriage with the daughter of the noble had been undre the auspices of his parents.<br /> <br /> (2)他经常跟克莱劳夫人说一些事。<br /> <br /> He often told Lady Crawley in her lifetime.<br /> <br /> (3)她是个讨人嫌的婆子，礼数又足，嘴巴子又卖力。<br /> <br /> She was such a confounded quarrelsome high-bred jade. <br /> <br /> (4)她死后，他许下承诺。<br /> <br /> He was hanged after her death.<br /> <br /> (5）他不会再娶这么一个老婆了。<br /> <br /> He would never take another of her sort.<br /> <br /> (6)妻子去世后，他遵守了自己的承诺。<br /> <br /> At her ladyship’s demise he kept his promise.<br /> <br /> (7)他挑了墨特白菜铁器商人约翰·汤姆士·道生的女儿露丝·道生做填房。<br /> <br /> He selected for a second wife Miss Rose Dawson, daughter of Mr. John Thomas Dawson, ironmonger, of Mudbury.<br /> <br /> In this example, the sentence structure is transformed from a long complex sentence into seven short simple sentences. Although the sentence structure is different, the meaning of the original is expressed completely in its translation and the target language readers can have a good understanding of the original meaning.<br /> <br /> ====An Analysis on Yan Fu’s Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance from Translation of ''Vanity Fair''====<br /> <br /> The translation of Yang Bi’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a good example of combination of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegence(Guo Dingju 2013, 23). We will analyze Yang Bi’s translation of ''Vanity Fair'' from lrxical and sentence level.<br /> <br /> =====At Lexical level=====<br /> <br /> Literary words demands that the translator has good comand of comprehensive and expressive abilities. Although many words are equivalence in English-Chinese dictionary, yet it is not easy to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance with mere literal meaning equivalence(Guo Dingju 2013, 25). Thackeray is very particular about the words, so it is not easy for the translator to express the original meaning. But Yang Bi grasps the original meaning and does quite well in his translation, which makes the translation vivid and interesting. Let’s look at how to achieve faithfulness, expressive and elegance in her translation.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> <br /> ST3: ...for what can be prettier than an image of Love on his knees before Beauty?(Thackeray 2006, 138)<br /> TT3:痴情公子向美貌佳人跪下求婚，还不是一幅最赏心悦目的画吗？(杨必 2013, 47)<br /> <br /> In ST3, there is a scene of Baron proposing marriage to Rebecca. Thackeray uses the abstract words “an image of Love” and “Beauty” to refer to Baron and Rebecca. What’s more, the original text contains a ridiculous tone, and readers can feel humorous from Thackeray’s words. Only when the translator translates the style and spirit of the original faithfully can faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance be achieved. If the words “prettier”, “an image of Love” and “Beauty” are translated into “更好看”“爱情形象”“美人” respectively, the style and charm of the original are lost and faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not achieved in the translation. In Yang Bi’s translaton ,she achieves faithfulness, expressiveness and elegence by her good mastering of language. In TT3, “痴情男子”“美貌佳人”and “赏心悦目” reproduce the further meaning of the original text, which achieves the standard of Yan Fu’s faithfulness. What’s more, expressiveness is also achieved in her translation because the translation is smooth. Meanwhile, these groups of words are elegant, which convey the style and charm of the original text and conform to the characteristcs of literary works. Thus, elegance is also achieved in Yang Bi’s translation(Zhang Yanmei 2019, 19).<br /> <br /> =====At Sentence Level===== <br /> <br /> English and Chinese are different in many aspects. For example, English sentences are tree-structure and there are many long complex sentences in English, while Chinese sentences are bamboo-structure and they are usually short. English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, while Chinese sentences stress parataxis(Guo Dingju 2013,40). Thus, it is impracticable to translate English into Chinese without changing sentence structures and it is difficult for the translator to achieve Yan Fu’s standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. There are many long sentences in ''Vanity Fair'', so it is a challenging work for Yang Bi to translate them into Chinese. However, by researching Yang Bi’s translation, we will find out her good performance of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> Example 4: <br /> ST4:The amiable behavior of Mr.Crawley, and Lady Jane’s kind reception of her, highly flattered Miss Briggs, who was enabled to speak a good word for the latter, after the cards of the Southdown family had been presented to Miss Crawley.(Thackeray 2006, 74)<br /> <br /> TT4:布立葛丝小姐看看克劳莱先生的态度那么客气，吉恩小姐又待她热情，觉得受宠若惊，等到沙吴赛家里的名片送到克劳莱小姐面前，她就找机会给吉恩小姐说了些好话。(Yang Bi 1997, 6)<br /> <br /> In the original sentence, the abstract words “behavior” and “reception” are the subject of the sentence, which shows the static feature of English. If translate it into “克劳莱先生的客气态度和吉恩小姐的热情接待使布立葛丝小姐受宠若惊……” without changing sentence structure, we will find that it doesn’t conform to the expression habits of Chinese. Although it seems to be faithful to the original form and meaning, it is stiff. On the contrary, Yang Bi changes its sentence structure and uses the object of the original as the subject in target language. With this adjustment, Yang Bi changes static language into dynamic one and faithfully reproduces the meaning of the original into target language. What’s more, her translation is smooth and full of beauty of literary works. In a word, the translation of this sentence conform to the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. <br /> <br /> ====A Comparative Study on Translation Theory of Nida and Yan Fu====<br /> <br /> =====The Similarities of Them=====<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are very popular in the translation field, which have been used as golden rules in the process of translating. In fact, there are many similarities between them. This paper will research two main similarities of them.<br /> <br /> One similarity of them is that they both pay attention to readers’ response. In Nida’s opinion, one of important ways of evaluating translation works is the target text reader’s response to the information conveyed by the original author. Thus, when evaluating a translation work we should pay attention to target language readers. Meanwhile, we should compare the reaction of original readers with the reaction of target readers to see if they are consistent(Nida&amp;Taber 1969, 22). Yan Fu also attaches great importance to readers.The purpose of his translation is to enlighten the ruling class, who are more proficient in classical Chinese. So Yan Fu advocates using the words and grammar of Han Dynasty. Therefore, Nida and Yan Fu both pay attention to readers.<br /> <br /> The other similarity is that they both emphasize on conveying information. Nida believes that translation is communication. Translation works are useless if they cannot play the role of communicating. Therefore, the relationship between the target language recipient and the translation information should be the same as the relationship between the original language recipient and the original information(Nida 1969,30). But sometimes it is difficult to completely convey information in the original text into the target text. In this case, the translator must change the form of the target language to some extent. Yan Fu also stresses on conveying the original information. He points out that words and phrases can be reversed, added and deleted freely(Guo Dingju 2013,44). We need not care too much about the order of phrases without losing the original meaning.<br /> By comparing the similarities of Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we can find out that they both pay attention to readers and emphasize on conveying information of the original text.<br /> <br /> =====The Differences of Them=====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities of them, they have several differences because of different cultural background, personal consciousness and other factors. Firstly, functional equivalence is more logic and scientific than faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The former is closely related to multiple disciplines, and it is more systematic, while the latter is merely based on literature and aesthetics(Zhang Yimei 2020, 180). Secondly, Nida gives detailed explanation of functional equivalence,which is clear and accurate, while the explanation of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance given by Yan Fu is somewhat ambiguous(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). There are a lot of arguments on the explanation of “elegance”. What’s more, the concrete explanation of “faithfulness” is not clear. Whether the target text should only be “faithful” to the content of the original text or the content and style of the original is not explicit to translators. Thirdly, in guiding sense, Nida’s functional equivalence mentions four aspects, that is, lexical equivalence, syntactical equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence, and he gives six principles on how to achieve functional equivalence(Nida 1964, 67). However, Yan Fu doesn’t mention how to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, so translators can only use them as translation standard. <br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> With the further communication between Western and Chinese culture, it is vital to study literature as it is a bridge to connect different cultures and a good medium to know the colorful world. ''Vanity Fair'' is a literary work that gains a great popularity in the nineteenth century because it satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class(Guo Dingju 2013, 22). However, it is difficult to translate it from English into Chinese because of differences of these two languages. By a coincidence, Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance can be used as a guidance in the process of translating. From comparison above, we know that there are some similarities and differences between them. I believe that these two translation theories play an important role in translating and they can guide us better understand different cultures. At the end of this paper, I will discuss the implements and limitations of this study.<br /> <br /> ====Implements====<br /> <br /> Based on analysis above, we can see that Nida’s functional equivalence and Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are conducive to our translating works and it is feasible to apply them into translation practice. By comparing Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories, we know that there are many similarities and differences between them and we can find out that Nida’s functional equivalence is systematic and scientific, while the explanation of Yan Fu’s faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is not very clear, and the specific ways to achieve faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are not given(Zhang Yimei 2020, 181). What’s more, from the point of modern translation theories, both Nida’s and Yan Fu’s translation theories are very limited. Their theories are suitable in some fields, while in other fields they are not very proper(Guo Ding 2013, 48). All in all, we should learn from other’s strong points to make up one’s deficiencies to make our translation better and apply them into our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Limitations====<br /> <br /> Translation of literary works is a very difficult and demanding thing, which requires a good command of both English and Chinese languages, and an excellent understanding of two cultures. Although the author have spared efforts to do the study, there still exist some limitations. Firstly, the examples of Vanity Fair used in the analysis is very limited, so its generalizability is far from adequate. Secondly, this study is restricted because it only takes one translation version of ''Vanity Fair'' as a case study instead of a comparative study between different translation versions. <br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Toward A Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Charles R. Tabor. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden:Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida and Jan de Waard. ''From One Language to Another''[M]. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1986.<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida. ''Language, Culture and Translating''[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> William. M. Thackeray. ''Vanity Fair''[M].Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> 陈岷婕，浅谈严复的“信达雅”与奈达的“功能对等”[J].外语翻译，2013(236).<br /> <br /> 郭丁菊，功能对等理论与信达雅翻译理论的比较研究[D].哈尔滨：东北农业大学，2013.<br /> <br /> 谭凯，严复“信、达、雅”和奈达“功能对等”理论的比较研究[J].青年作家，2011(1).<br /> <br /> 杨必，《名利场》[M],北京：人民文学出版社,2013.<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao 202070080605==<br /> &lt;center&gt;石海瑶 Shi Haiyao &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== <br /> The structure of a discipline can not only enhance people’s overall understandings to the discipline, but also plays a guiding role in its development. Since the 21st century, the study of translatology in China has entered a new stage of development and the construction of the system of translatology has received extensive attention. In September 2005, A Series of Translation Studies in China was written by Professor Tan Zaixi, which theoretically constructed the internal and external structure of translatology. Later in October 2009, Dr. Yi Jing constructed a relatively macro structure of translatology in his PhD dissertation, On the Construction of the System of Translatology. This paper first gives a brief overview of these two systems of translatology and then makes a comparative analysis of their similarities and differences from multiple perspectives. Finally, the author puts forward its own thoughts on this two systems of translatology.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Tan Zaixi; Yi Jing; systems of translatology; comparative analysis<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''=== <br /> 一个学科的体系构建不仅能够促进人们对学科的全方位了解，还能引领该学科的发展。21世纪以来,我国译学研究进入新的发展时期，译学体系构建广受关注。2005年9月，谭载喜教授著《翻译学》，从理论上构建了翻译学的内部和外部框架。2009年10月，易经博士在其毕业论文《试论翻译学体系的构建》中构建了一个较为宏观的翻译学体系框架。本文首先对这两大翻译学体系进行简要概述，之后从多个角度对二者的相似点和不同之处作出对比分析。最后，作者提出本人对这两大翻译学体系的思考和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谭载喜；易经；翻译体系；对比分析<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> In his book A Series of Translation Studies in China, Tan Zaixi put forward his views on the internal structure of translatology. He deemed that translatology can be divided into three parts: general translatoloty, special translatology and applied translatology. In a more specific sense, translatology should not only include a macroscopic discussion of translation, it should also cover a specialized study of bilingual translation as translation (interlingual translation) is the conversion from one language to another (Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). The former of which has theoretical value and helps people understand the essence of translation; the latter has practical value and contributes to guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> Specifically, the research content of general translatology contains the following four aspects: Firstly, the study of human language, culture and the general rules of translation; Secondly, study the general process of translation and the status of translation in the whole scientific system as well as the relationship between translation and other disciplines; Thirdly, discuss the nature, function and standard of translation as well as the general responsibilities and conditions of translators from a macro perspective; Fourthly, investigate the history of translation from the perspective of synchronic and diachronic translation studies (including not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation). Differing from general translation, the study of special translation includes three aspects: Firstly, study the specific problem of mutual translation between two languages; Secondly, make a comparison between the two languages and cultures; Thirdly, put forward theories that can guide translation between two specific languages. Moreover, applied translatology is directly related to translation practice, which covers two aspects: On the one hand, it studies how to apply theories of general translatology and special translatology to translation practice, translation teaching, translation criticism, compilation of translation reference books and machine translation; On the other hand, it aims to explain the purposes, functions, standards procedures and methods of translation as well as their interrelations on a micro level.<br /> <br /> In fact, the above three parts of translatology are closely linked and inseparable, knowledge of special translatology and applied transltology are the foundation of studying general translatology, in turn, the knowledge of general translatology can also guide the study of special translatology. Thus, we can see both general translatology and special translatology need to conduct further research into applied translatology and obtain feedback information from the practical application of the theories so as to continuously develop and improve the theories. (Tan Zaixi, 2005:21-22)<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Tan Zaixi's system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:Tan Zaixi.jpg]]<br /> <br /> ===='''Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> According to Yi Jing’s thoughts, the system of translatology should include: introduction of translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). These five parts constitute the organic system of translatology. IT helps people to form a relatively basic and comprehensive understandings of the macro system of translatology, it is the foreshadowing and general outline of the system of translatology, taking the concrete question research as the main body. In terms of the TTH, TTI, TTP and MTT, their relationship is complementary, mutual influence and mutual support, which together constitute the organic wholeness of the macro system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The IT can be divided into the following five aspects: Firstly, the foundation of translatology. By reviewing the development of Chinese and foreign translation practice and theory, the necessity of the construction of translatology are explained. Since there is no consensus on the independent status of translatology, this part needs to be included in the IT. If the independent discipline status of translatology is widely recognized in the future, this part can be omitted. Secondly, the value of translation, that is, the role of translation at different levels. Generally speaking, the value of translation involves the individual value, social value, ideological and cultural value, literary value and language value of translation. Thirdly, translation practice as well as the nature, definition and position of translatology. In addition, the object, basic task, purpose, research method and research status of translatology, and the basic structure of translation system are also introduced accordingly. The core research object of translatology is the practice of bilingual conversion. The main task is to explore the development of translation practice and translation theory, and to reveal the historical context of translation development. The purpose of translatology research is to sum up history, study the present, promote the translation research and practical work at present and in the future, and to a certain extent, promote the spiritual and cultural construction of human beings. The basic research method of translatology is based on empirical description and combined with principle. The research status of translatology mainly includes the development of translation practice and translation studies in various periods of history, the schools of translation studies and the representative figures and theories of various schools, the main or popular topics in translatology and the development direction of translation studies. At last, the basic characteristics of translatology. Eg. stability and openness, comprehensive integrity and discipline independence. Generally speaking, the IT is a comprehensive and general description of translatology, and an introduction to the whole system of translatology.<br /> <br /> The TTH mainly focuses on the development of translation practice and translation theory, and also discusses the development of translation history theory itself. There are five important branches of TTH: introduction of TTH, history of translation practice, history of translation theory, thematic history and meta-theory of TTH. The introduction is a general descriptive branch of TTH, which generally describes translation history theory; the study of history of translation practice covers the study of general history and dynastic history; the exploration of the history of translation theory and the collation of the formation of translatology are very necessary for people to understand the development of translation theory and translatology itself, and play an instructive role in today's translation research; the thematic history involves the study of translators, translation works, history of translatology, translation history and culture, translation institution history, translation teaching history and so on; the meta-theory of TTH studies translation history theory itself, that is, the development and research situation of TTH itself.<br /> <br /> The TTI consists of the general theory and the specific theory. The general theory refers to the fundamental viewpoint of translation practice, it is a theoretical branch of studying the fundamental principles of translation practice as well as the understanding of the most universal, general and basic principles of translation practice. The specific theory involves a series of basic problems derived from the general theory, it covers a wide range of aspects, including transltion’s meaning, translation’s standard, methodology, process, style, subject, types and so forth.<br /> <br /> The TTP refers to the applied research of translation theory, which is the concrete application and confirmatory research of translation theory in practical activities. It is mainly divided into three aspects: practical analysis, translation criticism and translation teaching. Practical analysis is to prove the correctness of the existing theory with examples, and to illustrate the applicability of the theory, it can produce three kinds of results, that is, complete application, partial application and complete inadaptability. The main task of translation criticism is to evaluate the translation process and its translated works. The third branch is the teaching of translation, it discusses how to apply the basic knowledge of translation to translation teaching and language teaching, so as to cultivate students' language ability, translation practical ability and translation theory level. <br /> <br /> The MTT is a theory formed by studying the discipline of translatology itself. Its research object is the theoretical system and discipline group of translatology, which should include at least the following eight branches: (1) the regularity, rationality and validity of the description of translation, including terms, concepts, propositions, etc; (2) the research object, function, nature and status of discipline, theoretical structure, logical category, progressive standard and the research method of translatology itself; (3) the way of forming the theory of translatology and the different research paradigms, which reveal the deep-seated structure, internal contradiction and development rule of the translatology hidden from the theory of translation; (4) The principles that should be followed in the construction of the theory of translatology; (5) The role of social and cultural conditions in the emergence and development of translation theories and methods in a certain historical context; (6) The study of the community of translatology, the identification of various academic groups, the analysis of the influence of these groups and their connections on translation theory; (7) Applying basic meta-theory categories to identify and summarize the current situation of translation theory, and to reveal the major theoretical problems in translation studies; (8) Other issues concerning the examination of translatology itself(Yi Jing, 2009:197-287).<br /> <br /> From the above explanation, the diagram of Yi jing’s system of translatology can be drawn as following:<br /> [[File:shihaiyao.jpg]]<br /> <br /> The translation of the above terms are as following:[[File:terms.pdf]]<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Similarities between the Two systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Both deem translatology as an independent discipline'''=====<br /> <br /> In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory , which clearly put forward the idea of establishing translatology. In 1987, the first national seminar on translation theory was held, which unfolded a new era of the construction of translatology in China. Tan Zaixi came up with the slogan of establishing translatology in his paper Translatology must be established, which triggered extraordinary response. Whether translation can become an independent discipline has been heated discussed in translation circles.<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing have a strong consciousness and a clear orientation of discipline towards translatology. Tan Zaixi holds the view that translatology is a science to study translation, which is an essential communicative activity of human beings. It has its own rules, which can be categorized, summarized and described by scientific methods, and can serve the communicative activities of human beings. According to Yi Jing, the formation of the independent discipline status of translatology is the inevitable result of the historical accumulation of translation practice and translation theory as well as an urgent requirement for the development of the whole translation field to modern and contemporary times.<br /> <br /> It is based on the consensus that translatology is an independent discipline that Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward their own views on the construction of the system of translatology. Therefore, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that translation is an independent discipline, which is the first similarity of their system of translatology.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both define bilingual conversion as object of translation'''=====<br /> <br /> In the 1950s, from the perspective of semiotics, Jakobson divided translation into three categories according to different language signs: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to that to explain other verbal symbols using original language symbols in the same language field. Interlingual translation refers to the translation between two different languages, and Intersemiotic translation refers to the translation that to explain verbal symbols by using non-verbal symbols.<br /> <br /> For this theory, Tan Zaixi pointed out in his translation system that translation (specifically refers to intralingual translation) is a plural and theoretical perspective of switching from one language to another(Tan Zaixi, 2005:19). It indicates that Tan Zaixi's views on object of translation practice is bilingual conversion. Yi Jing also suggested that the specific research object of translatology is bilingual conversion and some phenomena related to bilingualism(Yi Jing, 2009:132).<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is obvious that the two systems insist that the object of translatology is bilingual conversion.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Both identify comprehensive faithfulness as standard of translation'''=====<br /> The discussion about standards of translation has always been a hot spot in the translation circles, which is the core problem and key task of translation theory. Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing reach an agreement that the standard of translation should be based on sufficient translation practice. Tan Zaixi proposed that the general standard of translation is that &quot;all translations must be faithful to the original text&quot;. Taking this abstract standard as the premise, a series of specific standards can be produced, such as &quot;faithful to the original content &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original form &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original effect &quot;, &quot; faithful to the original function&quot; and so on, which serve different purposes(Tan Zaixi, 2005:38). And Yi Jing believed that &quot;comprehensive faithfulness to content, form and style&quot; is the highest standard of translation and the most ideal condition of translation(Yi Jing, 2009:239).<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, both Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing agree that the standard of translation is comprehensive faithfulness. To elaborate it, they also list different aspects of faithfulness, which can be adjusted to specific requirements according to different text types, whereas there is consensus on the core idea of faithfulness.<br /> Next, I will explore the differences between the two translation systems.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''The differences between the Two Translation Systems'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Different structures of translation system'''=====<br /> <br /> From the above diagram of Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing’s system of translatology, we can know that Tan Zaixi’s system of transltology merely includes three parts, that is general translatology, special translatology and applied translatology. The research contents of each part are not clearly distinguished and classified, especially the definition of general translation and special translation is vague, which should be further discussed. In contrast to the system of Yi Jing, he divided it into five parts, that is introduction of the translatology (IT), theory of translation’s history (TTH), theory of translation itself (TTI), theory of translation practice (TTP) and meta-theory of translatology (MTT). For these five parts, Yi Jing clearly illustrated the branches of each part, and its division is rigorous, each branch forms a logical and well-connected system, leaving people a refreshing impression. Moreover, this system exploratory and open, Yi Jing suggested that he holds a welcoming attitude to other systems of translatology, and it can not be assumed arbitrarily that the system is more comprehensive and profound than others.<br /> <br /> Thus, we get to know that Tan Zaixi’s system of translatology is more general and rough, while Yi Jing’s is more systematic and inclusive.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on the study of translation history'''=====<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing put forward different views on the study of translation history. In Tan Zaixi's translation system, the general translation refers to the history of translation, that is, to study the history of translation from the perspective of diachronic and synchronic translatology, which includes not only the national and regional history of translation, but also the world history of translation(Tan Zaixi, 2005:21). While in Yi Jing’s system of translatology, one of the five branches of TTH mentioned: the study of translation history can be multi-angle and multilevel. From the time span of the study, translation can either be general or dynastic; it can study the translation history of translators and different text genres, or discipline translation history, such as literary translation history, scientific translation history and religious translation history(Yi Jing, 2009:211).<br /> <br /> we can know that Tan Zaixi's study of translation history is more macroscopic, which based on different countries, different regions and different historical periods, while the study of translation history of Yi Jing is more specific and detailed, taking translators and various literary genres into account, in addition, he proposed that vertical comparison and horizontal comparison can be used in these factors, reaching almost every aspect of the issue.<br /> <br /> ====='''Different views on translation process'''=====<br /> <br /> For the process of translation, Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing presented their views. Tan divided the process of translation into two types, namely, psychological process and practical operation process. Psychological process is the embodiment of human brain receiving and transforming information, but Tan did not put forward specific steps for practical operation process, which is still open to question. In Yi Jing’s system of translatology, the translation process theory is mentioned in the second branch of the TTI. Yi Jing thought that the translation process can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. The process of translation in a broad sense includes the selection of the original text, the preparation before translation, the specific translation process, the refinement of the translation and the process of testing and evaluating the translation; the narrow sense refers to the process from reading and understanding the original text to finalizing the translation(Yi Jing, 2009:253).<br /> <br /> From the above descriptions, we can see that they define the translation process from different angles. Tan Zaixi divides the translation process into two aspects: psychology and practical operation, while the study of translation process proposed by Yi Jing is more multi-angle, and its broad translation process is not only confined to the process itself, but more comprehensive. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''My Thoughts on the Two Systems'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Tan Zaixi’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> First of all, Tan Zaixi's construction of translation system has laid solid foundation on some basic pioneering works of translatology. The establishment of basic concepts and categories is the basic work of discipline construction. Before the publication of A Series of Translation Studies in China, the art theory and science theory of translation and whether translation can become a science were the focus of scholars in the translation circles, but the polysemous word &quot;translatology&quot; is not defined. Thus, two different concepts were confused, that is translation and translatology, they discusses two different levels of problems, and emphasizes on personal reasons in a one-side way, resulting in two incompatible theories of translatology between art school and science school. In this book, Tan Zaixi clearly defined the concept of translation and translatology, clarified some vague understandings, and promoted the development of translatology.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi's translation system has a strong sense and a clear orientation of discipline. The significance of the definition that &quot;translatology is an independent discipline&quot; is not merely its theoretical value, but it involves many important issues about the theoretical development and how to construct the discipline. With a clear sense of independent discipline, Tan Zaixi discussed some constructive and guiding problems such as the research object and field of translatology, the discipline framework of translatology, and the research approach. His unique translation system is a valuable exploration and attempt in Chinese translation circles.<br /> <br /> Moreover, in Mr. Tan's view, translatology is not merely a discipline with Chinese characteristics. Because it involves different languages and cultures, Translatology should be constructed from four dimensions: past and present, at home and abroad. In this regard, he believes that a comparative study of Chinese and Western translation theories should be carried out with the open mind of &quot;harmony in diversity&quot;, which is undoubtedly of great value. Construction of translatology needs to integrate Chinese and Western theoretical resources as well as learn widely from other’s strong points. Based on this, Tan Zaixi's construction of translatology fully reflects his broad mind.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> As is known to us, Tan Zaixi has made great contribution on the construction of the system of translatology, but there is no perfect system in the world. Here, I list two points remain to be discussed.<br /> <br /> Firstly, the definition of general translation and special translation is not clear enough. In the actual translation process and translation research, general and special are contradictory and unified. Tan Zaixi's view on special translation includes the study of the specific translation of two languages, and the general principles of translatology needs to find out the common law by studying the translation of different languages. Therefore, the general rules of translatology must also be included in the research object of special translation, but this does not appear in its translation system, so its integrity is still open to question.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Tan Zaixi discusses the construction of the system of translatology in A Series of Translation Studies in China, but the branches of its translation system are not fully explained in this book, such as the responsibilities of translators in general translation and for the contents of applied translation, it has only put forward the idea, but has not made the detailed explanation. In addition, the structure of the book is not organized according to its translation system, this is indeed a great pity.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My Perspective towards Tan’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> The great influence and contribution of Tan’s translation system on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not universal. According to the advantages and disadvantages of this system, we should treat in a dialectical way. Tan’s translation system has made foundation on the establishment of translatology and played a pioneering role in the development of translatology, but some deficiencies are avoidless. Therefore, we should treat Tan Zaimxi’s translation system in a comprehensive view. On the whole, Tan’s translation system can be regarded as a great progress and precious treasure in translation circles.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===='''My Thoughts on Yi Jing’s Translation System'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''Contributions of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> First of all, the construction of the system of translatology proposed by Yi Jing based on a large number of theoretical research and historical data analysis. Yi Jing collated many kinds of materials in the field of translation, analyzed the views of many scholars and came to his own understandings, so that the system of translatology is coherent and smooth in writing. He selectively analyzed the views expressed by important scholars at home and abroad in the construction of translatology and made a comprehensive comparison of the proposed translation system model. Drawing on the essence of others' thoughts, he put forward his unique system of translatology, and strove to deepen the research on the construction of the system of translatology.<br /> In addition, the framework of Yi’s translation system is clear and rational. He comprehensively introduced the Chinese and foreign translation theory research, each part is closely related, making the reader know at a glance. Yi Jing abandoned the conceptual knowledge infusion and rigid theoretical instruction, and focused more attention on tracing back to the source. He regarded the role of Chinese and foreign translation in the development process in a dialectical way with an open mind. At the same time, the dynamical development of translation system is manifested in the construction of complex translation system. He explained deeply that the establishment of translatology is the necessity of social development and the inevitable result of the academic development, all of these have played a positive role in guiding readers to view the current Chinese translation system from a correct perspective.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''Deficiencies of Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> However, nothing is perfect, Yi Jing’s translation system is no exception without doubt.<br /> <br /> Firstly, in the construction of the system of translatology, there are some viewpoints need to be further analyzed. The construction of translation system is a grand subject, which can not be completely completed in such a PhD dissertation, thus it leads to not comprehensive enough. For example, Yi Jing put forward the theory of translation history and clarified its new structure, but the analysis is not detailed enough, and it mainly focused on describing the research methods of translation history and attention points during the process.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the traditional translation history research is divided into two branches: the history of translation practice and the history of translation theory. The author thinks that the division is too simple in terms of the importance and reality requires of the theory of translation’s history. Therefore, apart from the above two branches, the theory of translation’s history should cover another three branches: introduction of TTH, thematic history and meta-theory. In this section, the author focuses on the disadvantages of the traditional division. But he doesn't make a thorough analysis of his new division. What is the necessity of such a division of the theory of translation history? what are the advantages of such a division? Can this division completely avoid the flaws of the traditional division? Actually, the author did not give a strong illustration of these substantive problems, nor did he explain them in detail, which directly leads to a sense of relative superficiality.<br /> <br /> <br /> ====='''My perspective towards Yi’s Translation System'''=====<br /> <br /> Although there are more or less shortcomings in the analysis of viewpoint argumentation, this dissertation provides a new perspective and path for the discipline of translatology, and to some extent, makes up for the deficiency of the traditional construction of translation system. According to Yi Jing’s summary and organization of a variety of materials in the field of translation at home and abroad, he is not only reproduce the history of translation but make history. Generally speaking, the author believes that the contribution of Yi Jing’s translation system to the development of translatology is far greater than its deficiencies. <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> This paper first gives a brief introduction of the two translation systems, based on it, drawing corresponding diagrams for the two translation systems, and then compares the similarities and differences between the two systems in detail. At last, the author puts forward her own thoughts on this two translation systems in a dialectical way. Through the above comparison, we can find that both Tan Zaixi’s translation system and Yi Jing’s translation system have their own advantages and disadvantages, but their virtues far outweigh faults and differences are greater than similarities. Both of them have made great contributions to the construction of translation system with their own unique strengths.<br /> <br /> ==='''Refrences'''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈福康.中国译学理论史稿[M].上海:上海外国语大学出版社,2000.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.当今世界翻译研究的格局—兼论21世纪中国翻译研究的崛起 [J]. 外语教学理论与实践，2016（3）：55-63.<br /> <br /> [3]蓝红军. &quot;从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017).&quot; 中国翻译 39.1 (2018): 7-16.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.必须建立翻译学[J].中国翻译,1987b3: 2-7.<br /> <br /> [5]谭载喜.翻译学[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社,2005.<br /> <br /> [6]许钧,穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京:译林出版社,2009.<br /> <br /> [7]易经.试论翻译学体系的构建[D].湖南师范大学,2009.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===性别视角下张爱玲自译与他译对比研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, and looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The gender identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A case study of the English translation of ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translator' s female identity used to show the emotional resonance to female characters====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The translator' s male identity used to show the passive position of women====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The translator reveals the reality objectively under the disguise of gender identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. Eileen Chang' s gender identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'' as an example===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work' s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The translator' s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. ''The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories''[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. 金锁记[M] [''The Gold Cangue'']. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M].[''The Old Man and the Sea''] 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 罗新璋，陈应年. 翻译论集[C].[''Translation Theory Collection''] 北京: 商务印书馆, 2009.<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J].[Translator’s Gender Identity Mobility: a New Perspective on Feminist Translation Studies] 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].[Oriental Feminism in Eileen Chang' s Translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'']大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J].[Gender Awareness and Literary Translation: A Case Study of Eileen Chang' s Translation] 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M].[''Diaspora Translator Eileen Chang’s Chinese-English Translation——A Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation''] 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J].[On the Influence of Context Culture on the Translation of English and American Literature] 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two English Versions of Bian Cheng from the Perspective of Translation Ethics 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Translation is a kind of cultural communication. As long as trans-cultural contacts between different nations and countries occur, problems in ethics would inevitably arise. The nature of translation determines that translation and its researches need the study of ethics as their guidance. The Chinese outstanding contemporary literary works Frontier City has been translated into many different languages, which now enjoys a high reputation among the world. Many researchers have studied its English version from different translation theoretic perspective. This thesis intends to compare two English version of Bian Cheng translated by Gladys Yang and Jeffrey C. Kinkley respectively within the frame work of Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics, and examine the presentation of translation ethics in these two version.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Translation ethics, Bian Cheng, Chesterman<br /> <br /> ===翻译伦理视域下《边城》两英译本的比较研究===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 翻译是一项跨文化交流活动。只要不同国家，民族间发生的跨文化行为就不可避免地产生伦理问题。翻译的本质属性决定了翻译活动和翻译研究需要伦理学的指导。《边城》作为我国当代的优秀文学作品曾被翻译成多国文字，在世界文坛上饱享盛誉，很多学者从不同的翻译理论角度对此英译本做过分析研究，本文拟从翻译伦理角度，以切斯特曼的五大翻译伦理模式为理论框架，对《边城》的两个英译本——金介甫和戴乃迭的译本进行比较评析，探讨翻译伦理在两译本中的体现。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译伦理；边城；切斯特曼<br /> <br /> ===1. Research background===<br /> <br /> Since the late 1970s when the study of translation was proposed to be established as a discipline, it has been developing significantly, going far beyond traditional translation studies. Ideas about translation have sprung up like mushrooms. From the popularity of functionalism to the emergence of poly-system theory and norm theory in the 1970s and 1980s, scholarship on translation had converted from traditional study focusing mainly on textual matters, more often than not within a linguistic or a literary framework to the study of cultural, commercial, social, historical and political factors related to the texts. Thus, it largely broadened scholars' horizon and enriched the research scope to make translation as a reformulated subject of lively, interdisciplinary debate, paving way to the ''cultural turn&quot;. With the acceleration of globalization redefining national and cultural boundaries, the ''cultural turn&quot; in translation studies in the 1990s further introduced many newer theoretical perspectives. Cultural, national, postcolonial, ideological and gender studies, etc. began hitting the field. Translation was never purely regarded as the process of the transfer between languages but also the transfer between cultures. Regarding translation as an intercultural activity now, the translator as a &quot;cultural mediator&quot; has to handle the relations between Self and the Other to coordinate diversified cultural relationships and resolve cultural conflict to promote understanding and communication among nations. Since ethics as a discipline focuses on moral principles guiding human behavior in social relations, translation as a particular kind of activity involving a series of relations can naturally fall into the field of the study of ethics.<br /> <br /> It was under such circumstances that the ethics of translation entered the field of the translation study, and became a hot topic in the late 1990s. Just as Pym (2001: 129-138) claims in his article: &quot;ethics has become a cross-cultural concern as it has in translation studies. Consequently, the study of translation ethics has been appealing to some scholars and should be given much more emphasis by the whole translation circle.&quot; It's now widely accepted that translation study has returned to the questions of ethics.<br /> <br /> ===2. Literature review===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Studies on Translation Ethics aboard====<br /> <br /> After the cultural turn in 1970s, a trend of investigating translation studies from the perspective of ethics begins in translation theorists. The development of translation ethics and the major influential scholars’ viewpoints are clarified in the following section. <br /> It was in the 1980s that the ethics-oriented approaches began emerging in translation studies abroad. Antoine Berman, a French translator and philosopher, is considered the initiator of the study of translation ethics. Early in 1984, Berman first put forward the concept of '&quot;translation ethics&quot; in an international seminar on philosophy based on the fierce critics of the western translation tradition of only focusing on &quot;transmitting sense&quot; and advocated that translation ethics should be regarded as one branch of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Influenced and enlightened by Berman, Lawrence Venuti, a translation theorist of American deconstructionist, also expresses his concerns on translation ethics by advocating &quot;an ethics of difference&quot;. He invents the two words &quot;domestication” and “resistancy&quot; to define the different ethical attitudes and practice of translators. Venuti pays more attention to the social and political factors in translation by advocating the translation strategy of foreignization to resist the cultural hegemony in contemporary Anglo-American culture. Therefore, his thoughts about translation ethics with a basic character of &quot;resistancy&quot; seem more realistic and profound.<br /> <br /> As the initiator of &quot;the return to ethics&quot; in The Translator in 2001, the French translation theorist Anthony Pym has also made great contributions to the study of translation ethics. Unlike Venuti, who is greatly influenced by Berman, he is not totally in favor of Berman’s theory of translation ethics, which he regards as too rigid, pedantic and abstract, for he thinks the debate about “how to translate&quot; over the centuries is always confined to the dichotomy of domestication and foreignization, with Berman's no exception. Pym’s basic idea is that translators should be more loyal to their profession than to the source and target organ. The reason lies in that the whole accountability of professional translators is grounded in the profession itself. Translators check each other’s work, drawing on past translations for guidance. They derive their norms from the existing professional context. Just as international scientific community, translators are a community that survives via its own system of checks and balances (ibid). For Pym, the true loyalty is neither to the source culture nor to the target culture, but to the others inhabiting this space, that is, to other intercultural mediators, to the translating profession as a whole (Chesterman, 1997a). Like Pym’s words, “Translators’ prime loyalty must be to their profession as an intercultural space” (Pym, 1992). <br /> <br /> In 1990s, Chesterman, an influential Finish scholar, makes a great contribution to the completeness of translation ethics. He puts forward a quite different view on translation ethics, focusing on the values instead of rights and obligations of the translators. Chesterman (1997a) considers values to be the primary notion. In his opinion, there are four values — truth, trust, clarity and understanding, all of which form a fairly comprehensive notion of translation ethics. Later in 2001, Chesterman went on to propose a Hieronymic Oath for translators and interpreters worldwide by publishing a paper &quot;Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath” in a special issue of the journal The Translator, entitled &quot;the return to Ethics”，edited by Pym, in which 16 scholars presented their own thoughts on translation ethics. In his paper, he firstly put forward four models of translation ethics: the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication and the norm-based ethics. Another model named ethics of commitment was added later so as to essentially regularize the translator's ethical behavior. His proposal of five models of translation ethics has caused a big stir in the academic field, which is considered objective, descriptive and systematic. This classification provides us with a multi-dimensional method of assessing translation practice, for it has assimilated many research results from existing translation theories such as functionalist, norm theory, etc.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Studies on Translation Ethics at home====<br /> With the development of the studies on translation ethics in the west, some of Chinese translation scholars have also begun to turn their attention to this issue on translation studies. Professor Lu Jun is the first person to propose &quot;translation ethics&quot; based on the theories of Jurgen Harbermas, communicative ethics in his book Span Cultural Barriers — Reconstruction of the Tower of Babel written in 2001. In this book, He regards translation activity as &quot;a kind of dialogue and communication between different cultures that requires people to conform to some principles and norms for such intercultural communications will involve more complicated issues..., to be more specific, translation activity itself needs the guidance of ethics&quot;. <br /> Generally speaking, from Professor Lu Jun's view, the theoretical principle of translation ethics is to pursue equality and justice, to oppose linguistic and cultural hegemony and to seek mutual respect and benefits in different cultures. His research on translation ethics has widened the scopes of translation ethics and has contributed a lot to the study of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> With more and more foreign theories of translation ethics translated and introduced in China, some of the researchers begin to apply these research achievements into translation practice. Professor Sun Zhili (2007: 14-18) creatively identifies five responsibilities for the translator to take based on Chesterman5s five models of translation ethics in combination with a consideration of Chinese translation context, namely, the responsibility of representing the original, of fulfilling one's client's requirements, of conforming to the socio-cultural norms of the receiving country, of satisfying the demands of the TL reader, and finally of abiding by one's professional ethics and becomes the first person to interprets the translator's responsibilities from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Professor Xu Jun makes a tentative discussion of the ethical problems in translation in his article &quot;essay on three levels of translation activities” in 1998. In his opinion, every responsible translator should seriously consider and treat questions presented by &quot;willingness&quot;, “reality&quot;, and &quot;morality&quot;, he proposes that &quot;the establishment of translation standards and the adoption of translation strategies are bound by moral ties...if given careful observation, activities from the choosing of the texts to be translated, the adopting of the translation strategies to the rewriting and editing of the translated texts are all constrained and influenced by various ethical problems... Therefore, translators should consider from both the aesthetic level and the moral level”.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. the Translation of Bian Cheng====<br /> The thesis adopts the classic modern novel Frontier City owing to its distinguished language and unique style of writing. Set in the border town Chatong and the nearby rural areas in West Human of 30's, Bian Cheng tells a tragic love story between the beautiful young girl Cuicui and the young man Nuosong. It is the representative work of Shen Congwen who has a high reputation in the Chinese literature circle. He is regarded as “one of the half-dozen great authors of modern Chinese literature” (Kinkley, 1987). He has even been nominated for the “Nobel Literature Prize” in 1987. Therefore, this novel is worth appreciating and analyzing. <br /> <br /> There are four English version of Biancheng. As early as 1936, the English magazine issued in China with the aim of promoting the exchange between the Chinese and western cultures named T'ien Hsia Monthly began to serialize the English version of Bianchen titled Green Jade and Green Jade translated by Xing Molei( the pen name of Shao Xunmei) and his girl friend Emily Hahn. It was not until another English version titled The Frontier City contained in The Chinese Earth: Stories By Shen Tsung-wen translated by Ching Ti &amp; Robert Payne and published by George Allen &amp; Unwin Ltd. in 1936 came into being that Biancheng became very popular in the western countries and also evoked much interest in the author himself. And this version was reprinted by Columbia University Press in 1982. In the 1980's, Yang Xianxi, the top-rank translator and Forerunner, inspired by the success of Penguin Books in the UK, called for the publishing of a series of books called “Panda Books” to introduce Chinese representative literary works to the world. This series of books included The Border Town and Other Stories translated by Yang Xianyi's wife Gladys Yang, The fourth version was translated by American Sinologist and translator Jeffrey Kinkley, which was published in 2009 by HarperCollins Publishers. These four English translations span 73 years and have witnessed the history of the English translation of modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> Based on the previous studies, this thesis will choose these two English versions of Biancheng translated by Jeffrey Kinkley and Gladys Yang, and make a comparative study of them from the perspective of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> ===3.Chesterman’s Five Models of Translation Ethics===<br /> <br /> Chesterman’s five models of translation ethics are the ethics of representation, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, the norm-based ethics and ethics of commitment.<br /> <br /> Ethics of representation is closely concerned with faithfulness, which has been discussed for years in the translation circle. This model requires that translators should reproduce with full loyalty to the original text, the original author, the original language, and the original culture. In Chesterman’s words, “the ethical imperative is to represent the source text, or the source author’s intention, accurately, without adding, omitting or changing anything”. Ethics of representation means that the translation can substitute or represent the source text. <br /> <br /> The ethics of service requires the translator to &quot;act ethically if his translation complies with the instructions set by the client and fulfills the purpose of the translation as set by the client and accepted or negotiated by the translator”, and the translator should be “loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”.<br /> <br /> The ethics of communication sees translation as &quot;an interlingual and cross-cultural communication, the emphasis of which is not on representing the Other but on communicating with Others in the cross-cultural communication&quot; and asks the translator to be &quot;a mediator working to achieve cross-cultural understanding”. <br /> <br /> Norm-based Ethics is the fourth model of translation ethics Chesterman proposes, which belongs to the branch of “descriptive translation studies”. Toury (1995) gives a definition of norm like “the general values of ideas shared by a community as to what is right or wrong, adequate or inadequate into performance instruction appropriate for and applicable to particular situations”. That is to say, norms are what the majority expects what translation should be like. Translators should not challenge the current norms in translation circle.<br /> <br /> The ethics of commitment is further raised by Chesterman, which rests on a practical evaluation of translation activity: &quot;I take commitment to be the glue that binds practitioners to the value of the practice. It is thus also a virtue, supporting the striving for excellence, the wanting to be a good translator&quot;. He proposes nine points for the comprehension of the professional ethics of translators: commitment, loyalty to the profession, understanding, truth, clarity, trustworthiness, truthfulness, justice, striving for excellence.<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparison of the Two English Versions of Biancheng===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 the version of Gladys Yang====<br /> <br /> One of the most distinctive features of Biancheng lies in its unity of objective scene and subjective emotion to successfully create the beauty of aesthetic prospect. Gladys Yang has done much jobs in representing the aesthetic prospect and makes her version as impressive as the original to make the target readers able to better enjoy the aesthetic beauty below the superficial scenery, mostly because of her full understanding of the aesthetic style of the original and of high translation proficiency. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> [Example 1]<br /> <br /> [ST1]由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这条官路将近湘西边境到了一个名为“茶崛” 的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只有一个老人，一个女孩，一只黄狗。(沈从文)<br /> <br /> [TT-1] The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chatong, a small town in the hills. Near by a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl and a dog. (Gladys)<br /> <br /> This is the beginning paragraph of Biancheng. Without any decorative words and ostentatious expressions, the author uses three short and succinct sentences with fewer verbs to depict a static landscape painting through the juxtaposition of eight images—“官. 路”,“小山城”，“小溪”，“白色小塔七“单独的人家”,“老人”,“女孩子” and&quot;黄狗”, making us associated with harmony, peace and tranquility as well as loneliness with the repetition of the Chinese character “一”. In Gladys Yang's version, she pays full attention to the simple writing style and the esthetics connotation embodied in the use of the character &quot;一&quot; in the original. Besides using three simple sentences, almost the same in the length, with no more than three verbs and seven &quot;a (an) and one &quot;the” to fully represent the eight images to retain the aesthetic prospect of peacefulness and loneliness, She also translates “单独”(的人家)into a “solitary&quot; household, the meaning of which contains the two connotations of &quot;alone” and lonely”，which further deepens the beauty of solemn, quiet and loneliness embodied in the original. <br /> <br /> For Gladys Yang, her English version of Bian Cheng is included in a series of books called &quot;Panda Books&quot; firstly published in Chinese literature, which was initiated by the Chinese government in the 1980s in order to introduce Chinese literature, cultural legacy and China to the world. With the initiator's aim of spreading Chinese culture to the west, the translator needs faithfully transmit the linguistic and cultural information of the original. Also, with China's adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up to the outside at that time, communications between countries have become more and more popular ever since then, and more and more foreigners began to take interest in Chinese culture and were willing to enjoy and accept Chinese culture. What’s more, the advocacy of foreignization translation strategies has increasingly gained popularity in the western translation world ever since 1980's. The dominating English literary system began to take on a new stance and showed more tolerance for foreign cultures. With all these factors taken into consideration, plus her own long-term will to introduce Chinese culture to the world out of her love for it, we may understand why when the conflict appears, she chooses to put the ethics of representation in the first place. That is to say, she is guided by the ethics of service of being &quot;loyal above all to the client, but also to the target readers and to the original writer”. What’s more, the ethics of communication lays emphasis on communicating with others rather than representing the Other, so when such conflict emerges, that is, the total representing of the Other causes confusion or banier and frustration for target readers to read, Gladys Yang would consider the importance of cross-cultural communication and adopt flexible translation strategies guided by the ethics of communication to decrease linguistic and cultural barriers to achieve mutual understanding based on the sacrifice of total representation of the original.<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=110376 2020-12-12T03:23:26Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* 1. Introduction */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12)<br /> <br /> At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. The mode of thinking is closely related to the worldview. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. Conversely, a person’s established mode of thinking conditions and even determines his/ her formation of judgement and pattern of behavior in a certain situation.<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The gender identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A case study of the English translation of ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translator' s female identity used to show the emotional resonance to female characters====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The translator' s male identity used to show the passive position of women====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The translator reveals the reality objectively under the disguise of gender identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. Eileen Chang' s gender identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'' as an example===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work' s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The translator' s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. 金锁记[M]. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M]. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> Key words<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=110375 2020-12-12T03:22:49Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12)<br /> <br /> At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. The mode of thinking is closely related to the worldview. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. Conversely, a person’s established mode of thinking conditions and even determines his/ her formation of judgement and pattern of behavior in a certain situation.<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:33, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===2. Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===3. The gender identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A case study of the English translation of ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.1 Translator' s female identity used to show the emotional resonance to female characters====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The translator' s male identity used to show the passive position of women====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3.3 The translator reveals the reality objectively under the disguise of gender identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===4. Eileen Chang' s gender identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'' as an example===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work' s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====4.3 The translator' s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> <br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> <br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===5. Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====5.1 The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====5.2 The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang 张爱玲. 金锁记[M]. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M]. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> Ma Yue, Mu Lei 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> Mao Pingping 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> Wang Jing 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> Wang Xiaoying 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> Xi Peihua 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> Key words<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=110356 2020-12-12T02:36:49Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12)<br /> <br /> At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. The mode of thinking is closely related to the worldview. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. Conversely, a person’s established mode of thinking conditions and even determines his/ her formation of judgement and pattern of behavior in a certain situation.<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:33, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===The gender identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A case study of the English translation of ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====Translator’ s female identity used to show the emotional resonance to female characters====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====The translator'ss male identity used to show the passive position of women====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====The translator reveals the reality objectively under the disguise of gender identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===Eileen Chang' s gender identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'' as an example===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work' s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====The translator' s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M]. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> 张爱玲. 金锁记[M]. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> Key words<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=110305 2020-12-11T15:17:57Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12)<br /> <br /> At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. The mode of thinking is closely related to the worldview. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. Conversely, a person’s established mode of thinking conditions and even determines his/ her formation of judgement and pattern of behavior in a certain situation.<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. 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A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:33, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===The gender identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A case study of the English translation of ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====Translator’ s female identity used to show the emotional resonance to female characters====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====The translator'ss male identity used to show the passive position of women====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====The translator reveals the reality objectively under the disguise of gender identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===Eileen Chang' s gender identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'' as an example===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work' s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====The translator' s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M]. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> 张爱玲. 金锁记[M]. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> Key words<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=110304 2020-12-11T15:15:59Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12)<br /> <br /> At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. The mode of thinking is closely related to the worldview. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. Conversely, a person’s established mode of thinking conditions and even determines his/ her formation of judgement and pattern of behavior in a certain situation.<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:33, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===The gender identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A case study of the English translation of ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====Translator’ s female identity used to show the emotional resonance to female characters====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====The translator'ss male identity used to show the passive position of women====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====The translator reveals the reality objectively under the disguise of gender identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===Eileen Chang' s gender identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'' as an example===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work' s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====The translator' s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M]. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> 张爱玲. 金锁记[M]. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> Key words<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=110303 2020-12-11T15:14:32Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12)<br /> <br /> At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. The mode of thinking is closely related to the worldview. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. Conversely, a person’s established mode of thinking conditions and even determines his/ her formation of judgement and pattern of behavior in a certain situation.<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian&lt;center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation. Numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ The person who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'' (''The Golden Cangue'') and conventional translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:33, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “...Another interesting area of investigation would be the way gender identities have been disguised through translation” (Sherry 2005:159), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This chapter, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===The gender identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A case study of the English translation of ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, ''Jinsuo Ji'' was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature”(Hsia 1999: 398) by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”(Xun 1994: 121). In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It takes her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate ''Jinsuo Ji'', including four different versions: ''Pink Tears'', ''The Rouge of The North'', ''Yuan Nv'' and ''The Golden Cangue''. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions do not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into ''Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories''.<br /> <br /> Finished in 1943，''Jinsuo Ji'' mainly depicts how Ch’ i-ch’ iao, an ordinary girl from a vendor’ s family, gradually changes her mental state because of the oppression of the feudal family. Being forced to marry a crippled person, she depresses her love towards Chiang Chi-tse, her brother-in-law, and idles thirty years in Chiang family like insanity. Under such circumstance, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s personality is finally distorted under her desperate desire for sex and money. On one hand, she destroys her son’ s marriage and tortures her daughter-in-law to death. On the other hand, her daughter's marriage is put an end to by her.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of these women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====Translator’ s female identity used to show the emotional resonance to female characters====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang makes three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully reveal Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, it can be seen that Ch' i-ch' iao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Chiang Chi-tse, the affection with Ch' i-ch' iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarifies Ch' i-ch' iao' s emotion in the translation and reveals Chiang Chi-tse' s so-called emotion in the later text, which can show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====The translator'ss male identity used to show the passive position of women====<br /> <br /> In ''Jinsuo Ji'', the author uses a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tries her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou' s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch' i-ch’ iao' s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch' ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang uses the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expresses herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch' ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch' i-ch' iao' s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal family of China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====The translator reveals the reality objectively under the disguise of gender identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only uses the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately conceals her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families. In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang does not make too many adjustments, but only abstracts the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings. Firstly, the survivors are indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” can convey the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang' s eyes, both men and women are struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she uses the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===Eileen Chang' s gender identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'' as an example===<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Invited by the press office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including ''The Old Man and the Sea''.<br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' is a masterpiece after Hemingway' s being silent for ten years. And once the work was published, it attracted wide attention from all walks of life. During that period, even priests and preachers began to quote Hemingway’ s philosophical and thought-provoking quotes in ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Hemingway once said, “I only know that this is the best work I can write in my whole life, compared with other excellent and mature works.” This book is translated into dozens of languages and published all over the world, with high praise from critics and readers. The first person in China who gets this great work into well translated is Eileen Chang. <br /> <br /> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' tells the story of a special fishing experience of an old fisherman named Santiago. After eighty-four days without getting a fish, he was lucky enough to catch a huge marlin. However the marlin dragged the old man and the boat along for two days and nights. In these two days and nights the old man had gone through the most difficult trials he had ever gone through. With strong will, he finally killed the big marlin and tied it to the bow. However, unfortunately, a group of big sharks came after smelling the smell of blood and the old man fought with them to the death. At last, the old man’ s life was saved, but the sharks had eaten up the great marlin, and what the old man dragged back was a bare skeleton.<br /> <br /> When it comes to ''The Old Man and the Sea'', in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expresses her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang is more faithful to the original, and only presents her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expresses her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translates the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work' s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, the latter way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang mainly adopts the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(by Hai Guan) <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(by WuLao) <br /> 活总是要干的。(by Eileen Chang) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translate “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoids using such words in translation. Here she translates the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omits the subject with gender description, and in fact blurs the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====The translator' s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang has also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（by Eileen Chang）<br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（by Hai Guan）<br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（by Wu Lao）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translate “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translates “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai' s and Wu' s translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (''Jinsuo Ji'') or in the text expressing the male discourse power (''The Old Man and the Sea''). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator' s gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divides context into cultural context and situational context. Here I mainly expound the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works ''Jinsuo Ji'' and ''The Old Man and the Sea''. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of ''Jinsuo ji'' is different from that of ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity. For example, Eileen Chang' s work ''Jinsuo Ji'' reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women' s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is taken into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch' ang-an got her share of property from Ch' ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won' t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context. Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang' s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang' s adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of ''Jinsuo Ji'', Eileen Chang translates from the perspective either of her own or the gender identity or of the opposite sex, the ultimate purpose is to express the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', Eileen Chang expresses her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman shows astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.” Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion:===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang' s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this chapter provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator' s gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang' s translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M]. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> 张爱玲. 金锁记[M]. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> Key words<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Because of the cultural differences between China and western countries, interpreters are required to do both the surface interpretation of the language itself and the deep interpretation of the meaning conveyed in that culture. During the process of interpretation, dealing with cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences inappropriately can cause misunderstanding, resulting in communicative suspension. This paper, while analyzing the cultural obstacles caused by the cultural differences, expounds on the specific coping translation strategies that an interpreter should take in dealing with cultural differences in the process of interpretation.<br /> <br /> Key Words:interpretation, cultural differences, coping stratcgics<br /> <br /> 摘要:<br /> 由于中西文化存在很大的差异,对于口译员来说，除了掌握译出语语言表层次的信息外，更要掌握译出语语言深层次的文化内涵。在口译过程中，若不恰当处理由文化差异引起的文化障碍问题，就会产生误解，导致交际中止。本文分析了口译中因文化差异而引起的文化障碍问题，并着重指出了口译中应对文化差异现象的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> 关键词:口译，文化差异，应对策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> The wave of globalization sweeping the world has provided vehicles, tools and channels for cultural exchange and dissemination among countries. At the same time, globalization has brought out the holistic quality of cultural spirit, prompting people to pay attention to the overall examination of problems, recognize certain commonalities of human cultures, and generate new cultural concepts such as &quot;global consciousness&quot; and &quot;global values&quot;. However, due to the different geographical locations, social environments, religious beliefs, ways of thinking and living habits of different ethnic groups, different regions have a variety of cultural characteristics, and therefore there are huge cultural differences, and cultural conflicts will become more complex.（简芳，张健 2012） Therefore, no matter from which perspective, interpreters play the role of bridge and link. Therefore, when interpreting, interpreters should fully consider the cultural differences between China and the West, seek the common ground of cross-cultural communication, and establish a harmonious language communication atmosphere on the basis of improving mutual understanding in order to avoid the phenomenon of cultural conflict in interpreting communication.<br /> <br /> ===The Problem of Cultural Barriers Caused by Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Mr. Wang Zuoliang points out that &quot;the greatest difficulty in translation is the difference between two cultures.&quot; He believes that &quot;the interpreter must be a cultural person in the true sense of the word.&quot; The differences between Chinese and Western peoples in terms of thinking, values, historical culture and cultural imagery, as well as traditional customs and religious beliefs, have led to cultural differences between the peoples. Therefore, in the process of interpretation activities, the interpreter needs not only to translate the literal meaning of the original language, but more importantly, to grasp its unique cultural connotation and be able to convey it to the other party through language.（连淑能 1993） According to American translation theorist Eugene Naida, translation is an exchange between two cultures, &quot;For a truly successful translation, it is even more important to be familiar with two cultures than to master two languages. For words have meaning only in the cultural context in which they . function in the cultural context in which they are used.&quot; Therefore, a translator cannot reach a true sense of communication if he or she does not have the support of culture in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.1 Cultural barriers caused by the way of thinking<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Western culture belongs to linear rational way of thinking, which emphasizes logic, hierarchy and abstraction; while Chinese culture belongs to spiral thinking, which emphasizes discernment, enlightenment and emotional meaning. Westerners tend to think that Chinese people are too subtle and even logically confused. Chinese people may also think that Westerners are too cumbersome and sometimes feel uncomfortable because of their overly direct expressions. Therefore, interpreters should not only correctly understand the difference between Chinese and Western cultures during the interpretation process, but also take appropriate measures to compensate for the understanding barrier caused by this difference. This difference is manifested in the language: Chinese sentences are clear and concise, while English sentences are compact and tightly structured, emphasizing the subordination and modification between components, and mostly using conjunctions, prepositions and relational words to link sentences together.<br /> <br /> For example, the Chinese have the traditional virtue of respecting the elderly. To show courtesy, the host will say to the visitor, “您比我年长，您请上坐”. If the translator translates it literally as, “You are older than me. You take the upper seat.” Westerners will definitely feel uncomfortable when they hear it and think to themselves: Am I that old? At this time, the original meaning of the Chinese expression has been distorted, so the contradiction arises.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.2 Cultural barriers caused from values<br /> <br /> Values are a deep element of cultural composition, which is both a part of social culture and the result of long-term penetration and accumulation of social and cultural factors in people's minds. Chinese people talk about collectivism, while Westerners advocate individualism. The Chinese focus on the group, highlighting the role of the collective is the mainstream of their values, highlighting their own will be suspected of arrogance and arrogance. The British and Americans advocate the primacy of the individual, fully expressing their own values and highlighting individual contributions. Humility is deeply rooted in Chinese values and is a Chinese virtue, yet sometimes it is not as welcome in the eyes of Westerners. This obvious difference in values inevitably leads to a culture clash. A classic example: at a party, a foreign guest complimented a Chinese lady, praising her for being very beautiful, when the Chinese lady replied, “哪里，哪里”. The accompanying translator on the side, however, translated word-for-word into, “where, where ”. This was difficult for the visitor to understand. So he had no choice but to answer, “from up to toe”.And at this time the Chinese lady was also very dissatisfied, thinking that the foreigner was disrespectful to her.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.3 Cultural barriers from historical culture and cultural imagery<br /> <br /> Cultural imagery is a cognitive pattern agreed upon in different national or community cultures. Cultural imagery coalesces the wisdom of each nation, and is the crystallization of history and culture. Throughout the long history of each nation, they have appeared in people's language, forming a cultural symbol with a relatively fixed and unique cultural meaning. For example, in a business event, the Chinese side said something like this, “建立‘一条龙’服务中心”.The interpreter translated it as “set up the ,one-dragon service center to provide a coordinated process service for foreign investors in obtaining approval&quot;.“一条龙” was translated into“one dragon”.The word &quot;龙&quot; means something evil in the West, but &quot;auspicious&quot; in China, so it is easy to misunderstand if you don't understand the situation. Another example is that the phrase &quot;望子成龙&quot; should never be translated as “to hope one&quot;'s child can become a dragon&quot;，but to“to hope one’s child can be somebody”.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.4 Cultural barriers caused by traditional customs and religious beliefs<br /> <br /> Different countries have different traditional customs. Chinese people give &quot;New Year's Lucky money&quot; to the younger generation during the Chinese New Year, but &quot;Chinese New Year&quot; does not exist in Western countries, so they do not understand why they have to give money. On the contrary, Christmas, Halloween and other holidays in Western countries do not exist in Chinese traditional culture, and we do not fully understand the importance of these holidays, even though they are very popular in China nowadays. Cultural barriers due to differences in religious beliefs often occur in the interpretation process. Sleep with father&quot; is a biblical euphemism, which means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;. It means the same as &quot;go the heaven&quot; and &quot;kick the bucket&quot;, but for those who do not understand Western religions, it is likely to be mistranslated as &quot;与父亲睡觉&quot;, which would be ridiculous.（Lu Naisheng 1993）<br /> <br /> Look at the following example:<br /> If this sentence is understood as<br /> &quot;约翰是可靠的，他不吃鱼，还玩游戏&quot;, it is because the translator failed to understand &quot; eats no fish &quot; and &quot;play the game&quot;. After the Protestants overthrew the old government, the Protestants refused to eat fish on Ramadan to show their loyalty to Protestantism. So &quot;&quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to eat no fish &quot; means &quot;loyalty&quot; and &quot; to play the game &quot;means &quot;race&quot;,The correct meaning of the word is Therefore, the correct meaning is &quot;John is reliable, he is both loyal and upright&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2.5 Cultural barriers caused by non-verbal language behaviors<br /> <br /> The means of communication between people is not limited to verbal language. Non-verbal language, such as:eyes, facial expressions, gestures, distance between speakers, and physical contact, etc. are all conveying information to people around them. Ethnic cultures differ in their expressions of non-verbal language communication. This cultural aspect of difference should be taken into account when communicating across languages.（张文 2002）<br /> <br /> In one example, an American teacher, who was new to China, noticed that several students were looking at the student grade book she happened to have open during recess without permission. This teacher seriously told the students that this was rude behavior and that they should be careful to respect the privacy of others. Personal things are not to be looked at without the person's permission. Several students felt embarrassed and didn't know what to say, so they gave an apologetic smile. This smile upset the American teacher even more, and she thought that the students not only disrespected her, but also mocked her. The reason for her misunderstanding was that she did not understand that the Han Chinese often use laughter to express embarrassment and apology.<br /> <br /> Another example is that when Chinese people see a cute child, they can't help but go up and touch or pat it to show their affection for it. A Chinese mother would feel proud and smug when she encounters such a situation, while a Western mother is not used to this practice and considers it rude to pet her child, or even offensive.<br /> <br /> ===Strategies for Handling the Phenomenon of Cultural Differences in Interpretation===<br /> <br /> Eugene Naida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward a. The whole set of theories and methods on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation has caused strong repercussions in the translation theoretical circles and is considered one of the most representative theories on dealing with cultural phenomena in translation, the core of which is his principle of &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. This principle emphasizes that what translators pursue is not literal correspondence, but the reflection of cultural factors in the translated text to achieve functional equivalence. (叶子南，2001:38) This* view of Naida, although presented mainly for translation, is also useful for dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation. Given that interpretation is very different from translation, it should not, and cannot, exactly replicate the strategies for dealing with cultural phenomena in translation. The focus of interpreting is not to transmit cultural connotations, but to serve the communication on the spot, so the treatment of cultural phenomena in interpreting should be in line with the characteristics of interpreting. According to the criteria of &quot;accuracy, smoothness and speed&quot; and the specific characteristics of interpretation such as &quot;on-site, present and limited time&quot;, the first step in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation should be to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; between English and Chinese, and to try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalence&quot; from the target language. In dealing with cultural phenomena, interpreters should first try to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalents&quot; between English and Chinese, and try to find authentic expressions or interpretation methods from the target language for the understanding of listeners. According to the above principles and requirements, the following strategies can be used in dealing with cultural phenomena in interpretation:<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.1 Flexible use of naturalization and dissimilation<br /> <br /> Naturalization in interpretation is to express the linguistic and cultural factors in the source language in the closest equivalent form in the target language as far as possible, and transform them into a form familiar to and understood by the audience of the target language. This undoubtedly avoids the cultural conflicts and understanding barriers caused by the differences between the source language culture and the target language culture, and enables listeners to better understand the original language for interactive communication between the two sides of the conversation. Many scholars advocate that cultural phenomena in interpretation should be dealt with mainly by naturalization. This view has its own validity. In many occasions, the focus of interpretation is not to perform cultural output, but to provide services for both parties in the live communication. The first step in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation is to find the &quot;nearest natural equivalent&quot; to the source language culture in the target language, and try to find authentic expressions or explanatory methods from the target language for the audience's understanding. For example, the use of naturalization means to put Chinese allusions &quot;三个和尚没水吃&quot; into &quot; Everyone‘s business is no one&quot;s business.&quot; is very easy to be understood by native English speakers in Western countries.<br /> <br /> However, when using naturalization to deal with cultural factors, we should also see that while naturalization reduces the difficulty of audience acceptance and comprehension, it also sacrifices many cultural features of the source language, which may result in the loss of a large amount of accompanying information and prevent the audience from fully appreciating the original connotation of the source language and the foreign culture. For example, for foreigners who want to learn Chinese, in order to explain the cultural implications contained therein, he will translate“她有沉鱼落雁之容，闭月羞花之貌&quot; by naturalization to “Her beauty would make the fish sink, the wild geese fall down and the moon hide herself, and put the flowers to shame.”（Deng Yanchang 2006）<br /> <br /> Therefore, while emphasizing that interpretation should be mainly naturalized, it is important not to overlook the value of the means of dissimilation. This is because besides providing services to both parties of live communication, interpretation also has the function of cultural transmission, which is conducive to enhancing mutual understanding among peoples. For the specific forms and expressions containing strong cultural color and ethnicity, the dissimilation means can best reflect the ethnic color of the source language and make the audience feel novel and vivid, thus opening their eyes and gaining knowledge and enlightenment, especially on occasions such as tourism interpretation and banquet interpretation. In order to meet the needs of cultural exchange, interpreters should undoubtedly adopt the strategy of heterogeneity as much as possible in the process of interpretation, so as to retain the heterogeneous components in the source language to the greatest extent possible and transmit the information in the source language to the audience as originally as possible. In addition, the use of dissimilation can enrich the linguistic expressions of the target language and inject fresh blood into the culture of the target language, so that the language and culture of the target language can continue to develop and maintain vitality.（Edward Spir 2006）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2 Rational Use of Direct Translation, Substitution, Paraphrase, Interpretation and Other Translation Methods<br /> <br /> The German functionalist translation theory, which emerged in the 1970s, advocates a &quot;purpose-oriented&quot; approach, which frees the translator and the translator from the bondage of the original language and regards translation as a purposive act. Functionalist scholars especially pointed out that their theory is also suitable for interpretation. The theory requires the translator to determine the strategies to be used in the translation process based on the specific requirements of the client and the translation purpose and the actual situation of the potential readers (or listeners) on the basis of a full understanding of the original language. The functionalist translation theory emphasizes flexibility and practicality in the translation process, which is a great inspiration for translators to flexibly use various translation methods to deal with cultural factors in interpretation. Combined with the specific characteristics and requirements of interpretation and the actual situation of the interpretation site, translation methods such as direct translation, substitution, meaning translation and interpretation should be flexibly used in dealing with cultural factors in interpretation according to the needs.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.1 Direct translation method<br /> <br /> Language is the carrier of culture, which reflects the cultural traditions and psychological habits of a nation. Direct translation not only preserves these cultural features and avoids ambiguities, but also facilitates cultural exchange and enriches the vocabulary of the target language. Without affecting the understanding of the audience, direct translation is preferable if the source and target languages can be unified or largely unified in content and form. The direct translation method is the fullest manifestation of dissimilation at the linguistic level. It is the fullest expression of alienation at the linguistic level. For example, &quot; Let sleeping dogs lie&quot; is directly translated as “勿惹睡狗”. “火上加油” is directly translated “Pour oil on the flame”.<br /> <br /> 1.2 Substitution Method<br /> The substitution method is also called the &quot;reciprocity method&quot;. It is a method of translation by applying words and expressions in the target language that have different expressions but are similar in meaning to the cultural concepts of the source language. The substitution method is the most typical manifestation of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena. For example, the Chinese idiom &quot;冰冻三尺非一日之寒&quot; is translated into &quot; Rome cannot be built in one day”. English idiom &quot;to spend money like water &quot; translated into &quot;挥金如土&quot; is a good example.<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.3 Intentional translation method<br /> <br /> When the source language and the target language cannot be unified in terms of content and form or cannot be harmonized, translation is a method of expressing the meaning of the source language in the language of the target language from the meaning of the source language, free from the superficial form of the source language. The meaning translation method is also a common method of using naturalization to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. It is mainly applied to occasions where cultural communication is not the purpose. For example, during the second session of the Ninth National People's Congress, Premier Zhu Rongji held a press conference. In response to a reporter's question about the &quot;U.S. accusation of China's theft of U.S. nuclear technology,&quot; Premier Zhu stated a series of reasons and then concluded that: &quot;The U.S. has been accused of stealing nuclear technology from China. After stating a series of reasons, he concluded that,“我们为什么还要冒政治.上的风险和道德上的风险去盗窃什么人的军事机密呢?所以，所谓中国盗窃美国军事机密的问题可以认为是一种天方夜谭”.The last sentence of the translator's translation reads“So, the alleged Chinese theft of U.S. military technology is only a fiction.” Here, &quot;天方夜谭&quot; is not translated directly as&quot; TheArabianNights&quot;，but is instead translated as &quot; fiction &quot;. This shows that the interpreter is fully aware of the cultural differences between Chinese and Western cultures and adopts the method of paraphrasing and flexibly and accurately conveys the speaker's meaning to the audience in the target language. As we all know, in Chinese culture, when people refer to an absurd, unsubstantiated phenomenon or statement, they often say: 这简直是天方夜谭。But in English-speaking cultures, The Arabian Nights is not synonymous with ridiculous or absurd. Therefore, the word &quot;天方夜谭&quot; has a much richer connotation in Chinese than the same word has in English.（Bao Huinan 2001）<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.4 Interpretation<br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language families, and they are very different in terms of cultural and historical background, cultural psychological structure, thinking styles and methods, and language expression. Although there are some cultural concepts in the two languages that are equivalent, corresponding or basically corresponding, most of them are not corresponding or completely corresponding, and some concepts are completely vacant in the target language. When trying to preserve the cultural characteristics of the source language and the literal translation cannot make the audience understand its meaning, the cultural phenomenon of the source language can be properly explained to facilitate the audience's understanding. This method is called interpretation. Interpretation is actually a means of alienation-a disguised form of expression, similar to literal translation and annotation. The interpretation method is not only easy for the audience to understand, but also can retain the cultural flavor of the source language. It is a good way to deal with cultural gaps in interpreting. The interpretation method is mainly applicable to the following scope:<br /> <br /> 1) Proper nouns formed in the accumulation of source language culture<br /> 诸葛亮—-Zhuge Liang，a master mind in Chinese history.<br /> Mickey Mouse—-指一个小人物或一件微不足道的小事<br /> <br /> 2) Abbreviations, special phrases or collocations formed in a specific cultural atmosphere<br /> 三资企业—-refers to“外资”，namely, foreign- funded enterprise; “合资”， joint adventure<br /> and“独资”，wholly foreign-owned or funded enterprise.<br /> An LDC—-指 “a life and death commodity”始用于英国报刊，一般指成本低廉，但却是人类赖以生存的商品，如水。<br /> <br /> 3) Lingo, idiom, allusion, slang or colloquialism<br /> 解铃还需系铃人—-“Let him who tied the bell on the tiger take it off”, meaning, whoever started that trouble ends it himself.”<br /> <br /> 4)Special cultural words<br /> <br /> 敬老日—- Generally speaking, this phrase refers to the Double Ninth Festival in China，a day of giving and advocating more concern for the senior citizens.<br /> the Beatles—-指英国的披头士乐队，20世纪六七十年代曾风靡全球。<br /> <br /> 2.4.3.2.5 Simple translation and no translation<br /> <br /> Chinese people use more adjectives when narrating and describing people and things, especially when introducing landscapes and historical sites, adjectives and four-character patterns are quite frequent. For example, when introducing a lake, we often hear commentary similar to the following: “ 湖水澄澈如镜，水光天接，湖中有十多个高矮不等的小岛被水相望，似断似续，烟水迷茫，错落有致....”. If during the interpreting process, the interpreter translates the described words one by one according to the original language, it is likely to be thankless and make people feel that the language is extremely exaggerated and ridiculous. In this case, omitting some adjectives will not affect the overall situation. It is undeniable that some of the special expressions in different nationalities and different languages cannot be translated or equivalently translated. Especially in time-stressed interpretation situations, it is inevitable to encounter difficult problems, such as humor in English. No matter how you translate them, the meanings of, puns, allegorical words with puns in Chinese, and word-breaking games in Chinese, etc., cannot fully reflect their meanings. In this case, you can use &quot;no translation&quot; or incomplete translation. For example, Chinese people are used to introducing themselves by saying: &quot;我姓张，弓长张。&quot;Directly translating it as “My family name is Zhang”is enough.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Interpretation is a cross-language communication activity as well as a cross-cultural communication activity. Due to the commonality and individuality of culture, the cultural characteristics carried by different language systems in cross-cultural communication appear the same, partly the same, gaps and conflicts. Therefore, the interpreter must not only be proficient in both the source language and the target language, but also understand the two cultures and understand the differences between the two cultures reflected in the differences in language expression. In addition, due to the characteristics of interpreting: timeliness, directness, diversity of occasions and forms, as well as the looseness of oral expression, resulting in the cultural sensitivity of the interpreter, the broad aspect of knowledge and the ability to deal with cultural differences There are higher requirements. Therefore, interpreters should focus on cultivating cross-cultural awareness, increasing their sensitivity to the differences between the two cultures, and mastering the principles and methods to fill the gaps in understanding between different cultures. For interpreters, cross-cultural awareness refers to a cognitive standard and adjustment method formed by the translator consciously or unconsciously in cross-cultural communication. It is the interpreter’s unique way of thinking, judgment, and The sensitivity of cultural factors. The interpreter is the carrier of cross-cultural awareness, and the broad cultural information foundation is the fundamental guarantee for the completion of cross-cultural communication. Only by following the principles of culture can the translator better control the language and make the target language truly accurate, decent and fluent.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> 简芳，张健.口译活动中的文化障碍问题[J]. 湖北广播电视大学学报，2012年1月第1期<br /> <br /> 连淑能.英汉对比研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社，1993年版<br /> <br /> 刘微微.浅谈口译中文化差异的应对策略[J].哈尔滨职业技术学院学报，2008 年第1期[4].沙保华.文化差异与口译[J].四川外语学院学报(重庆)，1995年第1期<br /> <br /> 熊薇.文化差异对口译的影响[J].语言文字，2009.8<br /> <br /> 杨震，黄斗.口译中中西文化冲突的沟通和处理[J].广西师范学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2008年10月第4期<br /> <br /> 张文.论口译面对的文化差异问题[J]. 北京第二外国语学院学报，1998年第3期 [8]. 张燕.文化差异对口译的影响[J]. 外语教学，2002年5月第3期<br /> <br /> Edward Spir, Language: An Introduction of the Study of Speech, Echo Library, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bai Jingyu, Culture and Translation, China Social Science Press, 2000 Edition.<br /> <br /> Lu Naisheng, Differences between Chinese and English and Translation, East China Chemical Engineering Institute Press, 1993.<br /> <br /> Wang Kefei, Understanding the Nature of Translation, Foreign Languages and Foreign Language Teaching, 1997.<br /> <br /> Jia Dejiang, A Tentative Discussion on Cultural Perspective and English-Chinese Translation, Hunan People' 's Publishing House, 1998.<br /> <br /> Deng Yanchang, Liu Runqing, Language and Culture - Comparison of Chinese and English Languages and Cultures, Foreign Language Teaching and Language Research Press, 2006.<br /> <br /> Bao Huinan, Cultural Context and Language Translation, China International Translation Publication Company, 2001.<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=Introduction_to_Translation_Studies&diff=110272 2020-12-11T14:28:27Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Websites to write your final exam paper on */</p> <hr /> <div>[[Media: Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]Quicklinks: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal#Frequently_asked_questions_FAQ FAQ] [https://bou.de/u/wiki/uvu:Community_Portal Manual]<br /> <br /> Welcome to our course website '''Introduction to Translation Studies'''. Whenever you visit this site, please see if there is anything in English not yet translated into Chinese and make a Chinese translation beneath (one paragraph English, one paragraph Chinese). Any correction or improvement of earlier translations is welcome!<br /> <br /> 欢迎访问我们“翻译导论课”的网页。…………<br /> <br /> =Organizational Things=<br /> *Please register for the Course Wiki.<br /> *Please prepare each session during the week before, so that you come prepared to class.<br /> <br /> Welcome Message on WeChat: 麻烦各位同学修改一下自己的备注，改成自己的姓名（拼音、汉字、20级、方向）就好。Welcome to our course. I am excited to meet you on Monday online on http://bit.ly/ZOOMCOURSE (573 941 6744, course). First, there are some organizational things to get everybody joining the class.<br /> In preparation, please register with our course wiki http://bit.ly/WIKIREG. Username is your Pinyin Name (“Wang Jianguo” – no Chinese characters) and email, for your real name also write your Pinyin Name (Wang Jianguo), no Chinese characters. Write a sentence about yourself in the bio info. Please check the box that you abide to the Terms of Service and type in the password “wikicaptcha”. You will receive an email with a link. Please confirm the link. After confirmation, please allow a few days that I can approve your username. After that, you can access the course wiki http://bit.ly/TS_INTRO and edit the contents. You need to edit the course website every week to prepare the upcoming session. <br /> Please note that you can only participate with a good internet connection, with a smart device which is able to run Zoom and with a running camera. Therefore, please make sure that you have a working device. If your phone’s camera is broken, please borrow a different phone or contact us that we can help you to get a second hand phone for free.<br /> <br /> =Edits=<br /> Every student is required to edit something every week. This can be:<br /> * Translate any English paragraph on this website from English to Chinese.<br /> * Correct an earlier translation.<br /> * Prepare an article (please link to from this page) and/or a powerpoint (please upload here) on a topic you will present during the semester.<br /> <br /> =Material=<br /> Please download several pdfs with monographs and articles about translation studies history and theories from our WeChat group.<br /> <br /> *Bassnett, Susan. Translation studies. Routledge, 2013<br /> *Bell, Roger T., and Christopher Candlin. Translation and translating: Theory and practice. Vol. 298. London: Longman, 1991 <br /> *Catford, John Cunnison. A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford University Press, 1978.<br /> *Chen, Fukang. &quot;Zhongguo yixue lilun shi gao (A History of Chinese Translation Theory).&quot; (1992).<br /> *Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary translation theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> *Holmes, James S. The name and nature of translation studies. Translation Studies Section, Department of General Literary Studies, University of Amsterdam, 1975.<br /> *Huang, Chending黄振定. &quot;文学翻译评价的科学性及其科学论.&quot; 外国语 4 (1999): 49-56.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定. &quot;翻译学是一门人文科学.&quot; 外语与外语教学 2 (1999): 33-35.<br /> *Huang, Chending 黄振定.翻译学: 艺术论与科学论的统一. 上海外语教育出版社, 2008<br /> *Lefevere, André, ed. Translation/history/culture: A sourcebook. Routledge, 2002.<br /> *Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge 2013<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber, eds. The theory and practice of translation. Vol. 8. Brill Archive, 1982.<br /> *Nida, Eugene Albert. Toward a science of translating: with special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Brill Archive, 1964.<br /> *Pan Wenguo 潘文国. &quot;当代西方的翻译学研究——兼谈 “翻译学” 的学科性问题.&quot; 中国翻译 23.1 (2002): 31-34.<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> *Toury, Gideon. &quot;Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond John Benjamins Publishing Company.&quot; Amsterdam/Philadelphia (1995).<br /> *Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation. Routledge, 2017.<br /> *Wilss, Wolfram. The science of translation: problems and methods. Vol. 180. John Benjamins Pub Co, 1982. 翻译学问题与方法 Shanghai: SFLEP (2001).<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Zhao, Wei 赵巍. &quot;翻译学学科性质与研究方法反思.&quot; 解放军外国语学院学报 28.6 (2005): 69-72.<br /> <br /> (We use Chicago Social Sciences Citation Style [https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-2.html Chicago Style].)<br /> <br /> '''Which paper or book should I read to prepare my presentation?'''<br /> <br /> Recommendations:<br /> <br /> Topic Book/Paper<br /> <br /> 1 Introduction <br /> <br /> 2 Emergence<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧, Mu Lei 穆雷. &quot;翻译学概论 [Introduction to Translation Studies].&quot; 南京: 译林出版社 10 (2009): 180-192.<br /> *Xu, Jun 许钧. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社, 2003<br /> *Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜. Translation Studies 翻译学. 复旦大学出版社, 2017<br /> <br /> 3a History of Translation <br /> *3a History of Western Translation 谭载喜.西方翻译简史[M]. 北京:商务印书馆, 1991年.<br /> *3b History of Translation in China – before May Fourth 马祖毅. 中国翻译简史——“五四”以前部分（修订本）[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司，1998年.<br /> *3c History of Chinese Translation Theories *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 4 Early understanding <br /> *Holmes, James. 1972. The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies[M]. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988: 67-80.<br /> *Sourcebook Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook[M]. London and New York：Routledge, <br /> 1990.<br /> *Early linguistic theory Catford, J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> *Early important understanding Nida, E. A. Toward a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> 5 Translation Studies<br /> *5a Bassnett, Susan. Translation Studies[M]. London and New York: Methuen, 1980. <br /> * 5b Theories Gentzler, E. Contemporary Translation Theories[M]. London and New York: Routledge, 1993.<br /> *5c Western theory 刘军平. 西方翻译理论通史[M]. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009年.<br /> *5d Contemp. West. theories 廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2000年.<br /> <br /> 6 Translation Theories<br /> * 许钧. 翻译论[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2003年.<br /> *6a Methods Wilss, Wolfram. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods[M]. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubinger, 1982.<br /> *6b Style 刘宓庆. 文体与翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司：北京，1998年.<br /> *6c Translation Studies 许钧，穆雷. 翻译学概论[M]. 南京：译林出版社，2009年.<br /> *6d TS 谭载喜. 翻译学[M]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000年.<br /> <br /> 7 Theory and Practise <br /> *7a Bell, Roger T. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice[M]. London and New York: Longman, 1991.<br /> *7b Theory and Practise Munday, Jermy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 2001.<br /> *7c Textbook Newmark, Peter. A Text Book of Translation[M]. UK: Prentice Hall International Ltd, 1988.<br /> *7d Theory and practice Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> *7e Translation Basics 刘宓庆. 翻译基础[M]. 上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008年.<br /> <br /> 8<br /> *8a “descriptive” Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John BenjaminB Publishing company, 1995.<br /> *8b Culture Toury, Gideon. Translation Across Cultures[M]. NewDelhi: Bahri Publications, 1987.<br /> *8c Invisibility Venuti, L. The Translator 's Invisibility[M]. London and NewYork: Routledge, 1995.<br /> *8d Constructivism Research 易经. 翻译学体系构建研究[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2012年.<br /> <br /> 9 Theories<br /> *9a East-West comparison 刘宓庆. 中西翻译思想比较研究[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005年.<br /> *9b English-Chinese TS 蒋坚松. 英汉对比与汉译英研究[M]. 长沙：湖南人民出版社，2002年.<br /> <br /> =Main class project=<br /> Please help to edit the publication [[History of Translation Studies]].<br /> <br /> =Schedule=<br /> '''All sessions''': 1 9/21 Organizational things, 2 Emergence, 3 History, 4 Development, 5 Early literary examples, 6 early theories, 7 (Western) Theories, 8 Methods, 9 Style, 10 Translation Studies, 11 Theory and Practice, 12 Different Aspects, 13 East West comparison, 14 Strategies, 15 Contemporary Translation Theories, 16 Final Discussion <br /> <br /> ==1st Session==<br /> Introduction to the course. Organizational things. Working with the Wiki.<br /> <br /> === Homework from Session 1 due on Sep 27, 2020 ===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of a paper on Qing Translation Policies. Here is the [[20200921_trans|homework page]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200921_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Please pick a topic from the pdf material, the general session topics or your own thoughts to do a presentation on. For the first topics, you need to do the presentation already in 1 week!<br /> <br /> ===Homework for later===<br /> 4. Write a final exam paper as a chapter of the book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. It has to be a new topic, not yet used in the book. I will upload the book here later. You can participate in writing this book.<br /> <br /> 5. Get familiar with the pdfs I send you on WeChat group as learning material.<br /> <br /> ==2nd Session: Emergence==<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 1: 人类起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation===<br /> *Handout for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation.doc|Global Emergence of Interpretation and Translation]] by 彭锐宏<br /> *Classroom presentation for download [[Media:The_emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_by_Peng_Ruihong.pptx|Presentation on Emergence of translation]] by 彭锐宏--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:05, 28 September 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 2: 西方起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in the West===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.docx|Handout on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Western_Countries.pptx|Powerpoint on The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Western Countries]]--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 05:43, 28 September 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou by 聂晓楼<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 3: 中国起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.docx| Handout on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_China.pptx|PowerPoint on Emergence of translation and interpretation in China]]--Mashuya by 马淑雅<br /> <br /> ===Session 2, Topic 4: 日本起源 The emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_translation_and_interpretation_in_Japan.docx|The Emergence of translation and interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹 --[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_Emergence_of_Translation_and_Interpretation_in_Japan.ppt|Powerpoint on the Emergence of Translation and Interpretation in Japan]] by 孟莹--[[User:Meng Ying|Meng Ying]] ([[User talk:Meng Ying|talk]]) 16:10, 27 September 2020 (UTC)Meng Ying<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 2 (Sep 28, 2020), due on (Oct 5, 2020)===<br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 paragraph of an English book on Contemporary Chinese Literature INTO CHINESE. Link: [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20200928_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==3rd Session: History==<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 1:中国古代翻译史History of Translation in Ancient China===<br /> *Handout for download：[[Media:Handout for History of Translation in Ancient China.doc]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: History of Translation in Ancient China.pptx]]--[[User:Li Yu|Li Yu]] ([[User talk:Li Yu|talk]]) 09:14, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 2: 中国翻译史代表人物The Representatives in Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Chin_Trans_Hist_Rep.docx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:35, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:....pptx|The Representatives in Chinese Translation History]] --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:36, 4 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 3: 中国翻译史的四个阶段 The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:The four stages of Chinese translation history.docx|Description of the file]] PLEASE UPLOAD by --[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The_four_stages_of_Chinese_translation_history.pptx|The Four Stages of Chinese Translation History]] by --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 16:16, 4 October 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br /> <br /> ===Session 3, Topic 4: 当代中国之翻译 Translation in Contemporary China===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:Handout for Translation in Contemporary China.docx|Translation in today's China]] by --[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 02:08, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation in Contemporary China(1).pptx|Presentation on translation in China today]] --[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 01:05, 5 October 2020 (UTC) Zhang Yuxing by 张宇星<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 3 (Oct 5, 2020), for Session 4 due on (Oct 12, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201005_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201005_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ==Session 4: Development==<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 1: 西方翻译史 Western translation history===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:....docx|Western translation history]] by Zhou Siqing--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 06:57, 5 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Western translation history.pptx|Western translation history]] by Zhang Qi [[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 07:46, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 2: 中国佛经翻译的发展 The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.docx]] by Jiang Qiwei--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures.ppt|The Develpment of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures]] by Hu Jin--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 15:26, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 3:西方翻译理论史History of Western Translation Theory===<br /> *Handout for download: [[Media:...docx|History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> * Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:...pptx| Brief History of Western Translation Theory]] by --[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 13:19, 4 October 2020 (UTC)XX<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 4:口译未来的发展 Prospect of Interpreting===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Prospect of Interpreting.docx]]-by Zhang Yinliu--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 08:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prospect of Interpreting.pptx]]--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 08:23, 12 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 5:新中国成立后翻译的发展 Translation Development of New China===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Development of New China.pdf]] by Li Luyi --[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation Development .pptx]] by Zheng Huajun--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:47, 10 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 6:圣经翻译的发展 The Development of Bible Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.docx]]--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:05, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Bible Translation.pptx]] by Han Haiyang--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 02:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 7:机器翻译的发展 The Development of Machine Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Handout-The Development of Machine Translation.docx]] by Deng Jinxia----[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 12:42, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:PPT The Development of Machine Translation.pptx]] by Han Wanzhen--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 06:31, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 4, Topic 8:视听翻译的发展 The Development of Audiovisual Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-Handout.docx]]--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 16:01, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Development of Audiovisual Translation-PPT.pptx]] by Cheng Yusi--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 16:04, 11 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 4 (Oct 12, 2020), for Session 5 due on (Oct 19, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate a short passage of a paper on the Chinese essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201012_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. [[20201012_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> 3. Take part in an online survey. The survey is currently prepared by the fellow students.<br /> <br /> ==Session 5: ==<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 1:林纾的翻译 Lin Shu's translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu.docx]]--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:50, 29 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation by Lin Shu(After correcting).pptx]]--Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 2:茅盾的翻译 Mao Dun's Translation===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:Mao Dun's Translation.docx]]--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 02:44, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:translations by Mao Dun.pptx]]--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 13:14, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 3:严复和天演论 Yan Fu and Tianyan Lun===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.docx]]--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:53, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Yuan Yuchen<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:YAN Fu and Tianyan Lun.pptx]]--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 10:28, 18 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br /> <br /> Please stick to your 5 minutes with your presentation. We are 3 presentations behind. Thank you for your cooperation.<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 4:《红楼梦》的英译 The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.docx]]--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:38, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation of ''The Red Chamber Dreams''.pptx]]----[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:59, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 5:《圣经》的早期汉译 The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.docx]]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 15:22, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Early Translation of the Bible into Chinese.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 14:55, 18 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 5, Topic 6:梁实秋的翻译 The Translation of Liang Shiqiu===<br /> *Handout for download:[[Media:The Liang Shiqiu's Translation.pdf]]--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]]([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> *Classroom presentation for download:[[Media: Liang Shiqiu.pdf]]--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]]([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 00:32, 19 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Session 6: Early Theories==<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Homework from Session 5 (Oct 19, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Oct 26, 2020)'''===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201019_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201019_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 1: 巴斯奈特文化翻译观 The Cultural Translation Theory of Bassnett===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:The Cultural Translatioin Theory of Susan Bassnett.pdf]]--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]]([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 16:36, 24 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Cultural Translatioin Theory of Bassnett.ppt]]--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 05:07, 24 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 2: 中国早期代表性佛经翻译理论 Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.docx]]--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:23, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Early Representative Theories of Buddhist Scriptures Translation in China.pptx]]--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 00:43, 26 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 3: 两种西方早期翻译模式的比较分析:贺拉斯模式和杰罗姆模式 The Comparative Analysis of Two Early Western Translation Models: Horace Model and Jerome Model===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Comparative Analysis of Two Translation Models.docx]]--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:41, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The_Comparative_Analysis_of_Two_Translation_Models.pptx]]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:24, 25 October 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 4: 卡特福德的《翻译的语言学理论》 A Linguistic Theory of Translation of J.C.Catford===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation of Catford.docx]]--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 12:30, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:A Linguistic Theory of Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 12:38, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 5: 中西早期译论对比 The Comparison between Chinese and Western Early Translation Theories===<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Comparison of Early Translation Theories between China and the West.docx]]--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 14:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom Presentation for download:[[Media:Chinese and Western Early Theories Comparison.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 13:26, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 6, Topic 6: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试 Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.docx]]--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:40, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Early Attempts at Systematic Translation Theory.ppt]]--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]])03:52, 25 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 7: Western theories=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 6 (Oct 26, 2020), for Session 6 due on (Nov 2, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201026_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201026_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 1: 奈达功能对等理论 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory.docx]]<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 02:59, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 2: 多元系统理论 Polysystem Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory ppt.pptx]]--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:35, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Polysystem Theory.docx]]--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:21, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 3： 后殖民主义翻译理论 Post-colonial Translation Theory===<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:27, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Post-colonial Translation Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 01:29, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 4： 布拉格学派 Prague School===<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Prague_School-Handout.doc]]--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 14:48, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Prague School.pptx]]--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:08, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 5： 目的论 Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 07:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Skopos Theory.docx]]--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:21, 2 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ===Session 7, Topic 6： 语言学派 Linguistic School===<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Linguistic School.pptx]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:26, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download: [[Media:Linguistic School-Handout.doc]]----[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:48, 2 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 8: Methods=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 7 (Nov 2, 2020), for Session 8 due on (Nov 9, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence of the Introduction of the Book &quot;Translation Studies&quot;. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201102_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201102_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 1： 正说反译与反说正译 Negation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Negation-Gan Fengyu.pptx]][[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Negation.docx]]--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 12:56, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 2：异化策略下的翻译方法 Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy ===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhao Xiaoyan.pptx]]--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 15:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Translation Methods of Foreignization Strategy-Zhang Hui.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 15:33, 7 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 3： 交际翻译与语义翻译 Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation.pptx]]by Zhang Yu--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation-handout.docx]]--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 13:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 4： 直译与意译 Literal Translation and Free translation===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation.pptx]]--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 15:45, 8 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:Literal Translation and Free translation Handout.docx]]--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 01:22, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 5： 增译与减译 Amplification and Omission===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Amplification and Omission.pptx]]--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 03:06, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Amplification And Omission.docx]]--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 05:05, 9 November 2020 (UTC)Wensixing<br /> <br /> ===Session 8, Topic 6： 影视字幕的翻译方法-以《肖申克的救赎》为例 The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles——Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 01:21, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> Handout for download:[[Media:The Translation Method of Film and Television Subtitles—Taking Shawshank’s Redemption as an Example Handout.docx]]--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 01:16, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 9: Style=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 8 (Nov 9, 2020), for Session 9 due on (Nov 16, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201116_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201116_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic 1: 源语风格和翻译 Style of Source Text and Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation.docx]]--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 06:48, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Style of Source Text and Translation1.pptx]]--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 07:03, 9 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9, Topic2 : 科技翻译 Scientific Style===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.docx]]--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 01:42, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Scientific Style.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 01:17, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 3:不同翻译风格对比 Comparison among Different Translation Styles===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.docx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Session 9 Comparison among Different Translation Styles.pptx]]--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:40, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 4: 文学风格可译与不可译 On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.docx]]--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:On Literary Style from a Translatable View and Untranslatable View.pptx]] by Li Yongshan --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:49, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 9,Topic 5: 翻译与风格 Translation and Style= ==<br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.docx]]--Hu Huifang<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:Translation_and_Style.pptx]]--Zeng Yanhu<br /> <br /> [[Media:Example.ogg]]<br /> <br /> =Session 10: Translation Studies=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 9 (Nov 16, 2020), for Session 10 due on (Nov 23, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201123_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201123_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 1: 翻译转换 Translation Shifts===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts.pptx]]--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 14:51, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Translation_Shifts_handout.docx]]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:05, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 2: 解码和重新编码 Decoding and Recoding===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.pptx]]--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:33, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Decoding and Recoding.docx]]--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 04:32, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 3: 视听翻译 Audiovisual Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.docx]]--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 13:19, 22 November 2020 (UTC) - READ BY NIE XIAOLOU<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Audiovisual Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 00:26, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 4: 对钱钟书“化境说”的理论研究 The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s Theory of Huajing===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.docx]]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:38, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:The Translation Studies of Qian Zhongshu’s theory of Huajing.pptx]]--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 05:40, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10, Topic 5: 英汉被动语态对比研究及其翻译策略 Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies===<br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.pptx]] --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:20, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Contrastive Studies of Passive Voice(C&amp;E) and its Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Blank|Zhang Hu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hu|talk]]) 10:23, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 10,Topic 6: 不可译性及其转化策略 Untranslatability and Translation Strategies====<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Untranslatability and Translation Strategies.docx]]--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Untranslatability &amp; Translation Strategies.pptx]]--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 12:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 11: Theory and Practice=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 10 (Nov 23, 2020), for Session 11 due on (Nov 30, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201130_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201130_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 1: 功能对等理论对商标翻译的影响 The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Handout.The Theory and Practice.docx]]--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Pengjuan<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Effect of the Equivalence Theory on Trademark Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Tao Ye|Tao Ye]] ([[User talk:Tao Ye|talk]]) 08:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 2: 归化和异化在翻译中的实践 Translation practice in domestication and foreignization===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Handout.The Practice of Foreignization and Domestication.docx]]--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 01:21, 30 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Translation practice in domestication and foreignization.pptx]]--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:00, 29 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 3: 目的论及其应用 Skopos Theory and its Applications===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.docx]]--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 05:08, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download：[[Media:Skopos Theory and its Applications.pptx]]--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 05:16, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 4:语义翻译与交际翻译 The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation=== <br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.docx]]--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 16:30, 29 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:The Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation.ppt]]--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 06:56, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 5: 奈达的功能对等理论及其在科技文英译汉中的应用 Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download：[[Media:Nida’s_Functional_Equivalence_Theory_and_its_Application_in E-C_Translation_of_EST.docx]]--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 02:03, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download:[[Media:Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and its Application in E-C Translation of EST.pptx]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 03:25, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 11,Topic 6:女性主义翻译 The Feminist Translation===<br /> <br /> Handout for download：[[Media:Feminist Translation.doc]]--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:07, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation：[[Media:Feminist Translation.pptx]]<br /> <br /> =Session 12: Different Aspects=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 11 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 12 due on (Dec 7, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201207_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201207_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 1: 政论文翻译 Translation of Political Text===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.docx]]--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:Translation of Political Text.pptx]] By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 12:30, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 2: 诗歌翻译 Poem Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Poem Translation.pptx]]--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 14:59, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Poem_Translation_handout.docx]] by Zhang Yujie&amp; Yang Hairong--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:14, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Session 12, Topic 3: 旅游翻译 Tourism Translation===<br /> Classroom handout for download:[[Media:Tourism Translation.pptx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei --[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 09:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Media:Tourism_Translation_handout.docx]] by Tan Xinjie &amp; Wei Yafei--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 10:06, 5 December 2020 (UTC)Wei Yafei<br /> <br /> =Session 13: East West comparison=<br /> <br /> ===Homework from Session 12 (Nov 30, 2020), for Session 13 due on (Dec 14, 2020)===<br /> <br /> 1. Every student should translate 1 sentence from the essay. &lt;span style=&quot;color:red&quot;&gt;Here is the '''[[20201214_trans|homework page]]'''&lt;/span&gt;.<br /> <br /> 2. Help a fellow student to improve his/her translation on that page. The final translation was once more worked over by the teacher, please check your own sentence [[20201214_trans|here]].<br /> <br /> ===Topic 1:严复“信、达、雅”和泰特勒三原则之比较Comparison Between Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles===<br /> <br /> ===Topic 2:中西翻译发展比较Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.pptx]] by Liu Yi.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 15:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of the Development of Chinese and Western Translation.doc]] by Tan Yuanyuan.--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 15:47, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 4:中国佛经翻译与圣经翻译的比较Comparison Between the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation===<br /> ===Topic 3:中西文化差异对翻译的影响The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation===<br /> [[Media:Handout-The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.doc]] by Yang Yue--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 05:10, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> [[Media:The Influence of Chinese and Western Cultural Differences on Translation.pptx]] by Yi Zichu--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 05:01, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Topic 5:20世纪中叶以来中西翻译理论对比 Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century===<br /> <br /> [[Media:Comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Mo Ling.pptx]]--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 09:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> [[Media:Handout of comparison of Chinese and Western translation theories since the mid-term of the 20th century by Yuan Tianyi.doc]]<br /> <br /> ===Topic 6；中西思维方式差异在翻译中的体现——以习语为例 The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example===<br /> <br /> Classroom handout for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.docx]]--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]] --[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> Classroom presentation for download: [[Media:The Embodiment of the Differences between Chinese and Western Thinking Modes in Translation -- Taking Idioms as an Example.pptx]] By Chen Jiangning --[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Jiangning]]--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 14:43, 5 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> =Session 14: Strategies=<br /> =Session 15: Contemporary Translation Theories=<br /> =Session 16: Final Discussion=<br /> <br /> --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:52, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==List of topics for presentations and handouts in class==<br /> 1 Emergence: <br /> 孟莹: 日本起源, 聂晓楼: 西方起源, 马淑雅: 中国起源, 彭锐宏: 人类起源<br /> <br /> 2 History: <br /> 周思庆 张琪: 西方翻译史; 马娟 刘智伟: 历史上中国著名的翻译家; 解帆 张宇星: 现当代中国翻译演变; 凌子瑾 李玉: 中国古代翻译史; 杨晨婷 余妮: 中国近代翻译史; 周诗卿 纪甜甜: 西方翻译理论简史<br /> <br /> 3 Development: <br /> 韩宛真 邓锦霞: 机器翻译的发展; 蒋淇玮 胡瑾：中国佛经翻译的发展; 吴琼 张银柳: 口译未来的发展; 成于思 龚钰冕: 翻译实践的发展; 郑华君 李璐伊: 新中国成立后翻译的发展; 韩海洋 彭育志：圣经翻译的发展<br /> <br /> 4 Early Literary Examples: <br /> 许鹏飞 肖伊宁: 林纾的翻译; 许晶 李凌月; 袁诗琦 姚佳; 邹鑫雨 曹润鑫:《红楼梦》的英译; 袁雨晨 肖茜: 严复和《天演论》; 苏琳 周玉娟<br /> <br /> 5 Early Theories: <br /> 徐梦蝶 杨逸; 陈涵 曾心媛; 陈静静 高明珠; 文晓艺 韦洪朗: 严复与林纾的翻译理论; 康浩宇 漆凯: 玄奘翻译理论; 刘洋诺 邬香: 系统翻译理论的早期尝试<br /> <br /> 6 (Western) Theories: <br /> 康灵凤 莫南: 功能对等理论; 吴琪 常慧月：多元系统理论; 纪甜甜 姜好: 后殖民翻译理论; 许静 游雨婷; 布拉格学派; 肖双玲 王轩: 目的论; 李丽丽 王源: 语言学派<br /> <br /> 7 Methods: <br /> 甘奉玉 丁代凤; 赵晓燕 张慧: 异化策略下的翻译方法; 张瑜 谭星越: 语义翻译和交际翻译; 吴一露 司妤: 直译和意译; 文偲荇 李梦: 增译和减译; 林敏 刘金惺琦<br /> <br /> 8 Style: <br /> 孔祥慧 孔亚楠; 罗雨晴 娄灿灿; 管钦清：不同翻译风格对比； 林鑫 李泳珊：文学风格可译与不可译; 曾雁湖 胡慧芳<br /> <br /> 9 Translation Studies: <br /> 罗维嘉 桂一枝; 彭小玲 彭丹; 全美欣 宋建茹:视听翻译;石迪文 易欢; 姚诚 张虎：中英语态对比及其翻译策略; 刘欧 陈永相：不可译性及其转化策略<br /> <br /> 10 Theory and Practice: <br /> 彭娟 陶冶; 吴子佳 雷旷溪: 归化异化在翻译中的实践; 汤蓓 王美玲; 蒋凤仪 顾东方; 周园曲 祝美梅; 阳慧 张佩闻; <br /> <br /> 11 Different Aspects: <br /> 周艺文 陈佳欣; 谭鑫洁 魏亚菲; 张毓婕 杨海容; <br /> <br /> 12 East West Comparison: <br /> 唐铭 欧蓉; 谭媛媛 刘艺: 中西翻译发展史及比较; 杨悦 义子楚: 中西文化差异对翻译的影响; 肖婷 徐佳：中国佛经翻译和圣经翻译的比较; 莫玲 袁天翼; 陈莎 陈江宁：中西方思维方式差异在翻译中的体现--以习语为例。<br /> <br /> 13 Strategies: <br /> 吴恺 马智星: 阿拉伯大征服时代与翻译学; 汤伊然 杨子泠(劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化翻译策略); 彭永亮 谢子熠<br /> <br /> 14 Contemporary translation Theories: <br /> Sagara Seydo Nguyen, Thuy Hien (Helen)<br /> <br /> ==List of Topics for final exam papers in Translation Studies==<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Ideas<br /> *literal vs. free<br /> *Faithful/loyal/foreignization/alienation/exotization vs. domestication/localization<br /> *unit of translation<br /> *contrastive analysis<br /> *the equivalence problem (functional, dynamic)<br /> *translatability vs untranslatability <br /> *SLT vs TLT relation<br /> *translation types, strategies, styles, methods<br /> *communication factors, translator role in social setting<br /> *cognitive factors<br /> *machine translation<br /> *translation quality assessment<br /> *translation ethics / manipulation etc.<br /> <br /> <br /> Suggested topics for final exam papers (chapters of book on translation studies)<br /> <br /> Each student needs to prepare one small topic for a 5-min. classroom presentation (with a fellow student, who writes a handout about it) and needs to find a topic for a chapter of a book on Translation Studies. Alternatively to the classroom presentation, the student can also assist the teacher by preparing class, sorting the wiki page etc.<br /> <br /> Here is the link to the list: [[Topics in Translation Studies]]<br /> <br /> =Final Exam Papers=<br /> <br /> ==Tips for writing your final exam paper: How to indicate your references==<br /> *You can use the existing book chapters here as an example.<br /> *Please write the text and indicate ALL SOURCES with bibliographical references. That means: At least for every paragraph, sometimes for single sentences, you have to indicate at the end, where you have found this information. E.g. (Liu Miqing 2010, 17). This means you have found it in the book or paper written by Ms Liu on page 17. And then, you need to add a section at the end called &quot;References&quot;. There you write the full version of the reference: Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学. Similarly, you do it for papers: Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Do '''not''' write any references like in one of the sample chapters:<br /> <br /> [1] dsalkfkdsa<br /> <br /> [2] adsfadsfag<br /> <br /> But only the following way:<br /> <br /> (Liu Miqing 2010, 17) in the text<br /> <br /> and then<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> *Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. ''智库时代'' Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br /> *Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2010). ''翻译基础'' [Translation Basis]. Shanghai: Huadong Normal University 华东师范大学.<br /> <br /> Also, please avoid using the three apostrophes like ' ' ' (without spaces). Use the equal signs to mark headers and subheaders instead. If your paper topic has two equal signs at the beginning and end of your topic, then use three equal signs for your sub headers. Example (without spaces):<br /> = = Topic = =<br /> &lt; c e n t e r &gt; Student Name, Student no. &lt; / c e n t e r &gt;<br /> = = = Abstract = = =<br /> This chapter is on ....<br /> = = = Key Words = = =<br /> Egg, Hen<br /> = = = 题目 = = =<br /> = = = 摘要 = = =<br /> = = = 关键词 = = =<br /> = = = Introduction = = =<br /> Here starts the normal text of the chapter. Please remember to indicate the source of EACH PARAGRAPH, sometimes even of single sentences. You can indicate it like this. (Woesler 2020, 345) And don't forget to mention the full bibliographical entry beneath under ''References''.<br /> = = = The Egg = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = The Hen = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = Conclusion = = =<br /> Bla, bla, bla<br /> = = = References = = =<br /> Woesler, Martin. (2020). Responsibility and Ethics in Times of Corona. Woesler, Martin and Hans-Martin Sass eds. ''Medicine and Ethics in Times of Corona'' Muenster: LIT <br /> <br /> ==Sample papers==<br /> You can find the full papers also on the Webpage [[History of Translation Studies]]). They are marked with &quot;Sample paper&quot;.<br /> * A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> * An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications<br /> * Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theroy<br /> * Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View<br /> * Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish<br /> * On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functonal Equivalence&quot; Theories<br /> * Study on Gladys’ Translation of The Border Town from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics<br /> * The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication<br /> * Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior<br /> <br /> ==Websites to write your final exam paper on==<br /> The website where everybody wrote their final exam paper on became too big and produced a database error. Therefore we split the website into 10 small websites. They are sorted like the chapters in the book. Please look for your name and find the right of the 10 small websites to edit your book chapter. Everybody also needs to help to improve other book chapters (copy a paragraph, paste it beneath, make your corrections in the paragraph and sign it).<br /> <br /> &lt;nowiki&gt;Insert non-formatted text here&lt;/nowiki&gt;==Here you can write your Final Exam Papers==<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2, (samples)]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3, students: 蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi, 解帆 Xie Fan, 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi, 郑华君 Zheng Huajun, 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi, 陶冶 Tao Ye, 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan, 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning, 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng，杨逸 Yang Yi, 马淑雅 Ma Shuya, 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan, 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen, 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu, 李梦 Li Meng, 林鑫 Lin Xin, 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia, 漆凯 Qi Kai, 郭露 Guo Lu，张宇星 Zhang Yuxing, 陈涵 Chen Han, 李丽丽 Li Lili, 刘柳 Liu Liu, 陈莎 Chen Sha, 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining, 徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie,彭丹 Peng Dan， 莫南 Mo Nan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4, students: 杨海容 Yang Hairong，游雨婷 You Yuting，王源 Wang Yuan，徐佳 Xu Jia，凌子瑾 Ling Zijin，石迪文 Shi Diwen，张玲 Zhang Ling，曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan，姚诚 Yao Cheng，朱旭 Zhu Xu，许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei，赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan，张琪 Zhang Qi，全美欣 Quan Meixin，何长琦 He Changqi，刘博 Liu Bo，刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi，谌孙福 Chen Sunfu，曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan，肖婷 Xiao Ting，常慧月 Chang Huiyue，彭娟 Peng Juan，彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling，杨悦 Yang Yue，肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling，彭育志 Peng Yuzhi]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5, students: 李玉 Li Yu，林敏 Lin Min，孟莹 Meng Ying，文偲荇 Wen Sixing， 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing，朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao，胡百辉 Hu Baihui，马智星 Ma Zhixing, 胡瑾 Hu Jin，张毓婕 Zhang Yujie，顾东方 Gu Dongfang，高明珠 Gao Mingzhu，张虎 Zhang Hu，袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，王美玲 Wang Meiling，康浩宇 Kang Haoyu，王轩 Wang Xuan，陈永相 Chen Yongxiang，莫玲 Mo Ling，袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi，欧阳静兰 Ouyang Jinglan]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6, students:汤蓓 Tang Bei欧蓉 Ou Rong，谭星越 Tan Xingyue，周罗平 Zhou Luoping，龚钰冕 Gong Yumian， 陈惠 Chen Hui，罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing，周思庆 Zhou Siqing，蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei，瞿淼 Qu Miao，韩海洋 Han Haiyang，刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi，解帆 Xie Fan，刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo，袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen，邬香 Wu Xiang]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7, students:曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu，邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia，姜好 Jiang Hao，管钦清 Guan Qinqing，唐铭 Tang Ming，娄灿灿 Lou Cancan，丁代凤 Ding Daifeng，苏琳 Su Lin，徐佳 Xu Jia， 刘艺 Liu Yi，李凌月 Li Lingyue，马娟 Ma Juan，吴琪 Wu Qi，姚佳 Yao Jia，李海泉 Li Haiquan，吴琼 Wu Qiong，杨子泠 Yang Ziling，林敏 Lin Min，彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong ，汤伊然 Tang Yiran，阳慧 Yang Hui，刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8, students: 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie，王煜 Wang Yu，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，许静 Xu Jing，周书尧 Zhou Shuyao，彭永亮 Peng Yongliang，宋建茹 Song Jianru，韦洪朗 Wei Honglang，魏亚菲 Wei Yafei，张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi，甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu，赵茜 Zhao Xi，吴恺 Wu Kai，周艺文 Zhou Yiwen，张维虹 Zhang Weihong，司妤 Si Yu]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9, students: 易欢 Yi Huan，曾良 Zeng Liang，义子楚 Yi Zichu，欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling，石海瑶 Shi Haiyao，胡慧芳 Hu Huifang，吴一露 Wu Yilu，纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian, 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi，刘欧 Liu Ou，祝美梅 Zhu Meimei，谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan，张银柳 Zhang Yinliu，李泳珊 Li Yongshan，聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou]<br /> *[https://bou.de/u/wiki/History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10, students:陈静静 Chen Jingjing， Thuy Hien Nguyen Thuy Hien，肖茜 Xiao Xi，周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu，余妮 Yu Ni，韩宛真 Han Wanzhen，陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin，成于思 Cheng Yusi，方洁玲 Fang Jieling，张慧 Zhang Hui，吴子佳 Wu Zijia，孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui，李璐伊 Li Luyi，许晶 Xu Jing，周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan，邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu，曹润鑫 Cao Runxin]<br /> <br /> =Benefits=<br /> This course is registered as a &quot;EU Expert&quot; diploma supplement course. Collect 10 such courses during your study and you receive a certificate by the Jean Monnet Chair.</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3&diff=110261 2020-12-11T14:20:11Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第三部分(Part 3)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> ==A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories==<br /> <br /> ==Abstract==<br /> This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==Key words==<br /> Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> 本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> 功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> ==(1)Introduction==<br /> <br /> ===1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory===<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> ===1.2. Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> ==II.Similarities and Differences==<br /> <br /> ===2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi 202070080636&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Dr. Eugene Nida is an outstanding western translation theorist, and as one of the representatives of linguistic translation theory, his translation theory involves various aspects of translation, including the definition, principles and process of translation, exerting profound influences on Western countries, Asian countries and even China. Since the 1980s, Nida’s translation theory entered China, and has received attention and research from a wide range of Chinese translation scholars. This paper, taking Chinese Translators Journal as the object, aims to analyze the influence of his translation theory on the Chinese translation field by investigating the number and contents of Nida’s related papers from 1980 to the present.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达博士是一位西方杰出的翻译理论家，作为语言学翻译理论派的代表人物之一，其翻译理论涉及翻译的各个方面，包括翻译的定义、原则和过程等，对西方国家、亚洲国家乃至中国影响深远。自20世纪80年代奈达翻译思想进入中国，得到了广泛中国翻译学者的关注和研究，本文以权威杂志《中国翻译》为调查目标，对其1980至今的奈达相关论文的数量和内容进行解读，并分析其翻译理论对于中国翻译领域所带来的影响。<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Nida, Translation theory, Influence, Chinese translation studies<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达，翻译理论，影响，中国翻译研究<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (1914-2011) is one of the most famous translation theorists of our time. Based on biblical translation research, he has created his own unique translation theory and published many books such as The Scientific Exploration of Translation, Translation Theory and Practice, etc. In his research, he has proposed such far-reaching translation theories as “dynamic equivalence” and “reader’s response theory”, which have been of far-reaching influences in the western translation.<br /> Chinese translation has always focused on practice and lacks systematic and comprehensive theories. “Although there are dedicated translators who have produced many excellent translation works, the influential theories and researches lag behind.” (Tu &amp; Xiao 2000:3) After Yan Fu proposed his distinguished theory “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, it has dominated Chinese translation theories for more than one hundred years, left In the 1980s, Nida’s theory was introduced to China and has been widely studied and discussed by Chinese scholars, with Tan Zaixi and Lao Long as the representatives. Nida's theory was introduced to China in the 1980s, and was extensively studied and discussed by Chinese scholars, and translation scholars, including Tan Zaixi, Lao Long and others, compiled his works and introduced his translation theory to China. It is deeply engraved on the history of Chinese translation, and Chinese scholar Chen Hongwei even defines it as the &quot;Nada Phenomenon&quot;.<br /> <br /> Founded in 1980, Chinese Translators Journal, a national-level core academic journal, is sponsored by the Compilation and Research Center of the China Foreign Language Bureau and the China Translators Association, as well as the conference journal of the China Translators Association, under the supervision of the Foreign Language Publication and Distribution Bureau of China. It is the window for translation workers to exchange translation research and translation practice experience, the place for academic debate. Chinese translation scholars carry out translation research and academic communication through publishing papers, and the journal sets up columns such as translation research, translation theory and technique, etc., to discuss and study translation theories at home and abroad, and is an excellent research object to study the dynamics of the Chinese translation industry.<br /> <br /> This thesis takes the Chinese Translators Journal as the object of investigation, going through all the Nida-related papers published in the journal from 1980 to the present, and divides them into four stages according to time. By analyzing the number and content of the papers in each stage, it aims to figure out the acceptance and application of Nida's theory by Chinese scholars and have a clear picture of the influence of Nida's translation theory on the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> 1.Eugene Nida and His Translation theories<br /> <br /> 2.The Translation Theories of Eugene Nida in China<br /> <br /> 2.1 Studies on Nida in China<br /> <br /> 2.1.1 Numbers of Papers, Books and Seminars on the Translation of Nida<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 Focuses of the Studies on Nida's Translation Theories<br /> <br /> 2.2 The influence of Nida's translation Theories on Chinese Theorists<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 The attitudes Towards Nida's Translation Theories in China<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Transformations of Theorists in China <br /> <br /> 3. The influence of Nida's translation Theories on Chinese Translation development<br /> <br /> 3.1 The positive influences<br /> <br /> 3.2 The problems<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Acknowledgements===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==An analysis of main factors influencing the choice of translation strategies, the example of Hongloumeng 解帆 Xie Fan==<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper combed the 40 years of reform and opening-up in China the development course of interpreting research, introduces its experienced four stages: in the late 1970 s to 80 s &quot;bud&quot;, &quot;initial development&quot; of the 1990 s, the first decade of the 21st century &quot;new period&quot;, the second decade of the 21st century in the &quot;development&quot;. Finally, the author makes a review and analysis of the achievements and main performances of Chinese interpretation studies and comments on the current development status and future prospects of Chinese interpretation studies.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文简要梳理改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，介绍其所经历的四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”。并回顾分析中国口译研究的成就和主要表现，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.The development and overview of The study of Interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> 2.1 The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research<br /> <br /> 2.1.1<br /> <br /> 2.1.2<br /> <br /> 2.1.3<br /> <br /> 2.1.4<br /> <br /> 2.2 Representative achievements in The study of Interpretation in China<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation of domestic interpretation research===<br /> <br /> ===4.The development trend, characteristics and prospect of Chinese interpretation research===<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Reflections on the Development of Chinese Cultural Self-confidence in Translation from the Perspective of Chinese Translation History 郑华君 Zheng Huajun==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> === The connotation of Chinese cultural self-confidence===<br /> <br /> ===Four translation climaxes in Chinese translation History===<br /> <br /> ===The characteristics of Chinese cultural self-confidence in Chinese translation History===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since there are no identical languages in the world, languages differ not only in the system of linguistic signs but also in culture. In the process of translation, there might be some limits of translatability. Briefly speaking, the limits of translatability are divided into two types. One is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida both have mentioned their opinions about the limits of translatability in their works. After introducing their translation theories and their definitions of translation, this paper will give a brief introduction to their views of untranslatability. Then, this paper also exemplifies some examples of these two kinds of untranslatability. The aim of this paper is to analyze the reasons which cause the limits of translatability and to find some translation strategies to deal with these limits.<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 世界上没有两种完全相同的语言，每种语言都有独特的语言结构和文化内涵。翻译中可能会出现一些不可译的现象。一般来说，翻译的限制大致分为语言不可译和文化不可译两种。对于翻译的限制的问题，卡特福德和尤金·奈达都有各自的看法。本文除了介绍他们各自的翻译理论和对翻译的定义以外，还介绍了他们各自对翻译的限制的看法。同时，本文还分别列举了语言不可译和文化不可译的一些实例，希望借此进一步分析造成翻译中语言不可译和文化不可译的原因以及寻找其对应的翻译策略。<br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Untranslatability, J. C. Catford, Eugene A. Nida<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 不可译；卡特福德；尤金·奈达<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Translation is an activity that concerns more than two languages. Narrowly speaking, every language contains its own linguistic structure and cultural connotation so that some aspects of various languages are quite different. These may cause the gap between the source language and the target language in translation. Accordingly, some problems of translation may be certain to arise at the same time such as the dispute over the translatability and untranslatability. Different scholars hold their own opinions.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, some scholars are very strict to the definition of translation and the limits of translatability. For example, J. C. Catford states that each language is an isolated linguistic system and the formal and contextual meaning of a language are decided by the formal and contextual relations of the language. It is impossible to translate the linguistic meaning from one language to another. But it can implant the values of the source language into the target language by using the process of transference. And Catford also proposes two kind of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, some scholars are positive to the limits of translatability. For example, Eugene A. Nida approves that there are some general principles of all languages so that all languages can produce the same expression effects to satisfy the needs of expressing ideas and communication. He holds that translation should take the readers as its primary objective.<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s views of the limits of translatability are different. To study this question further, it is of necessary to understand and assimilate some opinions of Catford and Nida. And based on both of their translation theories, the aim of this paper is to provide some new ideas about the limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> ===2.The Limits of Translatability=== <br /> ====2.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida’s Translation Theories====<br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Introduction to J. C. Catford and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> J. C. Catford is a famous linguist and translation theorist in Britain and his representative work in the field of translation is called ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' which has first published by Oxford University Press in 1965. This book is an important milestone in the field of translation theory and exerts a profound influence to the western translation theory. <br /> <br /> In this book, Catford holds that translation has to be based on a general linguistic theory and the theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistics. The reason why is that “translation has to do with language, the analysis and description of translation-processes must take considerable use of categories set up for the description of languages.” (Catford, 1965) And Catford mentions that the general linguistic theories used in this book to a large extent are influenced by the works of M. A. K. Halliday and J. R. Firth.<br /> <br /> He also holds that language is a two-directional process while translation is a unidirectional process which is performed from a source language to a target language. Besides, he believes that “translation equivalences may be set up, and translation performed, between any pair of languages or dialects- related or unrelated and with any kind of spatial, temporal, social or other relationship between them.” (Catford, 1965) He also distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. The former refers to that the meanings of target language items are set up by the formal and contextual relations in the target language itself while the later refers to that parts of the target text have values set up in the source language. In this way, he proposes his ideas about the conditions of translation equivalence and the types of translation shifts. In the final part of this book, he discusses the limits of translatability and mentions two kind of untranslatability called linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. And he holds that “cultural untranslatability is ultimately describable in all cases as a variety of linguistic untranslatability.” (Catford, 1965) From this perspective, we can find that Catford emphasizes the values of the linguistic items in its own linguistic system and he pays attention to formal equivalence and conceptual meaning. All in all, Catford provides a scientific and objective way of studying translation theories.<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Introduction to Eugene A. Nida and His Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida is one of the pioneers of modern discipline of translation studies. He is keen on the translation of Bible and he is also one of the main editors of the magazine called ''The Bible Translator''. As the executive secretary of the American Bible Society Translation Department and one of the main members of the United Bible Society Working Committee, Nida undertakes much of the organization of Bible translation. Although Nida doesn’t translate any complete works by himself, he proposes lots of translation principles which influence the practices of Bible translation. He encourages translators to use a common language which refers to a language that could be accepted and understood by most readers.<br /> <br /> The development of Nida’s translation theories can be divided into three parts. （谭载喜，1999）The first part is the stage of descriptive linguistics whose main focus is the syntactical and lexical phenomenon of languages. He is influenced by the father of the structuralist linguistics in the United States called Leonard Bloomfield and an American anthropologist and linguist called Edward Sapir. The second stage is the communication theory in which Nida’s achievements ensure his status in the field of the western translation theory study. In this period, he publishes his famous works such as ''Toward a Science of Translating'' and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Nida states that “translation is far more than a science and it is also a skill and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art.” (Nida, 1982) He also proposes the communicative translation theory by adding the information theory into translation. Moreover, he also proposes his famous theory called the dynamic-equivalence theory which refers to translate “thought for though” rather than “word for word”. And in the third stage, Nida’s main focus is componential analysis of meaning. His main ideas of this period are that language is a system of signs so that the analysis of translation should be taken from the perspectives of sociolinguistics and semiotics. And Nida replaces dynamic equivalence by functional equivalence. And he also pays attention to the problems of rhetoric in translation, especially the contrastive rhetoric. All in all, Nida has contributed to the biblical translation and translation theories all his life.<br /> <br /> ====2.2The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.2.1 The Definition of Translation according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> The definition of translation is a subject at issue in the field of translation theories. Broadly speaking, every translation theorist clings to the ideas of his own understanding. According to Catford, translation is a process performed from a source language into a target language. He states that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language).” (Catford, 1965) He explains the implication of “textual material” that there may be some replacements by no-equivalent target language material. The main focus of translation practice is to find target language translation equivalents and the main focus of translation theory is to define the nature and conditions of translation equivalence. <br /> <br /> Besides, Catford distinguishes textual equivalence and formal correspondence. For him, the former refers to that any target language form is observed to be the equivalent of a given source language form. (Catford, 1965) The later refers to that any target category occupies the same place in the economy of the target language as the given category occupies in the source language. (Catford, 1965) He adds that formal correspondence can be only approximate rather than identical.<br /> <br /> As for the theory of meaning in translation, Catford holds that it is impossible for source language and target language text to have that same meaning. He borrows the definition of meaning proposed by J. R. Firth that “meaning is the total network of relations entered into by any linguistic forms.” (Catford, 1965) There are two relations called formal relations and contextual relations so that there are accordingly two kinds of meanings. One is formal meaning that is constituted by the various formal relations. Another is contextual meaning that is constituted by a range of situational elements. Because of the approximation of the formal correspondence, it is clear that it is nearly impossible for the formal meanings of source language items to be identical with target language items. Therefore, Catford proposes a process called transference that refers to an operation to set up values of the source language into the target language text. As a result, Catford distinguishes the definitions of translation and transference. He states that translation means the substitution of target language meanings for source language meanings while transference contains the implantation of source language meanings into the target language text. <br /> The source language and target language items have little similarities of the meaning in the linguistic sense so the aim of the translation is to select target language equivalents with the greatest possible overlap of situational range as the source language items. Catford concludes conditions for translation equivalence that translation equivalence occurs when there are some identical features of substance between the source language and target language. According to his distinction of the total translation and restricted translation, Catford proposes some limits of translatability.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Definition of Translation according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> In the book called ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida has mentioned that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida, 1982) To define translation in this way, Nida emphasizes the importance of reproducing the message rather than remaining the form of the utterance. He also emphasizes the closet natural equivalent which refers to the closet relationship between the meaning of source language and target language. Besides, he deems the priority of meaning and the significance of style. Therefore, he states that the departures from the formal structure are legitimate and desirable. Nida proposes some principles of translation, for example, contextual consistency is prior verbal over consistency and dynamic equivalence is prior over formal correspondence.<br /> <br /> Nida states two types of equivalence that one is formal equivalence and another is dynamic equivalence and he also deems that the aim of translation is to find the closet possible equivalent. Formal correspondence refers to a kind of gloss translation that the translator tries to reproduces the form and content of the message in the source language. In such a translation, it is concerned with correspondences as sentence to sentence or concept to concept. It may be determined by the translation standards such as accuracy and correctness. In contrast to formal correspondence, a translation of dynamic equivalence is based on the principle to produce equivalent effects. It pays attention to the dynamic relationship between receptor and message which needs to be similar to the relationship between the original receptors and the message. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the naturalness of expression so that the receptor could understand the message under his own cultural patterns rather than that of the source language context.<br /> <br /> Nida also mentions the restrictions of the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. The linguistic restrictions involve the literary forms and the vehicles and the cultural restrictions involve the standard of “faithfulness” and the diversity of dialects in the receptor language.<br /> <br /> ====2.3The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida====<br /> 2.3.1The Limits of Translatability according to J. C. Catford<br /> <br /> In ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'', Catford distinguishes two kinds of translations which are called total translation and restricted translation according to the levels of language involved in translation. Total translation is defined as “replacement of source language grammar and lexis by equivalent target language grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of source language phonology/graphology by(non-equivalent) target language phonology/graphology.” (Catford, 1965) And restricted translation is defined as “replacement of source language textual material by equivalent target language textual material, at only one level.” (Catford, 1965) This kind of translation is performed only at the phonological or at the graphological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for restricted translation, Catford generalizes two limits. The first is that translation between media is impossible. In other words, to translate the spoken form of a text to a written form is impossible. The reason is that the phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different. The phonic substance is relevant to the sound produced in the human vocal tract while the graphic substance is relevant to visible marks on papers or stones. Therefore, it is only a universal practice among literates to converse spoken medium to written medium. And the second kind of limit is that translation between either of the medium-levels and the levels of grammar and lexis is impossible. It is the same that phonic and graphic substance are absolutely different from situation- substance. As a result, there is never any translation from the levels of grammar and/or lexis to the levels of phonology or graphology, and vice versa.<br /> <br /> As for the limits of translatability for total translation, Catford states that “translatability appears to be a cline rather than a clear- cut dichotomy.” (Catford, 1965) In other words, source language texts are not absolutely translatable or untranslatable. As for total translation, both source language and target language text must be relatable to be functionally relevant features of the situation. And the untranslatability or the limits of translatability will occur if it is impossible to build functionally relevant features of the situation into the contextual meaning of the target language text. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds of untranslatability which are linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability occurs when the target language has no formally corresponding features with the source language text. A best example of linguistic untranslatability is an ambiguity peculiar to the source language text. One source of ambiguity is that two or more distinct grammatical or lexical items are expounded in the same phonological or graphological form. Another source of ambiguity is that polysemy. Polysemy means that one single item has a wide contextual meaning so that it may cover a wide range of specific situational features. All in all, linguistic untranslatability is leaded by the formal linguistic differences when the source language formal feature is itself the functionally relevant feature. And cultural untranslatability occurs when a situational feature is completely absent from the culture of which the target language is a part. It is not so absolutely as linguistic untranslatability. Catford also adds that cultural untranslatability might be a type of linguistic untranslatability in that it refers to the impossibility of finding an equivalent collocation in the target language.<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 The Limits of Translatability according to Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> Although there are no identical languages and no absolute correspondences between languages, many languages have the potential and actual equivalence and equivalent idioms. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original but little identity in detail. It is the fact that each language has its own characteristics and each language is rich in vocabulary for the area of cultural focus. Each language has its own system of symbolizing meaning. It is also the fact that “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another, unless the form is an essential element of the message.” (Nida, 1982) Nida states that the translator must attempt to reproduce the meaning of a passage.<br /> <br /> When the form is of its significance in the source language text, there may be a limitation to express this significance from one language to another. Nida holds that “to preserve the content of the massage the form must be changed.” (Nida, 1982) It means that translators may be prepared to alter the forms or sacrifice certain formal niceties to preserve the content. And Nida also adds that “the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend on the linguistic and cultural distance between languages.” (Nida, 1982) As regards to the linguistic and cultural distance, there are three different types of relatedness between the codes used to convey the messages. Firstly, a translation may involve comparatively closely related languages and cultures. Secondly, in a translation, the language may not be related, even though the cultures are closely parallel. Thirdly, a translation may involve not only differences of linguistic affiliation but also highly diverse cultures. In Nida’s view, “differences between cultures cause many more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure.” (Nida, 1964)<br /> <br /> In ''Toward a Science of Translation'', Nida mentions the restrictions on the permissible degree of dynamic equivalence in translation. He states that there are certain serious restrictions of a linguistic and a cultural nature when translators undertake the process of translation with a considerable degree of dynamic equivalence. The linguistic restrictions include the literary forms such as poetry and proverbs and the vehicle used to convey the message such as songs. As for literary forms, sound effect is impossible to be reproduced in that languages are different in the types of sounds they use and the values they tend to attach to these uses. In the translation of the poetry, it is hard to agree with the poetic superstructure in the target language text. Nida deems that the translators may abandon formal equivalence to strive for dynamic equivalence which means to take the liberty of composing another poem capable of eliciting similar feeling. This is the same to the song translators that the form must be maintained so some contents might be sacrificed. It demands much greater conformity to the musical vehicles in the translation of a song. Nida also mentions the cultural restrictions which involve attitudes about so-called “faithfulness” in translation, the diversity of dialects in the receptor language and so on. As for pressures from tradition, it concerns that the standards of translation such as “faithfulness”’ “accuracy” and “effect”. The reason is that there are differences of taste in translation at different historical periods. Dialectal differences also cause restrictions upon the form of a translation. Problems of dialectal differences may occur in the phenomenon that how to accommodate these complex linguistic facts or how to deal with the dialectal variations in the text itself. Although there are many restrictions in translation, a good translation is to fulfill the same purpose in a new language as the original does in the language in which it is written.<br /> <br /> ====2.4 Specific Examples to Illustrate the Limits of Translatability====<br /> 2.4.1Specific Examples to Illustrate Linguistic Untranslatability<br /> <br /> It is obvious that no two languages are identical and each language has its own way to constitute words, phrases and sentences. Each language has its own characteristics especially in vocabulary containing the cultural elements. Some languages may be rich in vocabulary of fishing and hunting while some languages may be rich in the expressions of technology. Every language has its own ways of classifying the various elements of experiences with the symbols which are quite different from all other languages. The system of language is very complex in that there are lots of ways to symbolize meaning. The way of thinking may be illustrated in the deep layer of language. Different native speakers of different languages may differ in the using of the rhetoric techniques and expressions. There are some examples to illustrate the limits of translatability between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> The first type of these examples is the rhetorical technique called pun. Pun is a clever and amusing use of a word or phrase with more than one meaning or of words with the same or nearly the same sound but different meanings. It just like a game playing with language. There are broadly two kinds of pun which are homophonic pun and homographic pun.<br /> <br /> Examples of homophonic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son-how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br /> <br /> Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> More sun and air for your son and heir.<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。(刘禹锡《竹枝词》)<br /> <br /> There are many homophonic words in these examples which share the same sound but with different meaning. In English, “sun” and “son” have the same sound as well as “air” and “heir”. In Chinese, “晴” and “情” are identical in pronunciation but containing different meanings. These examples exemplify that it is nearly impossible to translate the form and content of these puns at the same time. The forms of the puns must be changed to convey the meanings.<br /> <br /> Examples of homographic pun:<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> Spoil yourself and not your figure.<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> Better late than late.<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> 白团扇，今来此去捐。愿得入郎手，团圆郎眼前。( 张祜《团扇郎》)<br /> <br /> There are many homographic words in these expressions. “Spoil oneself” means one gives himself something nice as a treat while “spoil one’s figure” means to get fat. The same is to the word “late” which has two meanings. Late can express the meaning of after the planned, expected or usual time and also can express that someone has died. It is hard to remain the form of the words in the process of translation. It is necessary to scarify the form of the words to express the meanings.<br /> <br /> Besides, there is another interesting phenomenon to illustrate the limits of linguistic translatability called palindrome. Palindrome is a word or phrase which is the same when you spell it backwards. It is also a typical character of a language. It is almost impossible to find the formal equivalents of a palindrome in the target language.<br /> <br /> Examples of palindrome:<br /> <br /> Example 7:<br /> Madam，I’ m Adam.<br /> <br /> Example 8:<br /> No x in Nixon.<br /> <br /> Example 9:<br /> 上海自来水来自海上。<br /> <br /> Example 10:<br /> 知者不言, 言者不知。<br /> 信言不美, 美言不信。<br /> 善者不辩, 辩者不善。<br /> <br /> These examples imply the differences between the system of linguistic signs of different languages. Each language has its isolated linguistic system. What translators could do is to find the closet natural equivalent rather than the identical. There are also good examples to translate palindrome in Chinese. A good example to illustrate is to translate “Ma is as selfless as I am” into “妈妈为我, 我为妈妈”. Another example is to translate “Able was I ere I saw Elba” into “不到俄岛我不倒”. Both translations try to maintain the forms and contents of the palindrome of the source text. Although it is not identical expressions, it is better illustrations of the potential and actual equivalence of languages.<br /> <br /> The limits of linguistic translatability also manifest in the translation of poetry. There is a large focus on formal elements in the translation of poetry. In this kind of translation, sometimes forms are sacrificed for the sake of contents while more often the contents are restricted in the formal molds. Each poetry has its specific emotional intensity and flavor which are hard to be reproduced in another different language. Taking English poetry as examples, there are foots and rhythm which are particular to the expressions of English poetry. There are eight kinds of foot like iambic, trochee and so on. Besides, there are tetrameter, pentameter and so on to express the flowing of words. <br /> <br /> Example 11:<br /> Life is the lust of a lamp for the light that is dark till the dawn of the day that we die．<br /> <br /> Example 12：<br /> The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,<br /> <br /> They lowing herd wind slowly，o'er the lea，<br /> <br /> The ploughman homeward plods his weary way，<br /> <br /> And leaves the world to darkness and to me.<br /> <br /> From these examples, it is obvious that the use of rhymes in poetry is various in different languages. It is hard to reproduce these elements with another kind of linguistic signs. The ways of rhymes like alliteration and assonance are impossible to find the formal equivalents in Chinese. One of the reasons may be that the linguistic distance of English and Chinese is so far that there is little linguistic affirmation. The codes used to convey the message are totally different.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Specific Examples to Illustrate Cultural Untranslatability<br /> <br /> Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior. It consists ideas, customs, taboos and so on. Each human society has its own particular culture which is manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture. Each language has a system of linguistic signs to express its own cultural substances and values. In fact, the limits of cultural translatability are not so absolute as linguistic untranslatability. It is relative untranslatability.<br /> <br /> Idioms is a product of culture which is also called the linguistic forms of culture. Idiom refers to a group of words that have a special meaning whose meaning can’ t be guessed from each separate word. Idiom is related to some connotative meanings which differs in the cultural background of each national community. As a result, the translation of idioms needs to convey the massage of some cultural elements. Although culture differs from each community, translators need to use different translation strategies to convey the cultural information as more as possible. Usually, there are three methods to translate idioms.<br /> <br /> The first method is literal translation which can both convey the literal meaning and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 13:<br /> Pour oil on fire 火上浇油<br /> <br /> Have something at one’ s finger-ends 了如指掌<br /> <br /> Like father, like son 有其父, 必有其子<br /> <br /> Strike while the iron is hot 趁热打铁<br /> <br /> Practice makes perfect 熟能生巧<br /> <br /> Seeing is believing 眼见为实<br /> <br /> Kill two birds with one stone 一石二鸟<br /> <br /> In fact, there are many commonalities between human beings so that there are also some similarities between two languages. This kind of translation is very ideal which expressing both the literal and rhetorical meaning.<br /> <br /> However, there are still differences between the cultural background of two languages which are mirrored in the translation of idioms.<br /> <br /> The second method is literal translation with annotation which is to translate the literal meaning and explain the rhetorical meaning with annotations.<br /> <br /> Example 14:<br /> Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.<br /> 衣橱藏骷髅，丑事家家有。<br /> <br /> Example 15：<br /> 叶公好龙<br /> Lord Sheh' s love of dragons (Lord Sheh was so fond of dragons that he adorned his whole palace with drawings and carvings of them. But when a real dragon heard of his infatuation and paid him a visit, he was frightened out of his wits.)<br /> <br /> The third method is free translation which is to translate the rhetorical meaning only or to translate the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning.<br /> <br /> Example 16:<br /> Fish where the fish are. 有的放矢<br /> <br /> You can’t catch old birds with chaff. 有经验的人不易上当受骗<br /> <br /> Shrouds have no pockets. 人死带不走钱财<br /> <br /> Revenge is a dish best eaten cold. 君子报仇十年不晚<br /> <br /> These examples are just translating the rhetorical meanings. There are other examples including the translation of both the rhetorical meaning and parts of the literal meaning. For example, translating “破釜沉舟” in Chinese to “burn one’s boat” in English is expressing the rhetorical meaning and similar literal meaning of the idiom.<br /> <br /> All in all, the differences between culture deserve further consideration in the translation of idioms. Translators are supposed to choose an appropriate approach to convey the message contained in idioms.<br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> Each language has its own genius so that it has its special way to build word, phrases and sentences. And it also has its special way to symbolize meanings which depends on its native speakers’ understanding and experiences of the world. And each language has its typical expressions which can be manifested in its specific types of poetry, proverbs and dialects.<br /> <br /> All these reasons may have an impact on translation in that there are lots of differences between languages. The limits of translatability are briefly divided into linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. Sometime the linguistic untranslatability is absolute for languages differ in the system of linguistic signs. Therefore, there may be a choice between the form and content of the source language. Sometimes the form of the source text might be sacrificed for the sake of the contents. But the cultural untranslatability is not absolute as the linguistic untranslatability. It is relatively untranslatable. Translators can use some translation strategies to convey the cultural message and explain the implication of the cultural information. Although there are lots of limits of translatability, the ultimate aim of translation is to convey the message rather than to find equivalents in the target language.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Catford, J. C.1965. ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics''[M]. London: Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> [2]谭载喜, 1999, 《新编奈达论翻译》［M］。北京：中国对外翻译出版公司。<br /> <br /> [3]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R. Taber. 1982. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [4]Nida, Eugene A .1964. ''Towards a Science of Translating''[M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different translation cases.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本分析，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> '''关键词:'''Poetics; Ideology; Patronage; Manipulate<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.(Zhang Yuanyuan 2010, 81)Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.<br /> <br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans 1985, 10-11)<br /> <br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation. The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.<br /> <br /> ===1.Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.1 Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this. Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (Andre Lefevere,14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan, 130)<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (Andre Lefevere,26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan, 131)<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (Andre Lefevere,19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, critics, teachers and translators The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department, &quot;The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature&quot;, &quot;that are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power. (Zhang Yuanyuan)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and the social meeting place where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan, 131)<br /> <br /> ===2.Analysis of translation cases===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Analysis based on Ideology''' <br /> Example one: In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.(Huang Mingjuan, 144)<br /> <br /> Example two: Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.例1：原文：大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… 译文：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly.(Jia Shanshan, 169) <br /> <br /> Example three: As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. Example 1: English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play.(Long juan &amp; Tang Bo, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics according to the idea of himself, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.(Zhang Baiye &amp; Hu Yajie, 106)<br /> <br /> Example five: In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.(Xie Chengfeng, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.(Zhou Ya, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Analysis based on Poetics'''<br /> Example one: There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> <br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.(Huang Mingjuan, 144-145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.(Jia Shanshan, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.(Long juan &amp; Tang Bo, 64)<br /> <br /> Example four: In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.(Zhang Baiye &amp; Hu Yajie, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five: Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen.(Xie Chengfeng, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.(Zhou Ya, 177)<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Analysis based on Patronage'''<br /> Example one:In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan, 145)<br /> <br /> Example two: The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan, 169)<br /> <br /> Example three: In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan &amp; Tang Bo, 65)<br /> <br /> Example four:Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baiye &amp; Hu Yajie, 107)<br /> <br /> Example five:Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng, 180)<br /> <br /> Example six: Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya, 178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> [1]Theo Hermans.The Manipulation of literature: Studies of literary translation [M]. London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985.<br /> <br /> [2]Andre Lefevere. Translation, History and Culture [M]. London: Routledge, 1992.<br /> <br /> [3]黄明娟.从操纵论看《茶馆》翻译——以英若诚和霍华译本为例[J].青年文学家,2020(14):144-145.<br /> <br /> [4]贾珊珊.&quot;翻译操纵理论下的外宣文本英译研究——以十九大开幕式报告为例.&quot; 疯狂英语(理论版).02(2018):168-169.<br /> <br /> [5]龙娟,唐博.基于操纵理论的美剧字幕翻译研究[J].现代英语,2020(02):63-65.<br /> <br /> [6]谢承凤.剖析翻译中的操纵论——以译作《彼得·潘》为例[J].科教文汇(中旬刊),2016(12):180.<br /> <br /> [7]张白桦,胡雅洁.改写理论三要素对翻译的影响——以林语堂《浮生六记》英译本为例[J].中州大学学报,2017,34(01):105-108.<br /> <br /> [8]张晓娟.浅谈勒弗菲尔操控理论的三大要素对翻译的影响.[J].西安社会科学,2010,28(4): 130-131.<br /> <br /> [9]张园园.翻译就是操纵——操纵学派综述[J].商丘职业技术学院学报,2010,9(3):81-82.<br /> <br /> [10]周亚.操纵论与《李尔王》译本的对比研究——以梁实秋和朱生豪译本为例[J].海外英语,2014(23):176-178.<br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell’s Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning==<br /> ==Roger T.Bell’s Special Outlook on Translation Studies==<br /> ==罗杰·贝尔的特殊翻译观==<br /> 摘要：自翻译活动开始之际，人们就开始讨论“什么是翻译”这一问题，却始终没有得到一个统一的答案，由此可见翻译活动之复杂。本文主要探讨英国翻译家罗杰·贝尔提出的翻译过程模式，贝尔的创新之处在于他尝试用图形模式来描述翻译的过程，他以系统功能语言模式为理论基础，结合认知科学、认知心理学探讨意义是如何被认知又如何被转换，新信息与旧信息如何组合形成一个全新的目标语译文，从而更好地解释了翻译学科的跨学科性以及译者在翻译活动中的思维运转方式和操作过程。<br /> Key words: Roger T.Bell; Translation process; Systemic functional linguistics; Cognitive psychology<br /> Abstract: “What is translation”? It has been discussed over the years since the emergence of the translation activities. As well all know, it is difficult to give translation a unified definition as a result of its complicated nature. This paper will mainly discuss British Translator Roger T.Bell’s Translation Process Theory based on the Systemic Functional linguistics, connected with cognitive science and cognitive psychology so as to understand how meaning is perceived and transformed and how the combination of the new and old information form a completely new target text. The contribution Bell has made lies in that he tried to use the graphics mode to fully show translation process, which better explains the interdisciplinary trait of translation and how the translator’s thinking mode works during this complex activity.<br /> Introduction: There are many outstanding translation theorists expressing their principle about what the translation is. For instance, Yan Fu, a brilliant translator once put forward his brief but powerful view about translation, that is, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Professor Qian Zhongshu also showed his opinion towards translation and brought forth the principle “Sublimation Theory”. As for western translators, Eugene Nida’s “Functional Equivalence Theory”; James Holmes’ “Text-level Translation Process” and Roger T.Bell’s “Translation Process Model” and so on, all of them have come up with meaningful idea about translation. Here comes another question: What is the main focus of translation? Barhudalov, former Soviet Union translation theorist, expressed his opinion in his book called “Language and Translation” that the word “translation” had two meanings: one referred to the result of a process, which was the target text itself; the other referred to the translation process itself, that is to say, it emphasized the act of translating. So is the target text more important as a translation product or the process that contains translation act more significant? This is a question which attracts many translation scholars’ attention and according to the research results of recent translation fruits both in eastern and western translation academia, almost all scholars put their focus on the study of product and its standardization; however, translation process is rarely studied. What’s worse, the way they study is almost the same, all start from analyzing the source text and target text, then compare the two, that is to say, compare the product of source text and target text to see whether it is the same, we call it a product-to-product comparison. Meanwhile, from the perspective of the purpose of translation study, it seems that we should pay more attention to analyze the complex process of the conversion between two languages, and explains the problems and gives some feasible solutions and operating procedures. There is no doubt that taking translation as a process to study is beneficial to both perfect the translation theory and improve translation level. Therefore, this paper will mainly focus on the study of Roger T.Bell’s Translation Process Model, which claimed the essence of translation is the process rather than product. It is also worthy of mentioning that he not only studied the process of translation, but also made a great breakthrough by connecting the translation with systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology, which exhibits a more comprehensive translation theory for the whole academia. And it is these two elements that made Bell’s translation process model a special and valuable one.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting, Student No.202070080615 ==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> In his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation, Catford defines translation as “the substitution of one equivalent language (the translated language)’ s textual material for another language (the original language),” and regards the search for equivalent components for the original language as the central problem. Thus, he proposes that the mission of translation theory is to find the nature and conditions of equivalence components. Eugene Nida proposes the dynamic equivalence based on communicative theory. In the light of communicative function of a language, he believes that except for information transmission, language has many communicative functions, such as expressive function, cognitive function, interpersonal relationship function, imperative function, performative function, emotive function, etc. Translation should not only transmit information, but also convey the above-mentioned functions of a language, which is the “equivalence” pursued by Nida. Since Nida views translation as a communicative activity, he argues that the effectiveness of translation depends on receiving the maximum amount of information with the minimum of effort.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Catford; Eugene Nida; communitive function; equivalence<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特在《翻译的语言学理论》一书中写道“：“翻译是用一种等值的语言的文本材料去替换另一种语言的文本材料”，并把寻求源语言中的等值成分视作翻译的中心问题，从而提出翻译理论的目的就在于确定等值成分的本质和条件。尤金·奈达在交际学理论的基础上提出了动态对等的翻译理论。从语言的交际功能出发，他认为语言除了传递信息外，还有许多交际方面的功能，如表达功能、认识功能、人际关系功能、祈使功能、司事功能、表感功能等。翻译不仅需要做到传递信息，还需要实现上述的功能，这也就是奈达所追求的 “等效”。由于奈达把翻译视作一种交际活动，所以他在衡量翻译的效果时也是从翻译所传递的信息量出发，认为翻译的效果取决于花最小的功夫接受最大的信息量。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 卡特福特；尤金·奈达；交际功能；对等<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Since the 1950s, several scholars in the West have focused on structural theory, transformative theory, function theory, discourse theory and information theory of modern linguistics, who regarded translation as one subject of linguistics. From the perspectives of comparative linguistics, applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, semantics, semiotics, communication, etc., they brought about relatively well-organized translation theories and methods, which have made great contributions to translation research. Roman Jakobson, Eugen A. Nida, J.C. Catford and Peter Newmark are all representatives of that time. And scholars above have certainly drawn people’s attention to the theory research of translation. <br /> The paper is aiming at introducing the translation theories proposed by J.C. Catford and Eugene Nida. <br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Catford's theory===<br /> Catford is one of the representatives of the linguistic school, and his book—A Linguistic Theory of Translation, published in 1965, has become the most influential work of contemporary translation theory research. From a modern linguistic perspective, this book interprets some common translation problems. At the same time, it has led to a huge response in Western linguistic and translation theory circles, <br /> praised as “a work that explored a new way for the research of translation theory”(Bao Zhennan 1982,68).<br /> <br /> ====The Nature of Translation====<br /> <br /> According to Catford, translation is the study of the relationship between languages, and he sees translation as an inter-language activity, the process of which is to replace the text of one language (the original language) with the text of another language (the translated language).(Catford 1965,20) Catford views translation activity from the perspective of comparative linguistics, holding that the process of translation is the process of comparing two grammars and vocabularies from the perspective of comparative linguistics.<br /> <br /> ====The Classification of Translation==== <br /> <br /> Catford classifies translation into six categories from three aspects.<br /> In terms of the degree of translation, it includes “full translation” and “partial translation”. Full translation means every word of the original text should be replaced by the material from the translated text; partial translation, also called zero translation, is one in which a part or some parts of the original text are not translated. Then the untranslated parts are directly cited in the translated text without any change.<br /> In terms of language levels, there are “total translation” and “restricted translation”. Total translation means that no matter grammatical structure or vocabularies, the original language has its corresponding equivalence in the translated language; However, this does not equal to complete equivalence; restricted translation refers to translation limited to one language level, such as phonetic translation, lexical translation, morphological translation and grammatical translation.<br /> In terms of ranks of language structure, translation can be divided into “rank-bounded translation” and “unbounded translation”. Rank-bounded translation pays more attention to the lower-level language structure, i.e., word to word and lexeme to lexeme; unbounded translation, however, is not limited by language structures, such as “free translation”. He also points out that literal translation is not the same as word-for-word translation, which is a translation combined word-for-word translation and free translation.<br /> ====Translation Equivalence====<br /> From Catford’s definition of translation, it is easy to find that equivalence is the keyword. Since the central problem of translation practice is to find corresponding equivalence in the translated language, while the central task of translation theory is to explain the nature and conditions of equivalent forms of translation.(Catford 1965,20-21) In terms of equivalence, translation is dynamic, including textual and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence refers to the equivalence of a translated text with a given original text in a specific situation. But in some cases, lexical items in the original text don’t have the corresponding one in the translated text. For example, “the sun also rises” in Chinese is “太阳照常升起”, which doesn't translate the definite article “the”. In this case, only phrases can realize equivalence. Formal correspondence means that the grammatical categories of the translated text, as well as the original text, are special to its languages respectively. Since part of speech, person and tense are defined by their interrelationship in the language, formal correspondence is relative, not absolute.<br /> According to Catford, to achieve equivalence, the translated text must share certain occasions with the original text, and the more occasions shared, the higher the quality of the translation. Shared occasions mean that the translated text and original text can play the same role in certain situations. If the linguistic units are changeable in a given situation, then they can be regarded as equivalent forms. Translators are not supposed to choose the equivalent forms with the same meaning, but with the same or similar characteristics on certain occasions.<br /> <br /> ====Translation Shifts====<br /> <br /> The term “shifts” was coined by Catford. He holds that shifts are the correspondence of the original language into the translated language in the process of changing its form.(Liu Junping2009,140) Translation shifts are the deviation of the formal correspondence in the process of translating the original language into the translated language. Conversions include level shifts and category shifts. Level shifts refers to the fact that the words used in the translated text and the original text are at different linguistic levels, and also refers to the conversion of the grammar and the vocabulary. Category shifts, on the other hand, refers to the translation deviating from the two language forms, including structural shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra- system shifts.<br /> <br /> ====Limits of Translatability====<br /> <br /> Catford points out that limits of translatability have two conditions—one is linguistic untranslatability and the other is cultural untranslatability. Linguistic untranslatability means that the translated text has no corresponding formal features to the original text, with no available vocabulary or grammar that can replace the original language, such as polysemy and puns. Cultural untranslatability is caused by non-linguistic factors such as different social customs. Catford, however, argues that part of untranslatable terms associated with culture can also be seen as linguistic untranslatability because there is no strict and absolute distinction between linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability.<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Eugene Nida's theory===<br /> Eugene Nida is an important figure in the translation field. He has devoted himself to the American Bible Society for over half a century. His life-long research has put Bible at its core. Therefore, his translation theories have come into being because of his translation practice. <br /> ====Dynamic Equivalence Theory====<br /> <br /> Formal correspondence and functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) were introduced by Eugene Nida. According to Nida, dynamic equivalence means that and the target language receiver and the source language creator are able to have a similar response, which is the closest and natural equivalence to the source language.(Eugene Nida 1964) “Equivalence” is for the source language, while “natural” is for the target language, and “closest” is the combination of the two on the basis of a high degree of approximation. Based on Chomsky’s Generative Grammar, he proposes functional equivalence, summarizing the translation process into three steps: analysis, transfer, and restructuring. The first step is to understand the original text and the second step is to transfer the meaning of the original text. In the end, the equivalence of the semantics and style can be acquired. Nida also believes that “formal correspondence will distort the grammar and style of the target language, making it difficult for the target readers to understand or even misunderstand the text.”<br /> In the process of translation, Nida points out that the “equivalence” of dynamic equivalence includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. <br /> 1) Lexical equivalence. The meaning of a word lies in its usage in a language. In terms of English-Chinese translation, English and Chinese vocabulary includes five kinds of correspondence—word equivalence, synonyms, polysemy, intertwined meanings, and unequal words, among which the complete equivalence of words is mainly among proper nouns. Though there is no word with the same meaning, languages can express similar meanings with different forms. <br /> 2) Syntactic equivalence. Again, in the term of English-Chinese translation, syntactic equivalence is much more complicated than lexical equivalence. Since English is hypotactic, while Chinese is paratactic, the tenses are different. For example, In English, the singular and plural forms of nouns and the tenses of verbs cannot be found in Chinese. In the process of translation, therefore, it is necessary to find equivalent concepts. The concepts of “了” and “过” in Chinese can reflect the tenses in English. Sometimes, differences in vocabulary can create obstacles for syntactic equivalence in translation. There are relational pronouns in English but not in Chinese, which means that in English-Chinese translation, the order and combination of definite clauses needed to be taken into consideration.<br /> 3) Textual equivalence. A text is a unit of language-using. Linguistic context, situational context, and cultural context are the three aspects of textual equivalence. Context analysis is used to determine the meaning of words or semantic units in the original text, thus determining the semantic transformations. Situational analysis, however, cannot figure out the exact meaning of certain linguistic phenomena from the context. Therefore, only by referring to the events, participants, and modes of communication that take place at the time can the language be determined. Difficulties such as lexical gaps, cultural misunderstandings, and even cultural conflicts are often encountered in translation, which are difficult to be solved by translation skills, so the translator must have a deep understanding of the culture of the source language and the target language. Nida once said, “As for a truly successful translation work, being familiar with cultures is even more important than mastery of the languages, because words only have its meaning in culture-related issues.<br /> 4) Stylistic equivalence. In order to create a translation that truly reflects the style of the source language, the translator must master the source language and target language and be proficient in both languages.<br /> The concept of equivalence is a fundamental topic in translation research. Nida uses the communicative method to solve this problem. He insists that anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another language; communication between languages and cultures can be carried out by finding translation equivalence and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of the original text in an appropriate way. Therefore, the translated text should be easy for the target reader to accept, which should also conform to the norms of the receiving language. This further became his theory—dynamic equivalence, the closest and most natural equivalence. One way to define dynamic equivalence is to describe it as the most natural equivalence.<br /> This definition includes three basic terms. First, equivalence. It focuses more on the source language; second, natural. It refers to the target language; third, the closest. It connects the two based on extreme similarity; fourth, dynamic equivalence. It means using the most natural and equivalent language to transfer the meaning from the original text into the target language. “The closest” focuses on the meaning, choosing the closest meaning followed the rule of “being natural”. To realize dynamic equivalence, the translator should focus on the meaning and the spirit of the original text and not be restricted to the linguistic structure of the original text or formal equivalence. According to Nida’s definition, dynamic equivalence is not equal to the traditional “free translation” or “flexible translation”, because dynamic equivalence has its own strict requirements, which requires the translation to reproduce the original meaning as perfectly as possible in different linguistic structures, while there is no demand for “free translation” or “flexible translation”. “Free translation” often depends a lot on the creation of the translator. <br /> Obviously, the fundamental task of translation is to achieve equivalence between the translated text and the original text. However, there is no absolute equivalence between two different discourses, whether they are intralingual communication or interlingual communication. What translators are seeking is the closest equivalence, which means the translation should be as close as possible to the original text. Also, the translation should be natural and without translationese. To achieve this goal, translators should consider the communicative intent of the source language and the style of the target language and analyze the reading abilities of the target language readers. If there is too much for receptors to think, translators may run the risk of readers’ misinterpreting or misunderstanding of the translation. In translation, the main task for translators is to convey the information of the original language in time. In order to do this, the translator must make sure that the original text can be properly understood by the reader. Therefore, the most difficult part of a translation job is to find that “critical point” that connects the original text to the translated text in the most natural way.<br /> <br /> ====Reader’s Response Theory====<br /> <br /> Reader’s response theory Nida proposed is used to explain his dynamic equivalence theory, and from this perspective, he points out some translation standards and techniques that can be adopted in the translation practice. Reader’s response theory focuses on domestication in terms of translation skills. Domestication emphasizes the “idiomaticness” of the translated text, which means using the speech forms in line with the expression of the target language, thus making receptors easily understand the meaning of the original text. Nida advocates that translations should be so natural that readers can understand them without any cultural background knowledge of the original language, which requires that we use as many expressions of the translated language as possible, instead of borrowing words, loan words, from the original language. Reader’s response theory focuses on the reader of the translated text and the information communication, thus placing more importance on the contents of the text. Many elements in the original text, such as language expressions and certain behavioral patterns, are converted into forms with cultures familiar to the receptors. According to Nida, in order to preserve the content, the adjustments made to the source language depends on the difference of the linguistic and cultural differences between the source language and the target language. In a sense, this is like conducting a market survey to test public’s reaction to a product. If the public shows no affection to the product, no matter how good it is, or how good it looks in a showroom, it will not be accepted. Undoubtedly, Nida’s theories make sense. If a translation work does not take readers into consideration and ignore reader’ s reaction, it surely can’t be said to be a qualified one. <br /> For example, if one wants to translate the Analects into modern English, in order to maintain the ancient style, he plans to use old English. The consequence will be the fact that English readers will find it difficult to accept the translation. Of course, a small number of researchers who are proficient in old English may accept it, but the Analects should be read by more than just a few researchers. Here is another example. Shakespeare’s works are popular and bring joy to English readers, but if his works translated into Chinese misleads Chinese readers, such a translation cannot be an ideal translation. Therefore, the translation should never be detached from the background of the original text, and the translator should also consider the thinking modes of the recipients in understanding the content.<br /> <br /> ====Three Developing Periods of Nida’s Theories====<br /> <br /> 1) The period of descriptive linguistics, from 1943 to 1959, is the first major period of the development of Nida’s translation thoughts and his academic activities. In this stage, his research focused on the syntactic and lexical phenomena. He depicts language differences not as insurmountable barriers, but as different phenomena with the same essence. During this period, Naida’ s research center gradually shifted from a general description of English syntax and lexicon to a specific study of multilingual comparisons, especially the study of Bible translation.<br /> 2) The period of communicative theory, from 1959 to 1969, plays an important role in the establishment of Nida’s authoritative position in Western translation circle. In 1964, he published an important monograph, Toward a Science of Translating, which can be regarded as one of the most important milestones in the development of Nida’s translation. Nida’s basic translation thoughts in this period can be summarized into the following four aspects:<br /> i. Naida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a subject.<br /> ii. He applies communication theory and information theory to the study of translation, seeing translation as a way of communication, which is the main symbol of the second period of Nida’s thought, and also one of the biggest features in his whole theory system.<br /> iii. The concept of dynamic equivalence was proposed.<br /> iv. As far as the translation process is concerned, Nida advocates the four-step method—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination.<br /> 3) The third period is about social semiotics, starting from the 1970s. Nida made a series of revisions and additions to his theories, and further developed it on his research, incorporating its useful elements into a new model of social semiotics. The book From One Language to Another, published in 1986, introduces Nida’s research since the 1980s, which is the representative of the third period. The following four changes and developments have been clarified in this book:<br /> i. It emphasizes that everything about translated texts are meaningful, including language form.<br /> ii. It points out that the rhetorical features play a decisive role in linguistic communication.<br /> iii. Dynamic equivalence is replaced with “functional equivalence”, thus making its meaning clearer.<br /> iv. It encourages to translate with sociolinguistics and social semiotics. In his view, language must be regarded as a symbolic phenomenon, and the interpretation of it cannot be separated from its social environment. Besides, the meaning is divided into rhetorical meaning, grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, each of which contains referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> ===Comparison Between Catford’s Theory and Nida’s Theory===<br /> <br /> Although Catford and Nida are representatives of the linguistic school of translation theory in the West, they clarify their theories form different angles, thus making a term with two different connotations. Based on A Linguistic Theories of Translation written by Catford and The Theory and Practice of Translation written by Nida, the following are going to discuss some differences in meaning, equivalence and form. <br /> <br /> ====Meaning====<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theories are primarily in the service of Bible translation, with the ultimate goal of getting readers to believe in Christianity. Therefore, in the translation of the Bible, transferring the information and message is of paramount importance. For the purpose of spreading the religion, Nida not only considers the meaning to be translatable, but he even considers the meaning to be sacrosanct, because it’s a process of conveying “God’ s will”.<br /> Nida’s definition of translation also clearly indicates the relationship between meaning and form, putting the meaning at the first place. In the analysis of semantics, Nida subdivides it into grammatical meaning, referential meaning and connotative meaning, which also becomes the basis of his four modes—analysis, transfer, restructuring and examination in the translation process. From the perspective of the linguistic universalism, Nida always insists that the information conveyed by one language can be conveyed by another language, while the meaning is the same. <br /> Compared with Nida’s translation theory, Catford does not discuss the specific problems encountered in translation, but focuses on the essence of translation, i.e., what is translation, also a more fundamental content in the study of translation theory. Catford emphasizes the individuality of languages, stressing that each language has a unique semantic system influenced by its unique culture, and that lexical and grammatical systems embodying the semantic system are also unique. He focuses on the relationship between two languages and analyzes the causes of their differences: each language has its own system and different ones exist in different systems. Each language, at the same time, is composed of numerous subsystems, which leads to the division between contextual and formal meaning. Contextual meaning refers to the meaning of a word or sentence in a particular situation, which is translatable; formal meaning refers to the relationship between a word and its grammatical system, which is untranslatable due to the differences between various systems.<br /> According to Catford, “In our view, meaning is a characteristic of a language. The source language has its own meaning and the translated language also has its own meaning”. “The idea that the source language has the same meaning as the translated language, or that a transfer of meaning occurs in translation, is untenable”. Obviously, this assertion is a deconstruction and subversion of “meaning” in traditional translation theory, which is Catford’s most unique insight. But it is also for this reason that his theory aroused all sorts of suspicions, and it is absurd to think that meaning is untranslatable without “carefully reading of the original work, which is often guessed by the literal meaning of the work”.<br /> In comparison, their translation theories have a common basis for defining meaning, that is, meaning is constant. <br /> <br /> ====Equivalent====<br /> <br /> “对等” is often misinterpreted due to its literal meaning, understood to be exactly the same. Some scholars argue that this is the Chinese translation field’s misunderstanding of the meaning of “equivalent”, and suggested that it be translated as “相当”. Instead of discussing the translation of this term, we can still feel the different connotations of “equivalent” in Nida’s and Catford’s theories by a comparison. <br /> Nida argues that the equivalence in translation is because different languages can have the same function. As long as the receiver’s reaction towards the information is approximately the same as the original text creator, dynamic equivalence can be realized. (Then he replaced it “functional equivalence”.) When explaining equivalence, Nida points out that translators should not overly pursue the correspondence between the original form and the translated form, but should turn their attention to conveying the meaning of the original text accurately. Therefore, when the original form is easily misunderstood by the reader or when the structure of the original text is obscure and difficult, which may cause inconvenience to the reader, the translator is allowed to change the original form.<br /> Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory breaks the static model of textual comparisons, arguing that only when the receptors can understand the translated text thoroughly can he or she respond in a way that is consistent with the original text readers. Therefore, dynamic equivalence emphasizes the readers’ response.<br /> According to Catford, “Translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language”. In this definition, Catford does not use the word “text” but “textual material”, because he believes that the meaning of one text cannot be fully transferred into another text. Equivalence cannot always be found, so it can only be said to be a substitution.<br /> Catford attributes the translation equivalence in traditional translation theory to experience, and proposes his own conditions for translation equivalence: if the original language and the target language can achieve equivalence, they must coincide with at least some characteristics of the entities they refer to. Obviously, according to his theory, equivalence is possible only if the entities involved in the two languages share some common features. And such equivalence can only exist between the same levels (phonology, grammar, and lexis), and there can be no equivalence among four different levels, basically because the different levels have different entities. Since two equivalent words cannot have identical entity characteristics that perfect equivalence does not exist. This explains why, in Catford’s view, there is no perfect translation. At this point, Catford seems to go deeper into the nature of languages.<br /> <br /> ====Form====<br /> <br /> The word “form” is both involved in Nida’s and Catford’s translation theories, which has different meanings in their theories. The “form” in Nida’s theory mainly refers to the form corresponding to the content, including the rhythm, word, parallelism, and other distinctive grammatical structures. For Bible translation, meaning must be given priority in order to convey the contents, which means that the form can be greatly changed during translation. If both equivalent form and content are pursued, the content should be taken into consideration first, and then the form; if the two are failed to realized, the form can be abandoned.<br /> As for the different opinion on the issue of changing the form, Nida puts forward a restriction to distinguish it from free translation: form changing are not suitable for all texts, such as poetry translation. In addition, if the meaning can be accurately expressed while maintaining the form, the original form should be preserved as much as possible, which is more suitable when the form and content are in conflict.<br /> Catford views language as a “form”, opposite to the concept of “entity”. Form includes four dimensions, including phonology, grapheme, grammar, and vocabulary, all of which belongs to language. Entities refer to raw materials, including phonology, lexis, and context, which are non-linguistic. Form always corresponds to an objective entity. In Catford’s theory, form can in fact be understood as a system, i.e., each language is composed of different systems, and these systems include numerous subsystems. Therefore, translating between two languages belonging to different systems means looking for identical (or at least partially identical) entity characteristics in the source language and the translated language. As each language cannot have a completely consistent system, even the most closely-related languages have their own unique forms, and the formal meanings of the two languages cannot be exactly the same. In the process of translation, therefore, the meaning cannot be completely transferred into another language, which is also an important point that distinguishes his theory from others.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This paper mainly introduces the translation theories proposed by Catford and Nida and makes a comparison between the two. <br /> Nida emphasizes the importance of the interaction in translation, focusing on readers’ response in translation and clarifies the idea that translation, in the end, serves the reader. In order to achieve this goal, the fundamental requirement is to change form to convey content. For those texts in which the primary purpose is to convey information, it is very important to change the form. However, for texts like poem, this method is not suitable. <br /> Catford’s mainly focuses on the study of language, with little reference to culture, but it seems to go deeper into the essence of language, thus dividing it into four levels and defining form and entity respectively. He explains some ambiguous views people have, such as how to understand translatability and untranslatability. From another angle, his theory reminds us that in the process of translation, all levels of language should be taken into consideration. <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1] Catford, J.C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965.<br /> <br /> [2]姜丽.奈达与卡特福德翻译理论中几个概念之比较[J].文教资料,2010(05):44-46.<br /> <br /> [3] Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M]. London: Routledge, 200[…]<br /> <br /> [4]穆雷.卡特福德论翻译和教学[J].中国翻译. 1990(05).<br /> <br /> [5] Nida, Eugene. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [6]孙佳.奈达翻译理论对中国翻译的影响探讨[J].海外英语,2017(09):99-100.<br /> <br /> [7]孙晓曈.卡特福德翻译理论综述[J].读书文摘,2016(08):107.<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory - 康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng 202020080607==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward 'functional equivalence theory'. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida's theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida's and Newmark's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> <br /> 探讨奈达和纽马克翻译理论之区别<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida is a prolific translation theorist. The main academic activities of his life revolve around ''Bible'' translation. Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of ''Bible'', and drew some conclusions when translating ''Bible''. His first monograph was ''Bible Translating'' released in 1946. According to these experiences, he published ''Toward a Science of Translating'' in 1964, and ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about ''Bible'' in this book. Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark's translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida's. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark's ideas were from his classes. His first work-''Approaches to Translation'' was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Then he came up with the theory of text type and correlative approach to translation. <br /> <br /> In China, many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others' translations. There are a lot of theses on the Internet that use their theories. There are also a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's translation theory in China. Until now, there have been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. As these scholars wrote, first, Nida had ideas that translations should be readers-centered, and translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida's methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark's mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers' response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. There are many other differences about their theories. Scholars have made a detailed study of their differences. A few scholars study one of their many differences, and their researches have looked more closely at their differences. Most scholars try to find out all the differences between them. In the process of studying, some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida's theory are contrary to that of Newmark's theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida's and Newmark's were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories. First, this part will introduce the development and main content of Nida's translation theory in detail, and then introduce the main content of Newmark's translation theory. <br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Nida mastered many languages and investigated more than 100 languages. He published over 200 theses and about 40 works and about 20 works of them are about language and translation. He mentioned dynamic equivalence. And in 1969, he wrote ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. In this book, he formally proposed the definition of dynamic equivalence &quot;which is that dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language&quot;. (Nida 1969, 24) This theory now is called functional equivalence. Due to people's misunderstanding of dynamic equivalence, the expression-dynamic equivalence is superseded by functional equivalence in his ''From One Language to Another''. Both of them have little differences. The theory pays more attention to the functional equivalence of information instead of direct formal translation. It poses a requirement to the target language in translation close to the source language in meaning and style. It is concluded that translation is not to rigidly follow the surface equivalence between two languages, but to combine the message, emotion and style of the original text to make the translation convey the same information as the original text to the greatest extent. There are four aspects of functional equivalence theory, which are lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. In addition, Nida proposed two kinds of equivalence in the 1990s which were added into his functional equivalence theory. One is maximal equivalence, which means that the target readers can understand and appreciate the translation in the same way as the original readers. It's the ideal state pursued by translators. The other is minimal equivalence, which means that the target readers should be able to understand the translation and then can imagine how the readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text. <br /> <br /> The development of functional equivalence theory experienced three stages. The first stage was that he applied modern linguistic fruits into his theory. The idea of deep structure and surface structure of transformational generative linguistics was shown in his theory. The second stage was that Nida thought his theory was based on information theory. A good translation should assure readers of the source text and readers of the translations that they can get the same understanding from the translation and the source text. The third stage was that Nida considered that social semiotics was the foundation of functional equivalence, translating meant translating the meaning, and semiotics was the most comprehensive system for analyzing meaning. Nida's theory is widely used in the comparative analysis of two translations, the appreciation of subtitle translations, and some reports about technology, etc. <br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark's Kernel Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> Newmark took types of texts into account, and he divided texts into three types, which are expressive, informative and vocative texts. The core of expressive function is that speakers and writers voice their emotion and do not care about readers' response. The typical expressive texts include literary works such as lyrical poems, novels, dramas, authoritative speeches, autobiographies, private letters, etc. Translators should put the author first when translating expressive texts. Not only are translators faithful to the content of source texts, but also the translations in style should be in line with the author's language style. The key points of informative function are extrinsic context, the reality of a topic, extra-linguistic factors, etc. The informative texts contain encyclopedic knowledge, whose form is standard, textbooks, newspapers, etc. The objects of vocative texts are readers, whose aim is that a writer attempt to lead readers to act, think as his intentions. Instruction books, publicity materials, applications are part of vocative texts. What's more, Newmark also came up with semantic translation and communicative translation. Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Translators even can revise the original mistakes with a view to realizing communicative goals. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation pays attention to the intentions and meaning of the original writers. &quot;Few texts are purely expressive, informative, or vocative: most include all three functions, with an emphasis on one of the three&quot;. (Newmark 1988, ) Concerning the situations of over-translation and under-translation, Newmark presented the correlative approach to translation in 1994. The more important the language of the original or the source language text, the more closely it should be translated. Newmark stated that the approach did not reject his two other translation methods. On the contrary, it brought the two together more closely on that basis.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> What is translation? Basically every translator will be asked and has his or her own definitions. For Nida and Newmark, they each developed a theory system. And Nida and Newmark had different explanations about the definition of translation. Nida gave his definition that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and second, in terms of style. Nida also mentioned that &quot;translating means communicating&quot;. (Nida 1969, 12) And Newmark said that it is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text.[4] It can be seen that the focus of Nida's definition is on the closest natural equivalence, meaning, and style and the emphasis of Newmark's definition is on meaning, and text. It seemed that Nida had a broader scope than Newmark from the perspective of the definition. But in fact their main ideas are different. Nida thought over translation from the view of communication and Newmark tended to give a thought to translation from the perspective of types of texts. <br /> <br /> Apart from the definitions of translation, they argued over the nature of translation. People have some controversies about Nida's opinions about the nature of translation. There are two main views. One is that &quot;Nida ever thought that translation was a kind of science, which later was modified by him and he reckoned that translation was a kind of science and translation was also a kind of art&quot;.(Shao Lu 2007, 62) The other is that &quot;Nida never said translation was a kind of translation&quot;. (Zhang Jinghao 2005, 61) The first view is based on the titles of his book in 1964-''Toward a Science of Translating'' and the title of one of his passages in 1969-''Science of Translation''. Nida also stated that &quot;translating is far more than a science. It is also a skill, and in the ultimate analysis fully satisfactory translation is always an art&quot;. (Nida 1969, 7) It is illogical to say that translation is a kind of science according to these phrases such as science of translation, and science of translating and the sentence-translating is far more than a science. The better understandings of Nida's sentences are that translation is scientific and artistic, and a good translation should be a work of art. Newmark was clear about the nature of translation, who indicated that &quot;for standardized language..., there should be only one correct equivalent, and that is the science of translation. Whilst for non-standardized language, there is rarely only one correct equivalent, and that is the art or craft of translation&quot;. (Newmark 2015, Translation is both scientific, technical and artistic from his point of view. Which nature is dominant depends on the types of source texts. In general, they all agreed that translation is scientific, artistic but the difference is that the ultimate goal of translation is be a work of art from the perspective of Nida and Newmark insisted translators should judge the nature of translations according to the types of source texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark have different research methods while their methods all are relevant to linguistics. More precisely, Nida used Chomsky's transformational generative grammar. Nida mentioned three stages of translation and said that &quot;the second system of translation consists of a more elaborate procedure comprising three stages: (r) analysis, in which the surface structure (i.e., the message as given in language A) is analyzed in terms of (a) the grammatical relationships and (b) the meanings of the words and combinations of words, (z) transfer, in which the analyzed material is transferred in the mind of the translator from language A to language B, and (3) restructuring, in which the transferred material is restructured in order to make the final message fully acceptable in the receptor language. This approach may be diagrammed as in Figure 6&quot;. (Nida 1969, 33) <br /> [[File:111.jpg]]<br /> <br /> This figure in ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' can prove his thinking pattern. And it is easily concluded that the concepts of surface structure and deep structure are involved in this picture. That certain features of this componential analysis require some explanation was written in his books. Nida divided a sentence into a combination of an object, a verb, the first goal, the second goal, and predicate phrase. The five elements were used to analyze a kind of sentence pattern. There are other types of elements used to analyze other sentence patterns. Componential analysis was adopted in his books. <br /> <br /> Newmark insisted that translation theory originated from comparative linguistics. In the context of linguistics, semantics was mainly involved. All semantic problems are related to translation theory. Newmark also paid special attention to semantic issues, and believed that meaning should be the first consideration of translation theorists. The meaning of the text is diverse. Newmark divided them into three main types: cognitive meaning, communicative meaning, and associative meaning. In addition, Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which showed that the prevailing linguistics at that time had traction in him. The unit of translation and discourse analysis as a chapter and the application of case grammar to translation as another chapter were introduced in his ''A Textbook of Translation''. From Nida's and Newmark's books and passages, translators can see their thinking and some social influences from that century. They had some similarities in research methods of translation. But on a small scale, Nida mainly used surface structure and deep structure, componential analysis while Newmark talked about discourse analysis and case grammar, which Chomsky's student-Fillmore proposed to object to his teacher's idea. Both of them were in the grip of linguistics but the types of linguistics which they used are different.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> The part will talk about some problems that translators need to think about in translation. First, they should take the content and form of source texts into consideration. Second, the types of the texts have influence on the selection of translation methods, which translators should note. <br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> When it comes to content and form, it is easy to think of the long-standing debate of literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark told people their answers. It was a rigid stereotype that Newmark only used literal translation and Nida only used free translation. Actually their methods are inclined to combine literal translation and free translation. One different point between them is that Nida had an apparent transition in translation method and Newmark did not change his initial idea. The other different point is the different proportions of literal translation and free translation in their respective methods. Nida paid more attention to the free translation while Newmark is opposite to Nida. Nida ever said that to preserve the content of the message the form must be changed. Nida held the view that functional equivalence of texts should be first considered and formal equivalence should be the second one. At the outset, formal equivalence was not vital in his opinion. But as time went by, he realized the limitations of his theory and tried his best to revise some ideas in his following works or theses. And he mentioned &quot;the extent to which the forms must be changed in order to preserve the meaning will depend upon the linguistic and cultural distance between languages, which showed he did not ignore form of translation at all&quot;. (Nida 1969, 5) In contrast, Newmark did not jump to conclusions. The controversy of content and form is the argument of literal translation and free translation in essence. Nida ever said translating means translating meaning.[12] But experiencing many years' inspection, he had some changes in his thoughts. The formal equivalence should be preserved and only when some conditions cannot be met can the form of the source text be altered. Nida pointed out five conditions under which translators must change the forms of texts and used free translation for the sake of achieving functional equivalence. The five conditions are that first, literal translation can lead to errors in meaning; second, the introduction of other languages to form a semantic blank and the reader may fill in the wrong meaning; third, formal equivalent can cause serious ambiguity; fourth, formal equivalence causes ambiguity that the author does not intend to; fifth, formal equivalence can cause grammatical errors and stylistic inconsistencies. From this aspect, it is easy to say that Nida's theory was constantly changing and developing and finally Nida proposed the combination of literal translation and free translation as the translation method. <br /> <br /> In contrast with Nida, Newmark at the beginning said that &quot;I am somewhat of a &quot;literalist&quot;, because I am for truth and accuracy. I think words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, and that you only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic pragmatic reasons for so doing, which is more often than not...&quot;. (Newmark 1988, 1) The sentence was appeared in the preface of his ''A Textbook of Translation'' in 1988. And there is a quotation mark in the word-literalist, which means he is not a real literalist. Only when with the method of literal translation the meaning is still ambiguous can translators use the method of free translation. However, at that time, Nida's theory was very prevalent, and most people ignored the importance of literal translation. Initially Nida insisted that form can arbitrarily be changed. Later, Nida improved his theory, so at last Nida's attention was working round from free translation to the combination of literal translation and free translation. Finally Newmark and Nida had the same idea about literal translation and free translation. But in a larger extent, Nida was more inclined to underline meaning and style while Newmark viewed that the importance of literal translation should not be neglected. There is no good or bad between literal translation and free translation. Nida and Newmark have their own different preferences. <br /> <br /> Sometimes literal translation is better and sometimes free translation is better. For instance, for the proverb-When in Rome, do as the Romans do, Newmark might accept this translation &quot;在罗马，照罗马人那样做&quot; and Nida might prefer &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. Both of the translations are good and nowadays people appreciate the brief version - &quot;入乡随俗&quot;. There is another proverb, which is that all roads lead to Rome. Newmark might like &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot; and Nida was fond of this version - &quot;不只有一个解决办法&quot;. The former translation also has definite connotations. People are likely to accept &quot;条条大路通罗马&quot;. Nowadays, most of the translation methods should be based on the combination of literal translation and free translation. Newmark realized the combination of literal translation and free translation and persisted in practicing his translation method all the time. On the deeper level, he who discharged the responsibility of the translation theorist to the very best of his ability, developed the idea of text classification, and wanted his theory to cover all types of text. But it is impossible to reach that goal and there is no perfect translation theory. A common problem in the study of translation theory is that one is greedy for perfection or wants to involve various methods of translation in his own works, for fear of inadequacy, or to put forward a theory, always wishes it to be universally applicable to all translations. In fact, it is unrealistic because a translator cannot be equally familiar with all kinds of styles, and it is only superficial for a translator to analyze some unfamiliar types of text. One of shortcomings of Newmark's theory is that a text may contain various functions and it is hard to pick up all types of text and translate them according to various methods. Newmark presented semantic translation and communicative translation and many functions according to all kinds of texts. Nida's theory is not perfect. An important deficiency is that Nida tried to expand the scope of application of dynamic equivalence translation theory to become the criterion of all translations, which is somewhat biased. At this point, Newmark's theory is more proper than Nida's.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> When it comes to texts, Nida considered that his translation method is available to every text while Newmark gave a classification of types of texts. Different types of texts should use different translation methods. The part about introduction of Newmark's translation theory has introduced the three types of texts, their definitions and suitable translation methods. According to text typology, translators should highlight the linguistic style of the author and be faithful to the content of the original author's thoughts when translating expressive texts. For example, there is a sentence - &quot;I do not cough for my own amusement&quot;, (Austen 2009,17) which is from ''Pride and prejudice''. Wang Zuoliang translated it into &quot;我又不是故意咳着玩儿&quot;. The style of Jane Austen is humorous and distinctive. The sentence was said by Lydia, who was capricious and Mr. Wang used a rhetorical question to express Lydia's rebuttal attitude toward his father. It can be seen that Lydia was a unruly person from this sentence. Mr. Wang mainly adopted the method of semantic translation, focusing on the lexical and syntactic structure of the sentence, so that the translation can be as close as possible to the original content, which the author wanted to express. Semantic translation attains importance to source texts and the author and can be applied to the translation of expressive texts. This point is different from Nida's idea of readers-centered response.<br /> <br /> The core of this kind of informative text is authenticity, which is the most important. The language of the author is secondary. People take the content of the text seriously and translators even revise the mistakes that the original texts have. For example, schools do not have fixed model to launch recruitment advertisements in Chinese brochures. But the English prospectus has the basic fixed structure pattern. &quot;According to the introduction materials of more than 100 institutions in British Study Guide from 1999 to 2000, all schools adopt the following structure: profile, facilities, accommodation and welfare, location, etc&quot;.(Chen Jing 2004, 69) Newmark suggested that translators used communicative translation method to translate informative texts.<br /> <br /> When translating the vocative texts, translators should put readers and intelligibility first. Translators can use communicative translation method, aiming to make readers fully understand. For example, when translating some common slogans about taking care of the grass such as 请不要吻我，我怕羞, translators should translate it into &quot;keep off the grass&quot;, rather than translate it into &quot;please don't kiss me, I am bashful&quot;, which is hard to understand for foreigners. There is no need to stick to the expression of source texts for translators. The translation of vocative texts and communicative translation and Nida's functional equivalence theory have some similarities in this point.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> The previous parts have in detail introduced Nida's and Newmark's theory. When it comes to Nida's functional equivalence theory and his translation evaluation criteria, readers' response will appear before eyes of people. People think of this response as the evaluation criteria. When readers of translations have the same feelings as the readers of the source texts, translations can be called good translations. There is an important point that should be stressed. The readers who give responses should be a people. The readers from a people will give a holistic feedback. Considering that different readers have different understanding, and different interests, Nida also divided the target readers into four categories, which are child readers, primary education readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. He believed that several different translations should be prepared for the same original text to meet the needs of different levels of readers. As the previous part mentioned, Newmark's requirements about good translations varied according to the types of texts. For expressive texts, the good translation from his point of view is that the translation is faithful to the original author and the language style of the translation is in accordance with that of the source texts. For informative texts, an excellent translation depends on whether the translation completely conveys all the content of the original text to the readers, and the content is true and right. For vocative texts, it is easy for the readers to understand the content of the translation of the vocative text, which is a terrific translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Given that the purpose of the Bible is to spread doctrine and prompt most ordinary people to understand it, Nida attached importance to target language and its readers and advocated the translation of the Bible with daily and simple words. But because of these requirements, Nida's translation theory cannot help but have some limitations. Newmark used text types to subdivide translation methods, which is more accurate than Nida's theory. This work is very complex and difficult to implement for the distinction of small text types in a whole text. Although their theories are flawed, it is undeniable that they had a great influence on the translation world at that time and even now. Their theories challenge the past translation theories which are mainly about empiricism, introduce theories such as aesthetics, communication into the translation field, and provide their answers to the long-standing debate over literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Chen Jing. 陈婧. (2004). 彼得·纽马克的文本类型翻译理论的分析与探讨. [Analysis and Discussion on the Translation Theory of Text Type by Peter Newmark].''常州工学院学报''[Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology] 68-70.<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and C R.Taber. (1982). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br /> <br /> Jane Austen. (2009) ''Pride and Prejudice''. New York: Dover Publications.<br /> <br /> J D. Waard and E A. Nida. (1986) ''From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating''. Nashville, Tenessee: Thomas Nelson Inc.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (1988). ''A Textbook of Translation''. Prentice Hall International Ltd.<br /> <br /> Peter Newmark. (2001) ''Approaches To Translation''. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. <br /> <br /> Shao Lu. 邵璐. (2007). 误译•无意•故意—评关于奈达理论的若干争议. [Misinterpretation Unintention Intention-A Review of Some Controversies on Nida’s Theory].''外语研究''[Foreign Languages Research] 62-65. <br /> <br /> Zhang Jingha. 张经浩. (2005). 谈谈对奈达的所知和理解. [A Discuss of the Knowledge and Understanding of Nida]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Languages and Their Teaching] 59-63.<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Xu Yuanchong's Translation Theories - 杨逸 Yang Yi, student no.==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translate poems from Chinese to English and French&quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. So this paper will be divided in three parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories: his principle of three beauties, his principle of three transformations and his principle of three purposes.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong ; principle of three beauties ; principle of three transformations ; principle of three purposes<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。因此本论文主要将分为三部分，结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论：“三美论”,“三化论”和“三之论”。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Principle of Three Beauties===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Principle of Three Transformations===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Principle of Three Purposes===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 当今世界，科学技术正在改变着人类的交际方式和生活方式。多媒体技术和国际化的旅游业要求旅游翻译必须要与时俱进，运用新模式，新手段和新方法。传统的旅游翻译从根本上忽视了这一点，而多模态翻译恰好就给旅游翻译提供了一个较新的视角。由此视角展开，旅游翻译可以不再局限于传统的口笔译，而是可以借助多媒体技术和多种感官的配合来完善和发展旅游翻译，并可将多模态理论运用于旅游翻译这一模式发展成为一种趋势，进而提高本国的国际旅游质量。除此之外我们还需要了解多模态翻译理论对于未来旅游领域的翻译创新所具有的重要影响。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：多模态理论；旅游翻译；翻译策略===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> In today's world, science and technology are changing human’s communication and lifestyle. Multi-media technology and internationalized tourism require that tourism translation must keep pace with the times and use new models, new methods and new ways. Traditional tourism translation basically ignores this point, and multimodal translation just provides a new perspective for tourism translation. From this perspective, tourism translation can no longer be limited to traditional interpretation and translation, but can use multimedia technology and the cooperation of multiple senses to improve and develop tourism translation. Multimodal theory can be applied to this model will develop into a trend, which in turn improves the quality of international tourism in that country. In addition, we need to understand the important impact of multimodal translation theory on translation innovation in the field of tourism in the future.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: multimodal theory; tourism translation; translation strategies.===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The rapid development of modern science and technology has provided a more convenient way for people to obtain, retrieve, analyze and process information, and has also accelerated the breakthrough of the linguistic cognitive barrier. The theory of multimodal discourse analysis emerged in the West in the 1990s. Prior to this, linguistic research was mainly based on text, while multimodality regarded all communication modalities as resources for meaning generation. It is believed that in daily life people often use one or more other symbols in addition to language. Resources participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of communication. In other words, the construction of meaning is achieved through the form of multimodal discourse. Whether it is text, sound, image, color, facial expression, limb movement, etc. each modality in multimodal discourse is a meaning-generating resource. We can discover and formulate the grammar of each mode, and draw the law of the meaning of the mode.<br /> With the rapid development of globalization and the internationalization of China’s tourism, tourism translation has become an important factor that directly affects the quality of overseas tourists ’Chinese tours. Many problems in the practice of tourism translation reflect the current status of China’s inbound tourism industry. Due to the neglect of the tourism industry and related departments, China's tourism translation has always lacked scientificity and innovation. In addition, the extensiveness of tourism resources and the diversity of tourism translation audiences also increase the difficulty of tourism translation practice. In recent years, some domestic scholars have begun to pay attention to academic theory and industry practice research in the field of tourism translation, but mainly based on the perspective of pure linguistics or pure translation.<br /> From a narrow perspective, the target of tourism translation includes text translation of various tourist attractions and on-site oral translation of foreign-related tourism practitioners; From a broad perspective, tourism translation should include foreign-related translation materials and behaviors of all tourism industry sectors, It includes both text and oral translations, as well as other forms of translation such as images and movies.<br /> This article analyzes the characteristics of tourism translation from the perspective of multimodal discourse, discusses the strategies of multimodal tourism translation and some issues that need to be paid attention to during the translation process and looking forward to the development prospects of multimodal tourism translation.<br /> <br /> ===1. The Background of Multimodal Theory===<br /> <br /> ====1.1. The Definition of Multimodal Theory ====<br /> With the continuous development of high-tech such as digital and internet, language and social communication no longer rely on traditional single text as a media carrier but tend to rely on more different types of modalities and media for multisensory communication. Only in this way can the construction and transmission of discourse meaning be more convenient and accurate. This is Multimodality. Zhang Delu believes that Multimodal discourse is the phenomenon that uses multiple senses such as hearing, sight, and touch to communicate（张德禄.2009:15）. Multimodal discourse is essentially a compound discourse which contains not only the traditional text symbol system but also includes previously unrecognized symbol systems such as images, sounds, colors, and actions. Multimodal discourse reflects the interactivity and unity of symbol resources in social communication.<br /> Systemic Functional Linguistics Provides Theoretical Foundation for Multimodal Discourse Analysis and Research. Multimodal discourse can be studied at multiple levels from culture, context, discourse meaning, grammar, form, and media. From a media perspective, various non-verbal media, especially modern technology media, provide a large number of new options for discourse communication. They can realize the meaning of discourse through different modalities and in multimodal utterances, different modal utterances are interconnected.<br /> Linguistics and translation studies have always complemented each other. Cutting into translation practice and research from the perspective of multimodality, we can obtain more new discoveries and gains, thereby enriching and improving the branch of translation studies, and also developing and expanding the linguistic theory of multimodal discourse analysis.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Present Research Situation and Existing Problems at Home and Abroad====<br /> In order to interpret and use other discourse phenomena outside the language in multimodal discourse, Kress and Van Leeuwen explored the &quot;grammar&quot; of certain symbolic modalities in comparison with the functional grammar of a language. They proposed modal analysis methods and theories such as visual grammar, color grammar and sound grammar. Among them, the visual grammatical framework constructed by them with &quot;representative meaning&quot;, &quot;interactive meaning&quot; and &quot;constitutive meaning&quot; as the core content provides a theoretical basis for multimodal discourse analysis(Kress, G, Van Leeuwen.1996:78). Besides, Royce T investigated the complementarities and synergy of different symbols in multimodal discourse (Royce T.2002:191). O’Halloran used multiple modalities for theoretical analysis and practice who proposed the combination of language, visual images and other symbolic resources to build paper and digital media and daily life texts, things and events (O’Halloran.2008:231). <br /> It can be seen that some foreign scholars' research on multimodality is based on functional linguistics and visual grammar functions in social semiotics.<br /> Domestic research on multimodal discourse is still in its infancy. Some scholars have imported and introduced the theory of multimodal discourse analysis. Some scholars have used multimodal discourse theory to interpret and analyze symbols other than PPT texts and emblems. This shows that the development of multimodal theory and multimedia technology has begun to affect people's thinking and the reconstruction of meaning. More scholars are studying how to apply the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to teaching to improve class teaching effect. In addition to the use of visual grammar theory to study specific symbolic systems other than text, domestic scholars have mostly focused on multimodal applied research goals in foreign language teaching. It mainly includes the content of graphic representation, multimodal reading ability, multimedia technology application, and multimodal collaboration. But for tourism translation, which includes both on-site interpretation and written modalities, few scholars have studied it from a multimodal perspective. <br /> Looking at recent research results, Chinese scholars have achieved gratifying results both in terms of theory and application of theory. Some scholars have improved the theoretical framework of multimodal discourse analysis based on previous studies. At the application level, its scope has covered multiple types of multimodal discourse. These helpful attempts have played a significant role in improving the theory of multimodal discourse analysis and broadening the scope of its application. At the same time, we should also see that there are still a lot of deficiencies in our research in this area.First of all, multimodal translation has not yet received widespread attention and recognition in the academic community, mainly reflected in the small amount of literature, not professional enough, and its influence needs to be improved. From the published papers, most of Chinese scholars' articles introduce relevant western theories or borrow relevant theories for application analysis, not many articles put forward a complete analytical theoretical framework.<br /> Secondly, the current multimodal discourse analysis still focuses on the study of images or &quot;text + images&quot;. The coordination and synergy between various modalities have not been clearly studied, and there are still many uncertain factors. The interaction and integration of sound modes and various modes should be the next focus of research. In China, multimodal translation mainly focuses on translation in the field of film and television. However, the perspectives of these research areas are relatively single. Most of them adopt the theory of multimodal discourse analysis to discuss subtitle translation in film and television works from the four levels of culture, context, content and expression. It is similar that the analysis is fragmented and lacks depth and theoretical contributions.<br /> Fourth, the subjectivity of text analysis is too strong. Differences in analysts' personal knowledge structure, cultural background or interpretation motivation, in addition, grammatical analysis in multimodal discourse analysis lacks strict grammatical basis, so when facing the same component, the situation that benevolent sees benevolence and wise sees wisdom. So the meaning of multimodality is not clear enough, and the specific manifestations are:<br /> <br /> 1. Multimodality has a tendency to be abused. Although some articles are titled &quot;multimodal&quot;, the content of the discussion has little to do with multimodality；<br /> <br /> 2. Many authors do not have working definitions of &quot;modal&quot; and &quot;multimodal&quot;, leading to unclear concepts and lack of pertinence in discussions;<br /> <br /> 3. Some authors confuse the concepts of multimedia and multimodality.<br /> <br /> Finally, at present, linguists, especially systems functional linguists, are mainly engaged in the study of multimodal discourse analysis. However, multimodal discourse analysis is interdisciplinary. From the perspective of linguistics alone, it is not enough. Only by integrating different disciplines can we fully interpret multimodal texts. These are the issues that need to be further explored in future research.<br /> <br /> ===2. Multimodal Translation Theory and Tourism Translation ===<br /> The differences between Chinese and English are self-evident, and the cultural differences are reflected in history, aesthetics, religion, customs and habits in tourism English translation. <br /> The medium of tourism translation has both language modality and other modality such as image, performance and action. Therefore, it is a multimodal communication behavior. Compared with other types of translation, tourism translation is more direct, more prominent, more typical, and more comprehensive in terms of cross-temporal, cross-cultural, and cross-psychological communication.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Definition of Tourism Translation====<br /> Tourism translation is a translation practice for tourism activities, tourism professions and industries, and belongs to professional translation. In a nutshell, tourism translation is a cross-lingual, cross-social, cross-temporal, cross-cultural, cross-psychological communication. It is more direct, prominent, typical and comprehensive in the characteristics of cross-cultural and cross-psychological communication. (陈刚，2004) Tourism translation includes dynamic and static tourism information translation. Dynamic tourism interpretation mainly includes on-site interpretation, attraction translation, conference negotiation, tourism consulting, tourism shopping guide and other tourism interpreting activities. While static tourist translation mainly includes tourist guidebooks, guide maps, tourist signs, tourist product introductions, tourist contracts, hotel and catering information, tourist traffic instructions, tourist websites and tourist posters, etc. <br /> Tourism translation belongs to the field of applied translation, and its texts are practical, extensive and cross-cultural. It embodies multiple functions such as information transmission, marketing and call induction. And it is a compound text that integrates expression (from the original author), information (respect for the facts), and calling (inspires the reader). (曾丹,2006) The content of tourism translation is all-encompassing and the information contained covers all aspects of society and culture, from historical archeology to local customs, from sociopolitics to folk customs, everything is possible. <br /> Whether it is a broad translation or a narrow translation, it includes the conversion and information transfer of multiple symbol systems. In other words, in the process of translation, whether it is language or other types of symbols, they participate in the construction of meaning, so as to achieve the purpose of information transmission. Even in the narrow sense of translation, in the process of converting from one language to another, for some types of original text, translators should pay attention to not only the language information, but also the meaning of other modal symbols. Therefore, the translation activity itself contains the content of multimodal information transmission. We refer to the theories and results of multimodal discourse analysis to examine translation products and processes. As a new perspective of translation research, it has its inherent rationality and feasibility.<br /> Tourism translation, as a cultural interpretation and industry practice, has a clear purpose of tourism communication. On the one hand, it has a tourist business purpose that is to obtain certain economic benefits by persuading overseas tourists to buy products from tourism companies. On the other hand, tourism translation also has the purpose of cultural transmission. It aims to attract overseas tourists' interests by explaining and promoting the tourist culture of the destination country, such as geographical and historical background and cultural characteristics, to the purpose of spreading local culture.<br /> At present in China's tourism industry, in addition to the language level of tourism translation text materials and tourism interpretation services, there are also problems in the dimension of tourism translation, which manifested in tourism translators and institutions often only focus on the single modality and media in translation. Integration modes include text mode with print media, speech mode with sound media and so on. Traditional tourism translation subjectively ignores the multimodal and multi-media collaboration and complementary functions, objectively greatly weakens the comprehensive effect of tourism translation. In the long run, it will hinder China's strategic development goals of tourism internationalization.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. The Necessity of Multimodal Tourism Translation====<br /> Literary work is the most important carrier of culture. As mentioned in Chapter One, we will focus on the personal names in literary works, for literary works often embody much cultural information. <br /> Culture is the sum of a nation’s knowledge, experiences, beliefs, sense of values, division of classes, and the attitude toward time and space. Cultural information in literary works means the elements reflecting the culture of a nation or nations in literary works. It is rather simple at first sight; however, without being paid attention, a great deal of cultural information will escape the readers or the translators. For example, the Chinese writing styles are very different from that in English. The Chinese writers tend to develop the paragraphs in a circular way whereas the English like to follow a straight line. The Chinese way of developing paragraphs, in fact, are influenced by their philosophical concept of “Man’s Unity with Heaven”, and common readers cannot realize this in the process of reading.<br /> <br /> ===3. Application of Multimodal Translation Theory in Tourism Text===<br /> The differences between English and Chinese are reflected in every aspect. Therefore, the method of tourism translation also shows different characteristics. Only by mastering the correct translation method can we better attract the interest of foreign tourists, and only in this way can the main content of the original text be correctly presented to the readers.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Performances of Multimodal Tourism Translation ====<br /> Multimodal tourism translation can be analyzed and understood from both modal and media perspectives. From the modalities involved in tourism translation, the main mode of translation is text, and other auxiliary modes may include symbol modes such as pictures, images, sculptures, architecture, and spatial layout. The main mode of tourism interpretation is speech. Of course, there are many other auxiliary modes in the process of tourism interpretation, such as audio, video, dance, expression and posture. In tourism translation, whether it is the main mode or the auxiliary mode, they are both independent symbol systems that convey meaning to overseas tourists in a specific tourism context to complete the purpose of tourism cultural communication. However, these symbolic systems cooperate directly or indirectly to complete the communicative significance of tourism. Without the participation of any of these symbols, the comprehensive effect of tourism translation will be weakened.<br /> From the media involved in tourism translation, it mainly manifests in two categories. One type of media is based on people, including all parts of the body, such as eyes, eyebrows, mouth, ears, hands, feet, etc. These human organs can be used as a modal technology carrier in tourism translation and communication, and jointly realize the meaning of the main modal. Sometimes, these media can also construct their own. The other is environmental media other than humans, which can be divided into static one and dynamic one. In the context of tourism translation, static media mainly includes text, pictures, clothing, religion, hairstyle, etc. They are traditional ordinary expression media in tourism translation which used to be ignored by translators. Dynamic media are mainly sound, screen, animation, music, etc. They have emerged with the development of science and technology and information technology, which are more prominent symbolic modal resources than language modalities.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Strategies for Multimodal Translation====<br /> The starting point of the translator's work is the original text, the ending point is the translated text, and the process is the conversion of language and text, but it does not mean that the object he has to consider and process is only language and text. They must not only convey the original language and text information in the translated works, but also excavate the multimodal information attached to the original language and text in the original works, and try their best to restore and reproduce them in the translated works. Therefore, when performing multimodal translation, translators must master and apply the correct translation methods to achieve more results with less effort.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Relying on Modern Multimedia Technology =====<br /> With the continuous improvement of software and hardware facilities of various tourist attractions, the media means on which tourism translation depends must be continuously shifted from the previous text and pictures to modern media means such as animation, video, audio and stage. Multimodal tourism translation requires more non-verbal media and we need properly translate tourism culture and present it directly in front of overseas tourists, to facilitate their understanding of the culture of the destination country. In tourism translation and interpretation, translators can rely on a variety of modern media methods to guide and mobilize the various sensory systems of overseas tourists to achieve a good tourism translation effect. <br /> For example, Sanya's travel trailer is 3 minutes and 20 seconds long. It presents Sanya's local customs in the form of narrative reproduction through images, text and video. The picture quality is clear and beautiful, the English pronunciation is authentic, the English subtitles are accurate, the background music is cheerful, and the color contrast is bright. It fully borrows modern technology to display the image of Sanya in front of the viewer. Many tourist attractions use modern technologies such as light, shadow, lights, etc. to help tourists understand the local culture in order to better play the role of attraction translation.<br /> When translating the of the Hubei Provincial Museum, in addition to using conventional texts, pictures and media, you can also rely on modern media such as live performances and stage lights. Through unconventional media such as choreography, performance, sound, and spatial layout, the culture is vividly displayed in front of overseas visitors. The senses of sight, hearing, and touch of overseas visitors are used to make the interpretation of Warring States Period Bell culture more intuitive and easier to understand. This kind of translation effect is unmatched by the translation of text and language modalities.<br /> Zhangjiajie Scenic Spot utilizes the traditional tourist translation signage combined with the modern technology of QR code, which makes tourism translation more vivid and easy to understand. <br /> <br /> Visitors can scan the QR code to listen to audio commentary and translation.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Choosing a Reasonable Main Mode =====<br /> To carry out multimodal tourism translation, the choice of main mode must be adjusted at any time according to the specific content. Translating different tourism content and different overseas tourists should choose different main methods and auxiliary modes. For tourist translation of natural landscapes, it can be “to the point”, using the principle of image mode, supplemented by text or speech mode. The picture below uses a combination of oversized text and images to give viewers a very shocking visual conflict.<br /> As shown in Figures, both from ZhangJiajie, a combination of subtitles, videos, and pictures is used. <br /> <br /> All take the image mode as the main mode and subtitle translation as the auxiliary mode. The pictures adopt a perspective view of overlooking the mountains of ZhangJiajie from a high altitude. Tourists can see that it is different at a glance. This is also the biggest highlight of ZhangJiajie. This will help attract the attention of tourists and get closer to tourists, so that the translation effect is more prominent and intuitive.<br /> <br /> For humanistic landscape tourism translation, reasonable multimodal symbols can be used to mine the cultural connotation behind it. Adopt the principle of text or speech mode, supplemented by images or other modes. <br /> <br /> The picture above is from Feitian Mountain in Chenzhou. The translation of the scenic spot<br /> combines certain background cultural knowledge with natural geographical factors. The translation uses a combination of text, pictures and cultural knowledge, coupled with the natural landscape, making the scenery and passengers into one, adding a good sense of travel experience.<br /> In this way, the information transmission effect of cultural landscape tourism products from the aesthetic perspective is improved, and the tourism translation is transformed from a shallow translation of introduction sightseeing to a deep translation of cultural leisure.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Improving Multimodal Internal Integration=====<br /> Whether it’s written travel translation or spoke none, translators should improve the coordination and cooperation within various modalities, and strive to improve the effectiveness of tourism translation. The various models are independent and interconnected, and serve the general principle of &quot;integration&quot; together. <br /> Try to avoid and weaken the untranslatability of words or languages in tourism translation. For this reason, other symbol systems other than text can be appropriately used for replacement or supplementation, such as image, posture and other symbol modal resources. On the one hand, it is necessary to do as much internal collaboration as possible during tourism translation. When selecting different modes, we must fully consider the compatibility and complementarity between the different modes to ensure the best modal matching. On the other hand, modal abuse should be avoided and eliminated to the greatest extent. If too many modalities are used at the same time in tourism translation, or if the modalities used are not suitable for the scene, it will make overseas tourists confused and interfere with the normal understanding of overseas tourists. Therefore, the modal choice in tourism translation should be based on the evaluation index that helps overseas tourists understand and be satisfied. In this way, we can ensure that tourism translation practice with multimodal perspective has good dynamics and systemicity.<br /> It is hoped that by adjusting the integration and optimization of the tourism translation structure, the advantages within and between the modalities will complement each other, and the value and advantages of various modalities will be organically and effectively combined into one to maximize the goals and tasks of tourism translation. So, the tourism translation will be greatly developed.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.4. Multimodal Intersemiotic Translation=====<br /> In multimodal discourse, different modalities interact to construct meaning together. González proposed that with the rapid development of science and technology and the translation of mainstream cultural products, multimodality is bound to become the focus of future translation. She divides translation into intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. The former is subordinated to the system within the system, while the latter two are subordinate to the cross-system interpretation system. It can be seen from this that inter-symbol translation involves translation between two different media, such as the translation of a language medium into an image medium, so the image of &quot;illustration&quot; can be regarded as a translation form of text. Symbols contain three types of iconicity, indication and symbol, which correspond to the first attribute (essence), second attribute (fact) and third attribute (association) of the symbol. These symbol types can be interpreted as symbols, objects and interpretations. Intersemiotic translation is a process in which iconic symbols depend on the goal and interpretation.<br /> Multimodal intersemiotic translation is an important part of multimodal translation. It refers to the use of non-verbal symbol systems to interpret linguistic symbols in the context of multimodal discourse or use foreign language symbols to explain non-linguistic symbols for tourism. Such as transforming body language or tourism culture images into foreign languages. Tourism translation practitioners often translate typical tourist cultural symbols such as text, architecture, and literature into foreign languages for overseas tourists. This not only requires translators to have strong foreign language grammar and pragmatic skills, but also must have good foreign language spoken and communicative skills. Tourism translators must continuously improve their inter-symbol translation capabilities, and strive to perceive and understand the common symbol systems in tourism, such as text, pictures, poetry, literature, history, painting, sculpture, etc. And reasonably use symbol resources outside the text to perform intersemiotic translation and interpretation between all symbols. Especially they used to perform intersemiotic translation between foreign language modalities and various tourism cultural symbol resources. In this way, the tourism culture and resource information of the country can be better converted into words that overseas tourists can understand.<br /> <br /> ===4. Development prospects of Multimodal Tourism Translation===<br /> With the rise of multimodal discourse studies, image, music, color, and other visual symbols of paralanguage gradually become the center of discourse analysis.<br /> Whether it is the study of multimodal discourse translation or the re-examination of translation practice and translation teaching based on the theory of multimodal discourse analysis, multimodal translation research has greatly broadened the concept of translation. Translation is not just a language conversion, but a system of meanings constructed by multiple modalities. Therefore, multimodal translation research not only brings revolutionary changes to translation practice and translation research, but also brings new challenges to translators. In addition to the generally accepted capabilities, translators must also have multimodal knowledge. Drawing on the existing research results at home and abroad, multimodal tourism translation research should include but not limited to the following aspects.<br /> Firstly, strengthen the theoretical construction of multimodal translation research. At present, the definition, content, and methods of multimodal translation studies have not formed a unified understanding. No scholar has combed the overview of domestic multimodal translation studies and has not published a mature research monograph. Multimodal translation practice calls for mature multimodal theory guidance.<br /> Secondly, strengthen empirical research on multimodal translation. Domestic research has mostly stayed at the stage of text analysis and theoretical speculation, and empirical research is lacking. The survey found that the public hopes that the translation industry will conduct multimodal translation research from the following aspects: quality, business-related issues, cognitive research, speech recognition, automatic translation, descriptive research, reverse translation, etc.<br /> Thirdly, strengthen the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora. Shanghai Jiaotong University has opened a new path for scholars at home and abroad to carry out related research. However, the construction and research of multimodal interpretation corpora require the participation and support of more scholars.<br /> Fourthly, strengthen Chinese and foreign comparative studies on multimodal translation studies. Chinese-foreign comparative research and the promotion of foreign related research results are conducive to understanding the frontiers of academic research, complementing each other, avoiding unnecessary repetitive research, and promoting the results of multimodal translation practice and research faster and better.<br /> Fifthly, strengthen the cognitive process of multimodal discourse translation. Cognitive research on multimodal discourse translation can be combined with the latest achievements in the field of cognition. It can also compare the difference in time spent by translators when reading monomodal discourse and multimodal discourse. It can also compare reading time of reading with pure translation and pure translation. <br /> Traditional tourism translation only focuses on the impact of communication on the communication, regardless of symbol information other than the language which is used. There is generally a lack of consideration of non-verbal factors such as images, music, mood, and expression, and ignores the important role of non-verbal modalities in the construction of meaning together with language. Thus have greater limitations in the process of meaning construction. (陈新仁，2011). <br /> Tourism translation should use all symbolic means to ensure the acceptability and multi-sensory nature of translation to stimulate overseas tourists' interests in China's tourism resources and culture. Therefore, from the perspective of modalities, China's future tourism translation must develop in a direction that satisfies the sensory modalities of hearing, seeing, touching, and smelling of overseas tourists as much as possible, which places higher demands on practitioners of tourism translation. Especially for front-line practitioners in tourism translation, tourism intersemiotic translation ability is often more important than tourism Interlingua translation ability. In this context, non-linguistic knowledge can improve the practical effect of multimodal tourism translation than language knowledge. From the perspective of the media, in addition to focusing on the use of traditional human organs such as ears, nose, tongue, and hands, tourism translation will pay more attention to using modern high-tech media to mobilize and infect overseas tourists, such as computers, projectors, video recorders, televisions, 3D animation, multimedia systems, etc. This places higher requirements on tourism planning and business investment arrangements for tourism administrations and attractions. Therefore, in the future, tourism translation will introduce more multimodal tourism translation modules based on modern technologies such as screen, audio, and video on the basis of traditional text modal and spoken modalities, and gradually establish multimodal. A multi-media, multi-dimensional, multi-language, interactive, and prompt and propaganda integrated tourism translation system.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> A distinctive feature of tourism translation is its multimodality. It makes the role and effect of multiple symbol systems such as languages and images in the process of tourism translation very clear and clear. It also makes the interpretation of discourse meaning more comprehensive and accurate in the context of tourism translation. Based on the theory of multimodal discourse, this thesis analyzes and discusses the characteristics, strategies and development prospects of multimodal tourism translation. Explains that the multimodality study of tourism translation has important industrial reality and academic theoretical significance and it should be a research direction in the field of future languages and tourism. It will greatly promote research innovation in the field of language translation and tourism.<br /> As a new discipline, multimodal discourse analysis has challenged the definition of traditional discourse and methods of discourse analysis, and put forward new requirements in the field of dialogue and research. The development of everything requires a process. In theory, multimodal discourse analysis still needs innovation and reference. The method still needs to be improved. Its improvement and development require the joint efforts of several generations. It is foreseeable that the research team of multimodal discourse analysis will continue to grow, and its application prospects will become wider and wider.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Borodo, M. Multimodality, Translation and Comics[J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology,2015(1):22-41. <br /> <br /> Kress, G, Van Leeuwen,T.reading Images:The grammar of Visual Design[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> O’Halloran,Kay L. Inter － Semiotic Expansion of Experiential Meaning : Hierarchical <br /> Scales and Metaphor in Mathematic Discourse [C]. Jone, Carys&amp;Eija Ventola. Language to Multimodality: New Developments in the Study of Ideational Meaning, London: Equinox, 2008. <br /> <br /> Royce, T. Multimodality in the TESOL classroom: Exploring visual － verbal synergy [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2002(2):191-205. <br /> <br /> 陈 刚.旅游翻译与涉外导游［M］.北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司，2004: 59.<br /> <br /> 陈新仁,钱永红.多模态分析法在语用学研究中的应用［J］．中国外语，2011( 5) : 89 -93．<br /> <br /> 胡壮麟. 社会符号学研究中的多模态化［J］.语言教学与研究，2007( 1) : 1－9.<br /> <br /> 黎健.多模态视域下的旅游翻译初探[A].四川文理学院学报，2013.<br /> <br /> 刘燕.近几年多模态话语分析理论在中国的发展[A].山西大学，2015.<br /> <br /> 李占子.多模态话语的社会符号学分析 ［J］.外语研究，2003( 5) : 1－8<br /> <br /> 孙征.多模态PPT演示教学与学生学习绩效的相关性研究 [J].中国外语，2010(3)：54-58.<br /> <br /> 许勉君.中国多模态翻译研究述评[A].广东外语外贸大学学报，2017（2）:40-46.<br /> <br /> 曾 丹.论导游词英译［J］.中国科技翻译,2006( 2) : 36 － 39．<br /> <br /> 张德禄.多模态话语理论与媒体技术在外语教学中的应用 [J].外语教学,2009(4)：15-20. <br /> <br /> 朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础和研究方法 [J].外语学刊,2007(5):82-86.--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 20:38, 6 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> <br /> ==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin, 202070080595==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Rooted in translation practice, Chinese and Western translation theories share many similarities. Since they are bred in different cultural soil, they also have their own characteristics. On the basis of reviewing some books and papers on translation theories, this paper gives a detailed overview of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, and then makes a comparison between them to reveal similarities and differences. In addition, this paper makes a comparative study of translation methods in the Chinese and Western translation circle, aiming to provide readers with a new perspective to have a better understanding of the framework and characteristics of the development of translation theories. In this context, the translation practice and study will be advanced.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese translation theories; Western translation theories; Translation methods; Similarity; Difference;<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 中西译论根植于翻译实践活动，具有诸多得相似性，但它们孕育在不同的文化土壤之中，故又各具特色。本文在阅读有关翻译理论书籍及论文的基础上，对中西翻译理论的发展历程进行了较为详尽的梳理概述，并在此基础上对中西译论进行对比，揭示其相似性与相异性。此外，本文对中西译界的翻译方法进行对比研究，旨在为读者提供一个全新的视角，认识中西翻译理论发展的框架及各自的特点，有针对性地更好地推动翻译实践以及翻译研究的发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 中国翻译理论；西方翻译理论；翻译方法；相似性；相异性；<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> When it comes to translation, this paper argues that the concepts of translation and translation studies must be distinguished at the first place. On this basis, the relationship between translation theory and translation practice must be explored in depth, so as to better promote the development of translation studies and translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====Translation and Translation Study====<br /> <br /> In 1987, the first National Seminar on Translation Theory was held in Qingdao province, China, which focused on the subject construction and development of translation studies. The issue &quot;since translation studies is a science of translation, whether it should be regarded as an independent disciplinary&quot; was raised and widely discussed at the conference. Tan Zaixi called for the establishment of translation studies after Dong Qiusi, which had a great impact on the translation circle and greatly promoted the development of translation. (Liu Pingjun 2018, 56)<br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi believes that translation is a process of expressing the meaning of the source language into the target language. It is mainly a technology or art, but it is not a science. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 7-10) Translation studies is the study of translation. Its task is to reveal the objective laws of translation process and provide guidance for practical translation work. Translation studies is a comprehensive but independent science closely related to semiotics, literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory, and linguistics. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 12)<br /> <br /> A complete translation theory should include the following five parts. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30-39) First of all, it need to clarify the essence of translation, including what is translation, what is the purpose of translation, what is the function of translation, what are the types of translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 30) <br /> <br /> Secondly, a complete translation theory should describe the process of translation. In translation circle, the most influential one is the four-step model put forward by Nida: analysis-transliteration-recombination-test. Specifically, it means to analyse a text from the perspectives of semantics, grammar and style firstly. Then, transform the materials into the target language, and reorganize these converted materials to make them meet the requirements of the target language. Finally, translators should compare the translated text with the original one, thus making the translation as close as possible to the original information and maintaining the fluency and style of the original. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 32) <br /> <br /> Thirdly, it need to define the principles and standards of translation, which is the key task of a translation theory. Translation is an activity with certain rules to follow. People summarize translation practice and then conclude principles of universal significance in ways that guide the practical translation process and measure the translation. In order to produce a good translation, the translator must have a clear aim or direction in the process of translation and a clear standard or measurement method to measure the translation. However, since the fact that translation is a complex activity with multiple purposes and functions, it should never be studied from a single perspective. Any attempt to hold a specific standard as the highest standard in the absolute sense or to adhere to dogma is not in line with the translation principles and is unreasonable. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 34) <br /> <br /> Fourthly, it should describe the methods of translation. It refers to the methods and techniques adopted in the translation process, which directly influence the choice of words and sentence of the translator and the structure of the translation. There are various translation methods commonly used in translation practice, such as augmentation, ellipsis, repetition, conversion, displacement, segmenting long sentences, and free translation. The translation theory must give a comprehensive and systematic summary of these translation methods to help the translator to better leverage translation methods in translation practice. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 37) <br /> <br /> Fifthly, it must present a comprehensive explanation of possible contradictions in translation, including the contradiction between content and form, the contradiction between purpose and method, the contradiction between the author and the translator. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 38)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Theory and Translation Practice====<br /> <br /> Corresponding theories will inevitably emerge when social practice of humanity develops to a certain stage. Translation, as a long-term practice activity, is no exception. Therefore, translation theories must come from translation practice. (Zhou Lingshun 2019, 15) Translation theories will never be generated without the in-depth observation and understanding of translation practice and its influences. There is an interactive relationship between translation theory and translation practice. (Xu Jun, Mu Lei 2009, 104) In the long-term social practice, people will inevitably encounter problems that need to be solved and generate doubts that need to be explained. Theory is the ideological system explaining social practice, and its purpose is to answer questions and eliminate doubts. In this sense, the fact is that practice calls for theory. (Sun Yifeng 2002, 4-5)<br /> <br /> Taking China's current translation situation as an example. As the Belt and Road Initiative proposed by China gains increasing popularity in countries along the route, the desire of other countries to know more about China is getting stronger. In this context, the volume of translating Chinese into foreign languages exceeds that of translating foreign languages into Chinese for the first time in translation history, meanwhile, related problems are also arising. (Yang Mingxing 2014, 103) Specifically, if the translation stays faithful to the original text, it external communication function will not be fully leveraged. Therefore, translators is confused about whether the translation should be faithful to the original text.<br /> <br /> Although translation practice does not depend on translation theory for its existence, translation theory inevitably comes from translation practice. Once it comes into being, it will guide translation practice in turn. <br /> <br /> ===Comparison of Translation Theories between China and the West===<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and western translation activities enjoy a long history. In the long course of translation practice, translation theory came into being. Chinese translation theories gradually develops towards the direction of systematic and comprehensive since the start of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Meanwhile, western translation theories have witnessed improvement as the advancement of translation practice and translation study. Both the Chinese translation theory and the western translation theory are based on translation practice, and they are gradually developed into systematic theories while guiding translation practice. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162) This chapter first combs the development of Chinese and western translation theories in detail, on this basis, it further reveals the similarities and otherness between the two theories.<br /> <br /> ====The Development of Western Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The development of Western translation theory can be divided into five stages. (Tan Zaixi 2009, 46-70)<br /> <br /> 1. Literature and Bible translation theories in ancient Rome<br /> <br /> At the end of the 4th century BC, the once flourishing Greek began to decline and Rome grew stronger. However, at that time, the Greek culture was superior to the Roman culture, so it was attractive for Rome. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Many of epics of Homer and dramatic works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides were translated into Latin by many writers. This was the first translation activity with a large scale in Europe and even in the whole western history, which initiated the translation activity and gave birth to the Roman literature. From the late Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, religious forces in western countries were strong and stubborn, and the Christian church remained hostile to secular literature and tried its best to develop a religious culture for the interests of themselves. As the source of Christian thought and a spiritual weapon, the Bible became the classic in the religious circles. On this basis, the Bible was translated widely. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91)<br /> The earliest translation theorist in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. For the first time, he distinguished translations &quot;as a translator&quot; and &quot;as a speaker&quot;. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Cicero viewed translation from the perspectives of a rhetorician and speaker. A translation &quot;as a translator&quot; refers to a translation that is not creative, while a translation &quot;as a speaker&quot; refers to one that is creative and comparable to the original work. After that, the history of western translation theories has been focusing on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-for-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93)<br /> <br /> 2. Translation theories from the Middle Ages to Renaissance<br /> <br /> Boethius contributed to the introduction of Greek philosophical thoughts by translation, and also had unique views on translation theory. According to Boethius, it is impossible to maintain both content and style in translation. Translators should put aside subjective judgment, especially for some religious translations, which only require accurate content rather than elegant style. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) What’s more, Dante put forward the theory of &quot;literary untranslatability&quot;, in which he contended that the characteristics of the original text can hardly be reflected in the translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 93) Therefore, he believed that literary translation is impossible.<br /> At the end of the Middle Ages, people's demand for national language became urgent. In this context, a large-scale translation started with the emergence of the middle bourgeoisie and the upsurge of nationalism. Bruni, the representative of this period, believed that a translator should act according to his ability. Specifically, a translator should never do anything beyond his capacity for fear that it will waste energy and come to nothing. In addition, he believed that translators should have a wide range of knowledge; the best translation method is to keep the style of the original work as much as possible; translators should figure out the attitude and standpoint of the original author and try to imitate the rhetoric devices and idioms used by the original author. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> <br /> 3. Theories of literary translation in the Renaissance<br /> <br /> The Renaissance refers to the revival of literature, art and science in ancient Greece and Rome. It began in Italy at the end of the 14th century and spread to Europe, especially western European countries, in the 15th and 16th centuries. During this period, many translators compared their achievements in translation to &quot;trophies&quot; of literary knowledge. Besides, they translated many works relating to building a prosperous country into national languages, including political, philosophical, social systems, literature, art and other classic works. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 91) There are also many representatives in this period. <br /> Erasmus did not submit to the authority of theology, and believed that the translation of the Bible depended on the language knowledge of the translator; while Luther put forward that translation must adopt and absorb the humanist thought of popular language. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55) In terms of Amyot, he held the opinion that the translator must fully understand the original text and concentrate efforts to the translation of the content; the writing style of translation must be simple and natural. He emphasized the unity of literal translation and free translation as well as the combination of content and form. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> On How to Translate Excellently published in 1540. in this article, Dolet proposed five basic principles to be followed in the process of translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163) That is, the translator must understand the original content; the translator must be bilingual; the translator must avoid word-for-word translation, for the reason that word-for-word translation damages the communication and linguistic beauty of the original text; the translator must adopt colloquial forms of language; the translator must pay attention to the diction and adjust word order properly, so as to reproduce the equivalent effects as the original one. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 165)<br /> <br /> 4.Theories of literary translation in Modern times<br /> <br /> Influenced by the impetus of the Renaissance, translation in western countries continued to march forward in modern times. The 18th century was an important period in the course of Western translation. In the 19th century, translation began to shift its focus from ancient works to modern or contemporary works. (Wang Songzhen 2015, 61)<br /> According to Bartow, the original author is the master while the translator is the servant in translation activities. The translator can only follow the original work closely and faithfully reproduce the idea and style of it, instead of creating, modifying and subtracting. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> Tytler put forward three basic translation principles in his book Essay on the Principles of Translation: a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. In addition, he also proposed the standards of an excellent translation. (Bie Fangfang, Huang Qin 2008, 163)<br /> Schlermacher, one of the leading figures in German romanticism, had extensive knowledge and made great contributions in hermeneutics and translation studies. He proposed two translation methods in On the Different Methods of Translating. One is to do not disturb the author and let the reader get closer to the author, while the other is to make the author approach readers and do not disturb the reader, among which the former is regarded as the source of foreignizing translation by later generations. At the same time, he took the lead in making a clear distinction between interpretation and translation and to elaborate on it. Although his views on interpretation were wrong, they were still of great significance. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> Humboldt believed that language determines the world view and put forward the theory that language is both translatable and untranslatable. This had a great impact in the 20th century, making the translatability and untranslatability of language once again become one of the hot topics discussed by translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> <br /> 5.Contemporary translation theories since the World War II<br /> <br /> Since the end of the World War II, the world has been in a state of relative peace. After the baptism of the war, western countries began to restore and develop production and economy in full swing. In this context, translation has also entered a new stage of development in which the dimensions, forms, scales and achievements of translation are unparalleled in any other period in history. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 100) During this period, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological and other professional translations witness unprecedented development; translation teaching is widely carried out; many organizations of translators are established and the publications on translation-related studies are increasing; machine translation is emerging; works on translation theory emerge in an endless stream. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br /> Jakobson, an outstanding Russian linguist, divided translation into three categories from the perspective of semiotics: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation refers to the use of language signs to explain other language signs in the same language, which is also called &quot;the change of expression&quot;; interlingual translation is the interpretation between two languages, that is, to explain certain language signs with the signs of another language; intersemiotic translation is to interpret linguistic signs through the non-linguistic sign system, or to interpret non-linguistic signs with linguistic signs. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 157)<br /> Nida is an American linguist, translator and translation theorist. On the basis of previous research results, he constantly improved his theory from the practical point of view. The core concept of Nida's theory is &quot;functional equivalence&quot;, which means that the translation should achieve functional equivalence between two languages instead of the rigid correspondence of words. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 139)<br /> Levy is a Czech literary theorist and translation theorist. He believed that the process of translation is the process in which the translator makes decisions constantly, and discussed the translator's decision strategies in detail. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 55)<br /> <br /> ====The Development of Chinese Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> The development of Chinese translation theory can be divided into four stages.(Tan Zaixi 2005, 188)<br /> <br /> 1. Translation theory of Buddhist in the Late Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties<br /> <br /> The first stage mainly focused on classical translation theory, which began in the East Han period and ended in the Opium War. The translation theory of this period mainly discusses the translation of Buddhist scriptures, generating a positive enlightenment to the later translation theory. Zhi Qian, Dao An, Kumarajiva and Xuanzang are the representative figures of this period. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Zhi Qian broke the shackles of literal translation and pursued the elegance of the text. Different from Zhi Qian, Dao An advocated literal translation for fear of distortion when he was responsible for the translation of Buddhist scriptures. What’s more, he put forward the famous translation principle of &quot;Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation&quot;, believing that in translating Buddhist scriptures, there are five circumstances in which the translation will lose its original features and three dimensions that are difficult to achieve in translation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188-189) <br /> <br /> Kumarajiva was in charge of over four hundred volumes of Buddhist scriptures translation, which played an important role in the formation and development of Buddhism in China during the Six Dynasties period. His views on translation methods was profound and unique, but unfortunately there are few written records. Xuanzang is regarded as one of the influential figures in the ancient Chinese translation field. He put forward the translation standard of &quot;a good translation should be both faithful to the original and intelligible to the public&quot;, believing that the translation must be faithful and smooth. (Li Yuntao 2007, 107)<br /> <br /> 2. Translation theory of science and technology in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties<br /> <br /> The second stage began with the Opium War and ended with the May 4th Movement. Against the background of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, translators engaged in scientific and technological translation by adhering to the philosophy of &quot;beat foreigners by learning from their advantages&quot;. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Therefore, the translation theory in this period is practical. <br /> <br /> The main representatives were Ma Jianzhong, Yan Fu, Reform Scholars, members of the Westernization School and so on. Ma Jianzhong put forward &quot;good translation&quot; and tried to eliminate the disadvantages of the translation of the Westernization School. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189) In addition, Yan Fu called for &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, which not only had a great impact at that time, but also generated an unprecedented influence on the entire translation circle for years to come. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 190)<br /> <br /> 3. Modern translation theory from 1919 to 1949<br /> <br /> The third stage began with the May 4th Movement and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 188) During this period, there were a great number of foreign literature being introduced in the translation field, resulting in flourishing literary translation.<br /> <br /> Qu Qiubai put forward the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot;, that is, translation should deliver the meaning of the original text to Chinese readers in a complete and correct manner, so that the Chinese readers can receive the meaning as the readers of the original text. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Chen Xiying drew a conclusion of the three realms of translation--resemblance in form, resemblance in meaning and resemblance in spirit--from the experience of artistic creation and copying. He combined translation theories with the aesthetics of literature and art, directly inspiring the translation theories of Fu Lei and others. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) Fu Lei emphasized the resemblance of spirit but not of form. Besides, Mao Dun believed that the reproduction of artistic conception is the most important task of literary translation, so that the target readers can receive the same feelings as if reading the original text. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 189)<br /> <br /> 4. Contemporary translation theory since the 1950s<br /> <br /> During this period, translation is considered as a discipline by translators. (Liang Dan 2016, 103) In 1951, Dong Qiusi published On the Construction of Translation Theory, which marked the beginning of the transformation of Chinese translation theory towards a systematic development. In 1990, Liu Miqing published Modern Translation Theories, marking the establishment of a modern translation system in China. (Liang Dan 2016, 103)<br /> <br /> ====Similarities and Differences====<br /> <br /> By sorting out the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be found that due to the differences in economic, political, cultural and social backgrounds between China and the West, there are some differences between Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222)<br /> <br /> First of all, the purposes of establishing translation theory are different for both sides. Chinese theorists stress the practicality of theories and and emphasize the function of theories to better guide the translation practice. However, theorists in western countries pay more attention to the abstractedness, systematicness and organization of translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 222-224)<br /> <br /> Secondly, there are different thinking patterns. The Chinese people attach great importance to understanding ability and sensitivity, while the West is rationality-oriented. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism require people’s understanding ability and sensitivity; the western philosophy, which originated from Plato and Aristotle, emphasizes rational thinking of humanity. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 226)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, they have different ways of expressing translation theories. In China, translation theorists tend to refine their words and condense their meanings, thus giving people more space for understanding. So Chinese theorists explain translation theories in a vague and implicit way. For example, after putting forward the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” in the first half of his great work Evolution and Ethics, Yan Fu did not make any further supplement or explanation for this translation standard. (Xu Weizhi 2009, 101)<br /> <br /> Fourthly, China maintains relatively conservative in translation studies while the West pursues innovation. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 233) Traditionally, the Chinese people have a strong tendency to worship the ancient and authority, and their thinking pattern is influenced by the philosophy of &quot;universal application&quot;. For instance, the “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” proposed by Yan Fu is regarded as an insuperable existence by some people. <br /> <br /> The difference is inevitable. Although Chinese and Western translation theorists have their own terminology and experience in translation, there are strikingly similarities in terms of principles, methods, standards and categories of translation. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 163) It reveals the inherent commonness in the thinking mode of translation, and indicates that translation has rules to follow, which are objective and break the shackles of different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi, 2005, 213)<br /> <br /> First of all, there are similarities in basic translation methods between Chinese and Western translation history. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 216) Since ancient times, Chinese and Western translation theorists have considered similar issues, including the principle of translation, the purpose of translation, the process of translation, the relationship between the author, the translator and the reader, and so on. In terms of translation methods, it can be found that literal translation and free translation are distinguished by both Chinese and Western theorists in the study of translation methods, and that the commonly used methods are amplification, abridgement, adaptation, interpretation, transliteration and so on. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> Secondly, issues relating to &quot;faithfulness&quot; have always been the core topic of translation theories in both China and the West since ancient times. (Liang Dan 2016, 104) When expressing the concept of &quot;the translation must be faithful to the original&quot;, various terms are used both in China and in the West, mainly including fidelity, loyalty, accuracy, equivalence, correspondence, etc. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 218-219)<br /> <br /> Thirdly, the principles and methods of translation have been systematically summarized by both Chinese and Western translation theorists. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 220) For example, Dolet summarized the &quot;five elements of translation&quot;; Tytler put forward &quot;three principles of translation&quot;; Dao An proposed &quot;&quot;Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation&quot;; Xuanzang proposed a concrete principle of &quot;Five Categories of Untranslated Terms”. (Yang Xiaoru 2013, 162)<br /> <br /> After a detailed analysis of the development of Chinese and Western translation theories, it can be concluded that the difference in philosophical thoughts, value systems, and languages and cultures has always posing an important impact on the development of Chinese and Western translation theories. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193-194) Although Chinese and Western translation theories have different development backgrounds and show some differences, the similarity between them should be observed. Similarity is the main characteristic of the development of translation thoughts, which is not restricted by different languages and cultures. (Tan Zaixi 2005, 193) It can be reflected in the striking similarity between Chinese and Western translation principles, methods and standards. For example, Yan Fu's translation standard presents similarity with that of Tytler. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) The development of translation theories of the two sides is independent from each other, but they share some commonality. This exactly reveals that translation is objective and transcends the barriers of different languages and cultures.<br /> <br /> ===Reflections of Translations Methods===<br /> ====Domestication and Doreignization====<br /> <br /> Domestication and foreignization are proposed by Lawrence Venuti, an American translation theorist, in the Translator's Invisibility in 1995. (Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 2019, 19) As two translation methods, domestication and foreignization are contrary, united and mutually reinforcing. <br /> <br /> Domestication is to localize the source language. (Venuti 1995, 19-21) It adopts the expressions that the target reader is accustomed to to convey the content of the source language. In addition, it helps readers to understand the source text better and enhance the readability and appreciation of the translation. Foreignization is to adapt to the language features of foreign cultures, absorb foreign language expressions. (Venuti 1995, 29) Since this method fully takes the difference and diversity of national cultures into consideration and reflects the characteristics of foreign language styles, its purpose is to preserve and reflect the exoticism. In other words, domestication is oriented toward the target language culture, while foreignization is source language culture oriented. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 13) For example, the sentence”something is springing up like mushrooms”, if handled in foreignizing translation, its Chinese version will be”犹如蘑菇一般”; but if in domestication, it will be “如雨后春笋一般’。<br /> <br /> Some scholars believe that translators should only use one translation strategy in entire translation process, and that domestication or foreignization should be separated. However, it is difficult for translators to adhere to it in translation practice. Translation requires us to faithfully reproduce the ideas and styles of the original authors, which are of strong exotic atmosphere, so it is inevitable to adopt the foreignizing method. Meanwhile, the translation should also take the reader's response and the smoothness of the original text into consideration. In this context, the domestication method is essential. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17)<br /> <br /> This paper holds the opinion that translation is more likely to be dominated by domestication. The essential purpose of translation is to facilitate communication and help the target readers to understand the meaning of the original. Therefore, in most cases, translation should conform to the norms of the target language, so as to make it possible for readers to understand the foreign cultures and achieve the purpose of translation. However, although the paper contends that domestication is in a dominant role, it doesn’t mean the foreignization method should be abandoned. Actually, foreignization and domestication are not two antagonistic concepts, instead, they are complementary and mutually reinforcing. (Guo Jianzhong 1998, 17-18)<br /> <br /> ====The Three Principles of Tytler and Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> In the long course of translation development in both China and the West, various schools of translators have put forward important translation standards. Among them, Yan Fu proposed &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; and Tytler put forward the “three principles of translation”. These two standards are of great importance and far-reaching influence in the translation circle. More importantly, the similarity between them has drawn wider attention among translators. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> In 1989, Yan Fu mentioned in the preface of the Evolution and Ethics, &quot;three things are hard to achieve in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220) However, Yan Fu did not present detailed definition of it, instead, he further stated that &quot;it is difficult to stay faithful to the original text; if the translation is faithful without expressiveness, it is equal to untranslated ones; therefore, expressiveness should be put at priority”. It is the statement that generates controversy of its definition in the academic circle. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> In 1790, Tytler proposed the three principles of translation in his great work Essay on the Principles of Translation, that is, a translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; a translation should have all the ease of the original composition. (Tytler 1790, 9) It caused extensive repercussions in the translation circle and is considered as a milestone in the history of Western translation. (Ren Qingliang 2016, 201) The three principles of Tytler pose put requirements on the translator from three aspects: meaning, style and spirit. (Reng Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) In addition, according to Tytler, the three principles are ranked in order of importance. When the three principles are in conflict, the third principle should be abandoned first, the next is the second principle. Tytler contended that at no time should the content of the original be abandoned for the sake of the fluency of the translation. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 220)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu believed that translation should pursue faithfulness, but if it is inexpressive, it would be equivalent to untranslated ones. Thus it can be seen that Yan Fu emphasized the relationship and coordination among faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and elevated importance of “expressiveness” to the same position as &quot;faithfulness&quot;. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201)<br /> <br /> ====Free Translation and Literal Translation====<br /> <br /> The central problem of translation has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The argument has been going on since at least the first century BC. (Newmark, Peter 1988, 45) In China, as early as the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a famous translator of Buddhist scriptures Zhi Chen put forward his opinion of literal translation that pays more attention to the preservation of the original intention than wording. He advocated that since scriptures are abstruse and hard to understand, the translation should focus on the content and meaning of the original text rather than the flowery language. However, his disciple Zhi Qian objected to the method of literal translation from the perspective of literary form and called for free translation. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99)<br /> <br /> Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) It reproduces both the style and the ideological content of the original, and retains as much as possible the figures of speech or sentence structures. Free translation does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original while only maintains the content of the original work. (Feng Qinghua 2002, 37) For instance, the Chinese sentence “你不要班门弄斧”, if handled in free translation, it English version will be “don’t teach fish to swim”; but if in literal translation, it will be “don’t display your axe at Lu Ban’s door”.<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, only by having a thorough understanding of the thoughts and emotions in the original text and using the two strategies flexibly, can the original text be translated into a fluent and expressive target language. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 99) Both literal translation and free translation should be accurate and reproduce the original meaning both in form and in spirit. There should be no judgement of good or bad between the two strategies. (Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 2019, 100) Nevertheless, the differences between the two can not be ignored. Literal translation requires higher degree of faithfulness to the original. It is generally used in the science, technology and law-related translations for the reason that such article types require precise words and avoid ambiguity. Free translation, on the other hand, is relatively abstract. It is often used in translating poetry, prose and other literary works, to express the main connotation of the original text with divergent thinking, thus increasing the aesthetic feeling and artistry of translation.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> Translation is the process of replacing the source language with the target language. (Catford 1965, 20) In the final analysis, translation is an activity closely related to language, while language cannot be separated from thinking ability. It is the overlap of human thought patterns that makes translation possible. However, the difference between Chinese and Western way of thinking is universal, which will be manifested in all fields, including the translation circle. Traditionally, the Chinese people were good at synthesizing, while people in the West were adept in analyzing. Therefore, traditional Chinese translation theories are mostly a summary of experience, which largely depends on the subjective feelings of the translator. However, western translation theories are based on rational analysis and scientific research, instead of relying on subjective feelings.<br /> <br /> Translation has its own rules of development, which is proved by the similarity between Chinese and Western translation theories. Since translation theories in China and the West have their own advantages, this paper proposes that more tolerance should be given to the diversity and the essence should be absorbed so as to promote the development of translation theories in the world.<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and Western translation theories are important parts of the translation systems, and they provide strong theoretical support for translation practice. There is no superiority or inferiority of translation theories. Translation theories in China and the West are rooted in translation practice but nurtured in different linguistic environments and cultural backgrounds. It must be realized that the similarities are greater than differences, and that the significance of differences more important than similarities. It is because of the differences that China and the West need to draw on strengths and learn from each other.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> Catford, J. C. (1965). 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(2007). 中国译学的雏形——古代佛经翻译理论发展脉络 [The Prototype of Chinese Translation Study--the Development of Buddhist Translation Theory]. ''科技信息(学术研究)'' Science. <br /> <br /> Liang Dan 梁旦. (2016). 中西翻译理论对比 [A Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English.<br /> <br /> Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discriminating Yan Fu's theory and Tetler's Three Principles of Translation]. ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research Guide.<br /> <br /> Liu Pingjun 刘平军. (2018). 《翻译学：作为独立学科的求索与发展》评介 [Review on Translation Studies: The Making and Evolution of an Independent Discipline]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 任庆亮, 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A Comparison of the Translation Standards between Yan Fu and Tytler]. ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College. <br /> <br /> Sun Yifeng孙艺风. (2002). 理论、经验、实践——再论翻译理论研究 [Theory, Experience and Practice: Reassessing the Significance of Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). ''翻译学'' [The Science of Translation]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社Wuhan: Hubei Education Publishing House. <br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2005). 关于西方翻译理论发展史的几点思考 [Investigating Translation Theory in the West: Thoughts on Its Development and Its Study]. ''外国语'' Journal of Foreign Languages. <br /> <br /> Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2009). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West]. 北京：商务印书馆Beijing: Commercial Press.<br /> <br /> Wang Songzhen 王崧珍. (2015). 文艺复兴和宗教改革时期西方文化翻译实践述评——从布鲁尼到马丁·路德 [A Review of the Western Translation Practice during the Renaissance and Reformation--from Bruni to Martin Luther]. ''昌吉学院学报'' Journal of Changji University. <br /> <br /> Xu Jun, Mu Lei 许钧, 穆雷. (2009). ''中国翻译研究(1949—2009)'' [Chinese Translation Studies: 1949-2009]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. <br /> <br /> Xu Weizhi 许威治. (2009). 中西翻译理论的差异性比较及其启示 [Comparison between Chinese and Western Translation Theories and Enlightenment]. ''语文学刊: 外语教育与教学'' Journal of Language and Literature. <br /> <br /> Yang Mingxing 杨明星. (2014). 中国外交新词对外翻译的原则与策略 [Principles and Strategies for the Translation of Diplomacy Vocabularies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal. <br /> <br /> Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹. (2013). 中西译论比较研究 [A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between China and the West]. ''海外英语'' Overseas English. <br /> <br /> Zhang Mei, Wang Rongyuan 张美, 王荣媛. (2019). 论归化异化翻译策略选择的影响因素 [On Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization Strategies]. ''英语广场'' English Square. <br /> <br /> Zhou Lingshun周领顺. (2019). “翻译理论与实践关系的讨论”: 回顾与反思 [Rethinking the Relation between Translation Theory&amp;Translation Practice]. ''上海翻译'' Shanghai Journal of Translators. <br /> <br /> Zhu Liyun, Xu Jingxian 朱丽云, 徐静娴. (2019). 有关直译和意译的讨论 [On Literal Translation and Free Translation]. ''汉字文化'' Sinogram Culture.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theory - 张瑜 Zhang Yu, 202070080625==<br /> &lt;center&gt;张瑜 Zhang Yu &lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Lu Xun, as China’s renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development. The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation, Rather to be Faithful than Fluent<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 浅谈鲁迅的翻译思想<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> It is estimated that Lu Xun has translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime. Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, starting from the translation ''Yue Jie Lv Xing'' and ending with the ''Death Souls'', which last a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun's translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;, retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theories from the perspective of &quot;intermediate&quot;. At last, it analyzes the social reasons for the formation and development.(Xu Lan 2017,447)<br /> <br /> ===Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> About the translation theory, Lu Xun had not written a book to expound it. His translation theory is embodied in his numerous translation works, and concluded by late scholars. In this part, it intends to introduce five aspects of his translation theory, namely purposes of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of “rather to be faithful than fluent”, retranslation as well as translation criticism.<br /> <br /> ====Purpose of Translation====<br /> From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works such as children's literature. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different.（Chen 2000, 289）<br /> <br /> For the first category, he hoped that these translation works are able to service for the revolution and serve as the &quot;guide of future revolutions&quot;. In the ''Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature'' published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that &quot;it works for me, for some who claim proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who are willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties&quot; (Chen 2000,289). From the remarks of Lu Xun, it can be seen that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring &quot;fire and light&quot; for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction, was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.(Chen 2000,289-290)<br /> <br /> For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation work, ''Ideology, Landscape, Figure'', he mentioned that &quot;my translation and introduction aim at making partial readers learn the existence of those things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it (Chen 2000,290).&quot; It’s obvious that as long as Chinese people could learn something from these works translated by him, the value of translations has been achieved.(Chen 2000,290-291)<br /> <br /> About the reasons that Lu Xun translated children's literature included two aspects. On the one hand, there was no fairy tales in Chinese literature at that time. Thus, he wanted to make up for the blank. Meanwhile, children, as the future of nation, were deemed to the white paper, which had the boundless possibility to develop and shape. On the other hand, the feudal thoughts of old China had some detrimental effects on cultivating children (Wu 2009,183). Therefore, Lu Xun translated foreign works about children's literature to introduce new educational views and patterns and attract people's attention to dissolve constraints.(Wu 2009, 183-184)<br /> <br /> ====Free Translation and Hard Translation====<br /> The concept of &quot;literal translation&quot; was proposed by Lu Xun and his brother Zhou Zuoren in the 1920s. In the ''Outside Novels'', they definitely put forward the concept of literal translation, which played an important role in the modern history of translation and triggered heated discussion. Their purposes mainly focused on the problem of prevailing translation methods including mistranslation and random correction and deletion at that time. They hoped that the introduction of literal translation could give definite direction to the chaotic situation. They mentioned that &quot;it is better to choose word-for-word translation, and if not, it should be translated as a sentence rather than be translated in the middle&quot; (Chen 2000,176) in order to keep the style of the original text. Besides, they also distinguished the differences between literal translation and irresponsible translation. In the preface of his collected translation ''Peg-top'', Zhou Zuoren proposed that &quot;the precondition of literal translation was that it should convey the meaning of the original and preserve its style as much as possible. In other words, it should be &quot;faithful&quot; and &quot;expressiveness&quot;. Some people were seemed to misunderstand the meaning of the literal translation and they regarded literal translation as rigid translation word for word. For example, they translated 'lying on his back' into '卧着在他的背上' instead of '仰卧着'. Here, the former was irresponsible translation and the latter was literal translation (Chen 2000,177).&quot; Lu Xun also supported his statement. In the following translation practice, Lu Xun has been sticking to literal translation. (Chen 2000, 176-177)<br /> <br /> In 1929, Lu Xun formally proposed the concept of hard translation in ''The Supplement to the Translators of Literature and Criticism''. &quot;Because the translators' inadequate ability and the shortcomings of the Chinese text, the translation is obscure and thus making it difficult for readers to comprehend many parts of the translation. If the text were translated word for word, its original refined tone will be lost. For me, there is no way out other than hard translation. The only remaining hope is that the readers are still willing to read it in spite of difficulties (Lu 1958,286).&quot; On September 10, 1929, Liang Shiqiu published Discussion on Lu Xun's Hard translation and he believed that &quot;hard translation&quot; was just &quot;rigid translation&quot;. In the reply to Liang Shiqiu, Lu Xun expounded his opinions on &quot;hard translation&quot; from the perspective of academy. Firstly, the works used with hard translation including scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works aimed at specific readers. Here, it closely related to the purpose of his translation. Lu Xun hoped that these translation works could awaken insensitive Chinese people and make them learn more about the reality of western countries to change the current situation of old China. Therefore, he chose hard translation and present readers the authentic pictures as much as possible. Secondly, in fact, Lu Xun also confessed that his translation was not satisfactory, but he had not found more appropriate methods to translate these books. And he believed that there were excellent translators who were able to translate faithful articles without using of hard translation or distortions in translation. When the better translation appeared, the version of his translation would be discarded naturally. However, in the period from nothing to good versions, his translation was willing to serve as the intermedium to make up for the blank.(Chen 2000,294-295)<br /> <br /> ====Rather to be Faithful than Fluent====<br /> In the ''Message About Translation'', Lu Xun definitely proposed the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; in the process of translating. In Lu Xun's point of view, he believed that the translation should not only keep the &quot;exoticness&quot; and &quot;foreignness&quot; of the original text in its contents and culture, but also imitate the word order and sentence structures of foreign language, which naturally led to be not fluent. In the ''Title of Essays are Not Fixed'', Lu Xun pointed out that &quot;every translation must take care of both sides, the first side is that it should be easy to understand, and the other is to preserve the richness of the original. But the second one often contradicts the first one. That means readers can't understand it. The original text is foreign to the target reader. For the sake of the readability, the translator has to change the original structure, but he should not shorten the original expression&quot; (Huang 2018,24). At that time, Zhao Jingshen proposed his own view &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot;. His view was criticized by Lu Xun. As for the idea of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;, readers were able to understand the contents; if not, they could understand when connecting it with practice. While &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot; emphasized the fluency instead of faithfulness, it resulted that readers were unable to understand the original text or even misunderstood based on subjective speculation. It obviously made no sense. For example, due to supporting the idea of &quot;rather to be fluent than faithful&quot;, Zhao Jingshen translated the &quot;Milky Way&quot; into &quot;牛奶路&quot; instead of &quot;银河&quot;. This kind of translation was ridiculous and easy to misdirect and confuse targeted readers. (Chen 2000, 296)<br /> <br /> There were two purposes for Lu Xun to put forward the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. Firstly, one purpose was to resist ethnocentrism and introduce foreign culture to reform and rebuild the profound impression on Chinese culture. Therefore, he introduced the new vocabulary, new grammas and new expressions from the foreign languages, and then involve the readers into the new foreign context. He pointed out that being not fluent was temporary. It resulted from unfamiliarity and intolerance that Chinese readers treated the foreign language. And then it would change into fluency when native language absorbed the foreign language and people began to be accustomed to it (Li 2019,204). Secondly, one purpose was to change Chinese people's thinking model and language expression. The language controls people's thinking pattern. It was necessary to reform Chinese language in order to change national spirit. In the ''Message About Translation'', he said that &quot;in addition to introducing the original contents to Chinese readers, translation had another important function, that is, to help us create new and modern Chinese language (Lu 2005,380).&quot; Lu Xun also mentioned that Chinese had many disadvantages such as a lack of explicitness and accuracy. In the introduction of ''Little Jones'', he said that &quot;European language is explicit, but my ability is limited (Lu 1981,256).&quot; Besides, at that time the development of vernacular was immature. Then Lu Xun also said that &quot;the biggest reason that the Europeanized grammar intruded into the Chinese vernacular was for the necessity rather than curiosity (Lu 1981,520)&quot; Therefore, based on the deep understanding to flaws of Chinese, it was necessary to introduce useful expression and vocabulary to reform Chinese.(Li 2019, 201-209)<br /> <br /> In conclusion, although the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; was attacked by other scholars after its introduction, in fact, this concept showed Lu Xun's progressive thoughts and his tolerance to foreign cultures.<br /> <br /> ====Retranslation====<br /> Retranslation refers to two kinds of translation, that is, one is using the third language to indirectly translate the original works, and another is having different translation versions for the same work. Although the first type of retranslation is not an ideal method, it's quite common in the history of translation. For example, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was from foreign languages to Chinese instead of directly translating from Sanskrit. As for Lu Xun's attitude towards retranslation, he believed that the ideal translation should be translated by those who mastered the original-text language. However, in the first quarter of 20th century, there was no people who understood or had a good command of eastern European languages. Therefore, under the circumstance retranslation was the best choice to introducing other nations' literature. In the foreword of the ''Russian Fairy Tales'', Lu Xun even candidly confessed that &quot;I was not satisfied my version of retranslation, but there are no other translation versions because of objective limitations. My version existed just for the period of vacancy. Once someone directly translated it, and its version must be much better than mine. Then my version was willing to be replaced (Chen 2000,302-303).&quot; In his point of view, he agreed that retranslation was much easier than direct translation. It included two reasons: firstly, the translator who directly translated the original text spent a large amount of time to research and digest the unintelligible and complex contents, and then he was able to express the meaning of the original text as much as possible. Secondly, as for those excellent but indigestible contents, the translator who was faithful to the original text would provide annotations to explain them. (Gu 2009, 26)<br /> <br /> The second type of retranslation was having different translation version for the same work. At the beginning, Lu Xun's attitude towards it was firmly against it. He believed that bookstores and readers at that time were unable to accept two translation version for the same book. However, later Lu Xun actually put forward the necessity of retranslating the same work. In 1935, he wrote a piece of monograph and explained the reasons (Chen 2000,305). On the one hand, retranslation was the only choice to repel irresponsible translation. If there was only one version for the original text, it was unavoidable the irresponsible translator to randomly tamper the original meaning or add subjective opinions. On the other hand, retranslation was conducive to improving the levels of new literature. When different versions appeared, comparison and critical analysis began to happen. Consequently, people were willing to choose the better one to read. Besides, Lu Xun also mentioned that the later translators could learn from the previous translation and add their own new ideas in order to make the new translation version closer to the original text. (Gu 2009, 27)<br /> <br /> ====Translation Criticism====<br /> As for the translation criticism, Lu Xun came up with two questions, that is, how to make translation criticism and the importance of translation criticism. Firstly, about the methods of translation criticism, in the Defended for Translation Criticism, Lu Xun proposed that &quot;the major responsibility of translation criticism depended on translator, and circles of readers and publishing should take a part of responsibility. The correct methods of translation criticism were to point out the bad one and reward the best one; if not, the better one could also be considered (Chen 2000,306).&quot; Besides, in order to explain the methods of translation criticism, Lu Xun used a vivid comparison. He compared the translation problems to apples with scars. As for the previous methods, once there were scars in the apples, people would discard them completely, which led to pay a high price. Later as long as the apples with scars was edible, they were worthwhile to criticize. Then the latter one led to less losses. In other words, previously, if the translation had obvious problems, people would forsake it without hesitation. But people also found that it was likely to waste a great amount of time and energy. The later methods further improved the disadvantage of the first one. If translation problems were found, people were able to exploit the useful part and learn something from the problems to create better translation. This method not only helped people distinguish the quality of translation, but also saved time and reduced losses. (Chen 2000, 306-307)<br /> <br /> Secondly, Lu Xun also expounded the importance of translation criticism. In the ''Rediscussion on translation'', he mentioned that translation criticism &quot;undertook the responsibility of cultivation or deletion, and avoided numerous and miscellaneous translations swarming into the translation field&quot; (Chen 2000,308). In the face of a multitude of translation works, translation criticism was conducive to distinguishing high quality works and dispelling translation of poor quality. Besides, the difficulty of translation criticism also provided great challenges for translation critics. The previous part had mentioned that Lu Xun was in favor of retranslation. Therefore, one foreign work was likely to have several different translation versions, which required translation critics to read all the translation versions, compared their advantages and disadvantages, and then made conclusions. It took a great amount of time and energy to do this work. Meanwhile, the standards of translation criticism were difficult to master. As for the same version, different people had different opinions. The qualification of translation critics should also take into consideration. (Chen 2000, 308)<br /> <br /> ===The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> Lu Xun's translation theory did not take shape in a short time. It took a long time for it to form and develop through long-lasting translation practice and improvement. In this part, it intends to introduce the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory from the perspective of &quot;intermediate&quot;, and then analyze the social reasons for the changes.<br /> <br /> ====Philosophy of &quot;Intermediate&quot;====<br /> In the ''Postscript of Tomb'' published in 1926, the philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; was firstly proposed. It intended to expound that everything was in the process of change, and it should go through the middle process to eventually reach a higher level. The philosophy originated from the survival of the fittest advocated by Darwin, the &quot;gold mean&quot; in traditional Chinese philosophical culture as well as the ideas of Nietzsche's superman (Liu and Luo 2019,34). The philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; was embodied in the formation and development of Lu Xun's translation theory and had played a significant role in the process. It intends to analyze his philosophy of &quot;intermediate&quot; from the following two aspects. (Liu and Luo 2019, 34)<br /> <br /> =====From the Perspective of Language=====<br /> In the aspect of language, it experienced three phrases, that is, the writings in classical style, vernacular Chinese and modern language (Wu 2009,74). At the beginning, Lu Xun regarded language as the instrument and use native language and style to change original text. Thus, he mixed the writings in classical style and vernacular Chinese to translate foreign literary works such as ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre''. In the two scientific novels, he even used the traditional pattern of chapters and delete some psychological description as well as narration of scientific knowledge in order to cater readers' taste. However, he still founded that the translation was obscure to understand for Chinese people. Later he realized that the flaws of writings in classical style were the primary cause and gradually adopted vernacular Chinese to translate and further improved it. In the Classical Books and Vernacular, Lu Xun said that &quot;the classical language has died; the vernacular Chinese was the bridge in the process of reform (Lu 2005,228).&quot; It obviously showed that vernacular Chinese was just the intermediate or middle process with the development of new culture and literature. (Wu 2009, 74-75)<br /> <br /> =====From the Perspective of Translation Strategy=====<br /> In his earlier translation of late Qing Dynasty, Lu Xun mostly adopted free translation or adaptation to translate foreign literary works. For example, when translating two works written by Jules Verne, ''De la terre à la lune'' and ''Voyage au centre de la terre'', there had obvious indications of free translation. In his translation, &quot;''Yue Jie Lv Xing'', a total of 28 chapters of the novel were cut into only 14 chapters, and the article was deleted. The wording and writing style are suitable for Chinese readers (Lu 1981,152).&quot; Then starting from the ''Outside Novels'', Lu Xun changed his translation style and began to use literal translation. Then from his late translation works such as ''Dead Souls'', it can be seen that he still adopted the method of literal translation. The change was that his style of literal translation became more proficient and mature in this period. In conclusion, Lu Xun's translation style changed from free translation into literal translation, and later he even used hard translation and the concept of &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. In the process of exploring the most appropriate translation strategy, Lu Xun began to recognize his own limitations. He mentioned that his translation versions could serve as the &quot;intermedium&quot; to make up for the vacancy. When the better version appeared, his translation version would be discarded naturally. He also confessed that his translations were not satisfied in terms of hard translation and one reason was that his ability was limited and unable to find better translation methods. However, he was willing to provide the &quot;intermediate&quot; for readers and late translators for reference.(Wu 2009, 82-85)<br /> <br /> ====Social Reasons for the Formation and Development====<br /> Lu Xun's translation activities lasted about 33 years. His translation theory can be found among his numerous translation works. The following intends to explore the reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. It intends to mainly expound the social reasons.<br /> <br /> In the first stage of his translation activity (1903-1908), affected by Liang Qichao and Lin Shu, Lu Xun adopted the free translation to translate scientific novels. On the one hand, the translation notion advocated by Liang Qichao had a deep influence on selection of translation materials. Liang Qichao believed that translation has played an important role in reforming thinking and pushing Chinese people to make advance. From his early translation works, it can be concluded that the category of these works mainly focused on the scientific novels, which closely related to the ideology that used science to renovate people's ideas. On the other hand, in the late Qing Dynasty, the free translation adopted by Lin Shu was popular and widely accepted. Lu Xun praised that Lin Shu's translation works can convey a kind of fun. Therefore, under the influence of Lin Shu, Lu Xun began to imitate Lin Shu and used free translation to translate foreign scientific works. (Chen 2000, 170-175)<br /> <br /> In the second stage (1909-1926), Lu Xun changed his translation method from the free translation into literal translation. At the same time, the materials he selected had also changed into literary works of weakest and oppressed nations. In the ''Youth of Lu Xun'', Zhou Zuoren mentioned that &quot;''Gulliver's Travels'' written by Swift and ''The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon'' written by Irving were valuable books, but the translation versions of them were terrible. ''Don Quijote de la Mancha'' written by Cervantes was renamed as the ''Tale of the Daredevil'' (''Mo Xia Zhuan''), and in the translation, there were lots of mistranslation and irresponsible translation (Wu 2009,104).&quot; It can be seen that Lu Xun criticized the novels translated by Lin Shu as well as the free translation he used. Besides, the translation works translated by Lin Shu mainly focused on the literature of developed countries including Europe and America. In order to change the situation and make up for the blank at that time, Lu Xun put forward the literal translation and translated literary works of weakest and oppressed nations to encourage Chinese people to revolution and change the current situations of old China. Therefore, the Outside Novels, born in this background, symbolized the transformation of Lu Xun's translation style. (Wu 2009, 104-105)<br /> <br /> In the third stage (1927-1936), Lu Xun definitely and firmly stuck to literal translation. And the materials he selected mainly focused on the works of Soviet-Russian literary theory. This stage was also the most productive period with the appearance of large number of translation works. In this period, he had a deeper understanding of literal translation and wanted to introduce the new ideas and expressions to reform the shortcomings of early vernacular. In 1930, the league of left-wing was established. Lu Xun, as the leader of the league, took actions to practice his translation theory. At the same time, many opponents opposed his theory, leading to heated debate between different schools. Therefore, the concept of &quot;hard translation&quot; and &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot; were proposed in the following. He still believed that literal translation and hard translation were the most appropriate methods to present foreign literary works. (Wu 2009, 109-111)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lu Xun made great contributions to modern Chinese literature. One of his contributions was the proposal of his translation theory. In the first part, this paper mainly introduces five aspects of Lu Xun's translation theory, that is, his translation purposes, literal translation and hard translation, the concept of rather to be faithful than fluent, retranslation as well as translation criticism. At that time, when the free translation was prevailing, he put forward the concept of &quot;literal translation&quot; to break the convention and adopted new translation strategy. In the process of practicing his translation theory, he further proposed the concept of &quot;hard translation&quot; and &quot;rather to be faithful than fluent&quot;. Although his ideas were opposed by other scholars, his purpose that enlightened Chinese people and save the old China by learning from foreign literary works promoted him to stick his translation theory all the time. Besides, his ideas about retranslation provided possibility for the appearance of more and more translation versions. And the translation criticism was the critical step to prevent miscellaneous and poor translations from circulating among people. Then in the second part, it mainly introduces the formation and development of his translation theory. It put forward the concept of &quot;intermediate&quot; to expound its formation and dynamic development from two perspectives including change of preferential language as well as translation strategy. Finally, it also mentions the social reasons for the formation and development of his translation theory. In conclusion, this paper strives for exploring Lu Xun's translation theory and having a deep understanding of his translation activity.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集》[The Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 北京：人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House]. 1981年.<br /> *鲁迅 Lu Xun.《鲁迅全集补遗》[Supplement to the Complete Works of Lu Xun]. 天津：天津人民出版社[Tianjin People's Publishing House]. 2018年.<br /> *陈福康 Chen Fukang.《中国译学理论史稿（修订本）》[M][Draft History of Chinese Translation Theory (Revised)]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Publishing House]. 2000年.<br /> *顾钧 Gu Jun.《鲁迅翻译研究》[M][Study of Lu Xun's Translation].福建：福建教育出版社[Fujian Education Publishing House]. 2009年.<br /> *吴钧 Wu Jun.《鲁迅翻译文学研究》[C][Study of Lu Xun's Literature in Translation]. 齐鲁书社[Shandong Book Club]. 2009年.<br /> *李文革 Li Wenge.“重释鲁迅的‘宁信而不顺’——西方解构主义的视角”[Reinterpreting Lu Xun's &quot;Rather to be Faithful Than Fluent: a Western Deconstructionist Perspective]. 跨语言文化研究[Cross Linguistic and Cultural Studies]. 2019年.<br /> *刘孔喜，骆贤凤 Liu Kongxi and Luo Xianfeng.“鲁迅翻译思想的‘中间物’哲学理据”[The Philosophical Justification of 'Intermediates' in Lu Xun's Thought on Translation]. 绍兴文理学院学报[Journal of Shaoxing College of Arts and Sciences]. 2019年.<br /> *黄琼英 Huang Qiongying. “鲁迅语言观与翻译策略关系初探”[A Preliminary Study on the Relationship between Lu Xun's View of Language and Translation Strategy]. 曲靖师范学院学报[Journal of Qujing Normal College]. 2008年.<br /> *Huang Xiaojun. &quot;The Difference Between Lawrence Venuti's Foreignization and Lu Xun's Foreignization&quot;[劳伦斯·韦努蒂的异化与鲁迅的异化的差别]. Proceedings of 2018 7th International Conference on Applied Social Science (ICASS 2018)[2018年第七届国际应用社会科学大会论文集]. Ed. 2018.<br /> *Zhu Xiaodong and Ding Ting. &quot;The Influence of Lu Xun's 'Hard Translation' Concept on the Transformation of Modern Chinese Culture&quot;[鲁迅的 &quot;硬译 &quot;理念对中国现代文化转型的影响]. Proceedings of 7th International Workshop on Arts, Culture, Literature, and Education (IWACLE 2018)[2018年第七届国际艺术、文化、文学和教育研讨会论文集]. 2018.<br /> *Xu Lan. &quot;On Lu Xun's Translation Activities in the 1930s Viewed Through Bourdieu's Sociological Theory&quot;[论从布迪厄的社会学理论看20世纪30年代鲁迅的翻译活动]. Sino-US English Teaching 14[中美英语教学14期]. 2017.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Translation is not just an activity that refers to the practice of translation. In translation, theories form an integral part. With translation practice comes translation theory, and advances in theory will better guide practice. Perhaps the translation theories that translators are most familiar with are Skopos theory, domestication and foreignization, dynamic equivalence and the like, but these are all translation theories developed by celebrated foreign scholars. The foreign translation theories have been introduced to China and have developed in China, perhaps tinged with Chinese characteristics in order to adapt to Chinese translation, but we have always lacked translation theories that originate from China. Eco-translatology is a theory from the local. This thesis is aimed to give a brief introduction to ecological translation theory, embracing the inspiration for ecological translation theory, the three-dimensional transformation as a main strategy and the emphasis on the subjectivity of translators. In this paper, the translation of the subtitles of the American drama Prison Break will be taken as an application of the ecological translation theory strategy, so as to deepen the readers' understanding of the theory and possibly provide references for other translators on the application of ecological translation theory.<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译不仅仅是指翻译实践这样一种活动。在翻译的世界里，翻译理论占了不可或缺的一部分，有了翻译实践就会产生翻译理论，而理论的进步也会更好地指导翻译实践。或许译者最为熟悉的有翻译目的论、异化和归化、动态对等等一些翻译理论，但是这些都是国外著名学者所提出的翻译理论。国外的翻译理论传到中国，在中国变化发展，也许有了中国特色，从而适应中国翻译，但我们始终缺乏从本土出发的翻译理论。生态翻译理论，就是从本土出发的翻译理论。本篇论文旨在对生态翻译理论进行一个简要地介绍，其中包括生态翻译理论的灵感来源、生态翻译的主要策略三维转换以及该理论对译者主体性的强调与诠释。理论要应用就少不了实践，本文将会以美剧《越狱》的字幕翻译作为生态翻译理论策略的应用对象，从而深化读者对该理论的理解，也尽可能给其他研究者提供生态翻译理论应用的参考。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> Eco-translatology; Subtitle Translation; Three-dimentional transformation<br /> ===1 Introduction===<br /> In the study of translation theory, Eco-translatology, as an important methodological tool, a way of interpreting translation activities and a method of exploring translation theories, has increasingly shown its unique function and great charm. It is in the process of dynamic development and continuous improvement. The theory of Eco-translatology and the proposal of Eco-translatology have undoubtedly achieved breakthroughs and its methods reached a new stage. Therefore, the study and exploration of the ideological basis of Eco-translatology and the three-dimensional transformation of the core methodology of Eco-translatology will help us fully understand the significance of Eco-translatology in contemporary translation studies and theoretical analysis of translation. In this study, the author will introduce the inspiration of Eco-translatology and its practical translation strategy as multi-dimensional transformations then analyze the subjectivity of translators in the second chapter,. Finally, the author will integrate the theory of Eco-translatology with American TV show Prison Break. <br /> ===2 Eco-translatology===<br /> ===2.1 Inspiration of Eco-translatology===<br /> Professor Hu Gengshen, driven by Darwin's adaptive selection theory, put forward and further developed the theory of ecological translation. The adaptation theory of translation choice is the core concept of this theory, which defines translation as &quot;the translator's selection activities adapted to the translation ecological environment&quot;.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) The ecological environment of translation refers to “the world presented by the source language, the source language and the target language, that is, language, communication, culture, society, authors, readers and clients.” For instance, Friends as a celebrated sitcom, only its translation must take these specific group of people into consideration can it achieve its purpose. In this process, the translator is the only subject with subjective initiative.(Hu Gengshen, 2010) As the strategy of translation, multi-dimensional adaptation and adaptive selection appear to be crucially significant. The three-dimensional transformation of language, culture and communication dimensions are included in translation methods. What can be considered as the best translation is that the translation with the highest degree of integration adaptation and selection. The definition of translation ecological environment is the sum of all external conditions that affect the survival and development of translation theme. It includes the author, translator, reader, initiator, sponsor, publisher, and other characters of the original text. The external environment related to the natural and economic environment, language and culture environment, social and political environment which concerns translation activities. The ecological environment of translation is interwoven by various elements, which is the sum of natural and humanistic factors in the occurrence, existence and development of translation activities. Cultural dimension and communicative dimension into practice by putting the transformation of linguistic dimension.<br /> Three-dimensional transformation reveals its sweeping influence in translation. Language dimension transformation amounts to the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. This transformation can occur at different stages, levels and aspects of the translation process. To transmit information accurately and faithfully, the translator should choose and transform the language form in an adaptive way. Cultural dimension transformation adds up to the translator's methods to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations in the process of translation. More crucially, profound comprehension for the cultural discrepancy is the key to communicate accurate information. In this study, it demands translators must take the characteristics of historical and cultural documentary into account, and to use accurate language to transform the expression of cultural characteristics. Communication dimension transformation emphasizes the adaptation and selection of translators' attention to bilingual communicative intentions in the process of translation. Only through multi-dimensional adaptation and at least three-dimensional selection and transformation can proper translation be carried out. (Hu Gengshen, 2004)<br /> ===2.2 Three Dimentional Transformation of Eco-tranlatology===<br /> In order to make sure the precise and correctness of translation, the translator must consider the translation from multiple perspectives, levels and integrate various factors. Only in this way can the translation be closer to the original context. However, it is nearly impossible to achieve this goal in reality. After all, translation concerns a variety of contexts, cultures and other intricate factors. The environment is complex and changeable, which is difficult for translators to grasp those comprehensively. As long as the translator find the key links and points, appropriate translation can be achieved to a certain extent. According to the theory of Eco-translation, three key dimensions must be transformed during translating the information, which is considered as three-dimensional transformation.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> What language dimension transformation stresses is that the translator's adaptation and selection of language forms in the process of translation. Since adaptation requires to be achieved, the original text must be understood and analyzed, and the translator must have a full insight of the meaning of the translated text. <br /> What cultural dimension transformation indicates is that the translation process in which the translator pays attention to the transmission and interpretation of bilingual cultural connotations. America and China both has totally different historical background, thus formed very distinguished cultural features. It needs translators to mind the cultural discrepancy between these two countries.<br /> What communicative dimension transformation serves is that it requires translators to focus on the level of communication and whether the communicative intentions of the original text can be reflected in the translation, in addition to the transformation of linguistic information and the transmission of cultural connotations. Communication is unavoidable. If we want to communicate properly, then we should have a proper tone. When translating, the translator must grasp the emotion expressed by the author of the original text and accurately express the message the speaker wants to convey. (Hu Gengshen, 2008)<br /> ===2.3 The subjectivity of Translators===<br /> Katherine Reiss proposed the text type theory, which summarized various types of text into informative, expressive and operative types. She believes that almost all texts can find their own classification based on these three types, but there are also mixed text types, such as the autobiography of statesmen, which may have the function of operative as well as informative. Reiss believes that the specific translation method is determined by the text type.<br /> However, as translation theories continue to develop, and more and more translators find that text type theory may be too restrictive, ecological translation theories also propose translator subjectivity, aiming at transforming the translator from an invisible role to an explicit one. The previously popular textual determinism or other factor determinism may ignore the creativity of the translator to a certain extent, treating the translator as a mere &quot;servant&quot; of the two languages, and the translator's subjectivity is not given full play and many translations lose their vitality. From the point of view of ecological translation theory, we can re-understand the relationship between the translator and the translation ecological environment in the translation process, so as to highlight the influence of the translator and emphasise that the translator is no longer invisible.<br /> Eco-translatology believes that in the translation process, the translator's subjectivity is primary and the object, the original text, is secondary. This is a significant reversal of the previous theory of focusing on the original text, and is in fact more in line with the reality that the translator plays an active and creative role in actual translation activities. Nowadays, machine translation is developing rapidly, and common economic and trade texts can be edited and modified after translation, greatly improving the efficiency of translation. However, in literary translations, especially on subjects such as poetry, the subjectivity of the translator cannot be ignored, both in terms of understanding the content and the creativity of the output. In addition, the translation ecosystem boasts some characteristics: The translation as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The parts include the various elements of the translation process, such as the original work, the translation ecosystem, the translator and the reader. Moreover, through the adaptation and choice of the translator, the nature and function of each translation element interacts with each other, which ultimately affects the translation system as a whole and manifests itself in the translator's work. <br /> As we can see from these points, the translator-centred theory does not mean that the translator is completely free to create regardless of the original text. Eco-translation theory emphasises that translators adapt and make choices in an ecological translation environment, and that they should focus on their own creativity as well as the original text in order to produce dynamic translations.(Dong Jie, Yi Yongzhong, 2020)<br /> ===3 Application of the Theory in Subtitle Text Analysis of Prison Break===<br /> ===3.1 The Characteristics of America Television Show===<br /> After the reform and opening up, people's living standards and quality of life have improved dramatically. People no longer just pursue food and clothing satisfaction, but have started to enrich their spiritual world. With the opening up of the country's policies, not only economic exchanges have been brought in, but also the spread of American films and TV shows has had a deeper impact on the country. It is said that art comes from life, so to a certain extent, American TV shows also reflects its style of life, attitudes and humanistic values. Subtitle translation of movies and TV plays proves to be a relatively new field of translation. A film with vivid subtitle translation can better convey the complete information to be expressed. As global economy and cultural exchanges advance, a large number of foreign films and TV programs have been introduced into China. As a medium, film and television works have made important contributions to the cultural exchange between China and the West.<br /> Seriousness and colloquialism go hand in hand.<br /> Films and TV dramas are not just for the entertainment. Therefore, translators should take a serious attitude towards the subtitling of American dramas in order to avoid any inadvertent misunderstanding of different cultures. This gives the dialogue of American dramas a certain seriousness. However, seriousness does not mean that the subtitling of American dramas needs to be written throughout, as most of the plots take place in everyday life and the characters' dialogue is as commonplace as when we go out to eat, which requires the translators to avoid written language as much as possible, giving the audience a sense of being close to life and in reality.<br /> Flexibility.<br /> Film and television translation is a special literary form. While choosing accurate and vivid language to reproduce the ideological and artistic features of the original film to ensure the accuracy and vividness of the translated language, the translator should also make it consistent with the expressions and accents of the characters in the play. The most fundamental principle is the flexible handling of retention and innovation in subtitle translation. First of all, there is a huge difference between Chinese and English languages, so the translator should pay special attention to the language difference when translating, and change the word class flexibly to avoid the situation where the words are not clear and the meaning is difficult to understand. Secondly, intonation is also very important as part of the dialogue. The seriousness or liveliness, formality or casualness of the dialogue has a direct impact on the character, so the translator should ensure the accuracy of the translation and choose suitable language styles according to the different types of films in order to make the audience feel the same as the original language audience. In the process of translation, the translator should fully understand the connotation of the film, and flexibly handle the retention and innovation in subtitle translation according to the language characteristics and cultural background of both parties, making the subtitle translation more suitable for the cultural context through vocabulary and word class conversion, to show the charm of the film and retain the artistic value of the film to the greatest extent.（Qian Shaochang, 2000）<br /> ===3.2 A Introduction of Prison Break===<br /> Prison Break is a crime-thriller, with an exciting, interlocking plot, adored by national and international audiences,. In this show, Mike (Wentworth Miller) and his brother Lincoln (Dominic Purcell) are interdependent. Lincoln borrows $90,000 from a loan shark to cover the tuition of his brother, and Mike uses the money to become a successful building and structural engineer. Lincoln, however, reluctantly agrees to shoot a man in order to repay the loan shark, and is then set up as a scapegoat by a senior government official. Mike takes advantage of his career and learns about the prison structural system. After deliberately robbing a bank, he insists that he wants to be put in the same prison as his brother, and then tries his best to save him from being sentenced to death.<br /> ===3.3 Adaptive Selections in Linguistic Dimension===<br /> After discussed the basis of Eco-translatology, the characteristics of American TV shows, we should put it into practice so as to deepen our understanding.<br /> Chinese and English are two different languages. Chinese emphasizes meaning, while English appears to be in strict accordance with the structure of sentences. Nida said that from a linguistic light, the biggest difference between Chinese and English is hypotaxis and parataxis.(Nida, 2001) In the process of translation, subtitle translators should learn by heart that the specific language characteristics so as to make the information transmission smoothly and authentically.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -You don't have a violent bone in your body, <br /> 我知道你天性善良，<br /> -I said,are you being a smartass? <br /> 我问你是不是喜欢讽刺人？<br /> -Just trying to fly low,avoid the radar,boss.<br /> 只不过想保持低调，不想引起注意，长官<br /> -Do my time... and get out. <br /> 服完刑...就走人<br /> Analysis: Reverse translations can also be considered to be a linguistic translation strategy, which can sometimes have a much more different effect than literal translations. This conversation occurs when Mike chats with a prison guard on arrival at the prison. “Don't have a violent bone in your body” is translated into “天性善良”. The reverse translation here show Mike's desire to impress the guard in order to facilitate a quiet environment in which to carry out his plans. In addition, “do my time” originally meant to pass the time, but the translator has chosen to adapt the translation to make it easier to understand and fit the context.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -He just sort of rolled over. He didn't put up a fight. <br /> 他就当睡觉翻个身似的，没任何反抗<br /> Analysis: In a particular context, the meaning of a word often transcends its original meaning, and a context-dependent meaning appears, which is regarded as semantic addition. Therefore, the translator should jump out of the original meaning of the word and rely on the context in which the word is located to translate its meaning outside the context. The original meaning of “roll over” was to make a rolling motion or turn, but the phrase was translated to fit the context, adding the meaning of sleep over, which shows Mike's attitude to letting it run its course after being sentenced, and also provides an ambush for the plot to save his brother.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Kellerman: There's a lawyer poking around.<br /> 有个律师在多管闲事<br /> -Caroline: Anyone that's a threat is expendable.<br /> 对这种人不要心慈手软<br /> Analysis: It is difficult to understand this sentence just by looking at the meaning of the word expendable. But according to the meaning of the whole sentence it is clear that what is meant here is that anyone who is a threat should be dealt with without considering the cost. Sometimes, the meaning of an adjective is far from restricted to its original, which embodies that the context matters.<br /> <br /> ===3.4 Adaptive Selections in Cultural Dimension===<br /> China and America share dramatically different historical background and culture, thus there are some idioms, jargon, or any other adages that the two countries may has their own definition and explanation. In the process of translation, subtitle translators should bear in mind that the specific cultural characteristics between two countries so as to cause no misunderstanding.(Hu Gengshen, 2006)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Someone wants him dead,Veronica. <br /> 有人要置他于死地，Veronica<br /> -Something more is going on here. <br /> 这背后有阴谋<br /> -This is desperation,Michael. <br /> 你是在孤注一掷，Michael<br /> -You're grabbing at straws. <br /> 是想抓救命稻草<br /> Analysis: The above sentences relatively use“want him dead”“desperation”“grab at straws”and the translator relatively selects typical Chinese sayings which are “置于死地”“孤注一掷”“救命稻草”. These Chinese idioms all have specific meanings and historical origins. “置于死地” means to put the opponent in a position to perish. This Chinese idiom is from Sun Wu's The Art of War: A person who falls into the water suddenly finds a straw and is saved by breathing underwater through a hollow straw. It is now often used in a metaphorical sense to refer to a person's only hope in a difficult situation. The context of this conversation is Mike and his brother's friend discussing the situation in which his brother has been set up and imprisoned, and these idioms are appropriate for the feeling of being set up and yet having no choice.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Look where it got me.I'm not asking you to love me. I already screwed up that chance long ago. I'm asking you to love yourself. You can still put the brakes on this thing. <br /> 可看看我现在身处的地方，我不是在恳求你再爱我，很久以前我就失去了这个机会。我是让你要自爱，亡羊补牢，为时不晚。<br /> Analysis: “亡羊补牢，为时不晚” is a Chinese proverb. Once upon a time there was a child called Zhang San whose family had many sheep, but he was sloppy in his work. One day, there came a hole in the railing of the sheep pen. When Zhang San's neighbours saw the hole, they reminded him to repair the sheep pen. He shook his head and said, &quot;It's only a small hole, it doesn't matter, you can fix it in a few days. When Zhang San was about to mend the fence of the sheep pen to see how the baby lambs were growing, he noticed that many of the sheep had run away and there were not many left. <br /> An old man heard Zhang San's cries and asked him with concern. “It is not too late to fix it now, and you can save the remaining sheep.” Zhang San came to his senses. Zhang San thanked the old man, picked up a hammer and repaired the fence on the sheep pen firmly. <br /> Since then, Zhang San has completely changed his bad habit of dragging his feet. Although Zhang San lost a lot of sheep, he learned a great lesson from the incident, and from then on developed a good habit of correcting mistakes as soon as they were made. This proverb is very appropriate in the translation of this paragraph. When the Mike's brother ends up in prison and his child come to visit and see his father's decadence in prison, he wants to drop out of school, and the father says this to the child to make up for the bad influence he has had on him. The English word literally means you should step on the brakes, but the Chinese idiom is more apt.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Westmoreland: Three days inside,and he's already thinking about turning rabbit.<br /> 才在牢里呆了三天，他就想着要大闹天官。<br /> Analysis: In this dialogue, the translator translates turning rabbit as “大闹天宫”. For Chinese audiences, the Great Tribulation is a very familiar episode of Journey to the West. In the original story, Sun Wukong, was sued by the Dragon King for forcibly borrowing the East Sea Needle of the Goddess of Certainty, a treasure of the sea and also a powerful weapon. After being humiliated and disgraced at the Peach Party, he fought his way to heaven. The Jade Emperor's Heavenly Hall was turned upside down and the immortals were helpless. This Chinese story is more graphic to the Chinese audience than the image of a turning rabbit.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael: Van Gogh over there is my new cellmate.<br /> 那边的“梵高”是我的新牢友<br /> -Fernando: But you're going to do something about it, right?You're gonna get rid of him.<br /> 但我知道你不会坐以待毙的对吗?你会想办法摆脱他的。<br /> Analysis: This dialogue contains an idiom that is “坐以待毙”, which describes a person in extreme difficulty who is not actively trying to find a way out. The idiom is from the book ZhuKo Kungming's Second Memorial to the Throne on his Expedition. In the context of the whole episode, Mike wants to dig a hole to escape, but there is a new cellmate in the prison, who is unable to sleep at night due to mental problems, which makes the job of digging extremely difficult, as night is the only period to be free. So Fernando was worried that the plan could not be carried out, and if it was, most of the condemned prisoners in the prison would indeed be sitting around waiting to die.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Told you not to go around me to the Pop. But you just keep making waves, don't you?<br /> 跟你说了别去找狱长，但你还在惹是生非。<br /> Analysis: In this dialogue, “make waves” is translated as to “惹是生非”. This idiom means to stir up trouble, to cause trouble, and is taken from Feng Menglong's Instruction Stories to Enlighten the World. All of the escape partners just want to escape in peace and quiet, but the main character, Mike, has his own agenda, so he keeps the prison warden on his toes to achieve his goal. However, the other inmates think that Mike is just trying to disturb the warden, and “惹是生非” is a very accurate translation here.<br /> ===3.5 Adaptive Selections in Communicative Dimension===<br /> Communication proves to be a crucial intention of words. Audience needs to get the idea of what movies or documentaries want to express thus communicative purpose can be achieved.(Yangli, 2013)<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Top of your class at Loyola. Magna cum laude, in fact. I can't help wondering what someone with your credentials is doing in a place like this. <br /> Loyola的尖子生，优等成绩，我就纳闷了象你这么优秀的人才，跑到这种鬼地方干什么？<br /> -Michael:Took a wrong turn a few months back,I guess. <br /> 也许是几个月前拐错弯了。<br /> -You make it sound like a traffic infraction. <br /> 你说的好像是交通违规似的。<br /> -Michael: Like all you did was turn the wrong way up a one-way street. Everyone turns up one sooner or later. <br /> 就像在单行道上开错方向，人人迟早都会发生点意外。<br /> Analysis: In the process of translation, it is very important to choose the right words. And proper words refer not only to the correspondence of meaning, but also to the tone in a certain context. This translation method includes mood reproduction. Mood refers to the speaker's attitude towards what he says. It is a grammatical feature in the form of intonation and mood words. In the way of mood expression, there is only exclamation in English, such as oh my god, gosh, oh dear lord, and the like, which tries to show the audience the tone of surprise, praise, pain, but there is a lack of mood words with the same emotional meaning as in Chinese, such as“哦”“呢”“呀”. Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese translation, the translator should have a keen sense and a deep understanding of the mood in the original English text, managing to transplant the original characters' tone to the translation by appreciating the diverse moods in the ordinary English text. In this dialogue, it is nearly impossible to tell the tone of the speaker by the literal meaning of the words alone. But the translator has made his own adaptations in the context. The protagonist, a talented student, devises his own plan to rob a bank and get arrested in order to save his wrongly accused brother from prison. The prison governor, after reading the Mike's CV, expresses his own incomprehension. Phrases such as “纳了闷” and “鬼地方” convey the tone of the speaker very well.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael:we only got a few minutes. We're gonna spend them spitting on each other, or are we gonna talk some business?<br /> 我们只有几分钟，我们是要用这几分钟来互相扯皮，还是我们来谈点儿正经事儿？<br /> Analysis: The dialogue includes the words “互相扯皮” and “谈点儿正经事”, which fits Mike's irritation at the lack of cooperation from his &quot;teammates&quot; at the time. The colloquialisation is also very much in line with the Chinese.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Caroline: Move on the younger brother. Do it preemptively before anything rises up,bites any of us in the ass.<br /> 把他弟弟弄走，早做打算。<br /> Analysis: The use of the word “弄” in this dialogue shows Caroline's disregard for human life and the coldness of her character. The officials became a little worried when they found out that Mike was in his brother's prison. A literal translation of “move on” would not have had this effect. In addition, the second sentence does not translate the meaning of every single word, but rather uses only “早做打算”, which is very much in keeping with the leadership style of the person behind the plan.<br /> <br /> Original and Translation: <br /> -Michael: I think I've got enough grout out to bust through. I'm going to need you to make some noise.<br /> 我想我已经挖得够多了，你得帮我制造点噪音。<br /> -Is that the best you can do?<br /> 你就这么点能耐？<br /> -all: Shut up!<br /> 闭嘴!<br /> -Berwick: Not one more word!<br /> 谁也别出声！<br /> Analysis: This conversation took place when Mike was organising a tunnel excavation for people in the prison. While the digging was going on, Mike was worried that the noise would attract the guards, so he asked his cellmates to make other noises to attract attention. However, when the inmates saw that Mike was digging just a little bit of a tunnel, they shouted at him. The translator has chosen to translate this as “这点能耐”, which is a good way of conveying the impatience and arrogance of the cellmate, both in terms of content and tone. For communicative purposes, it serves as a warning.<br /> ===4 Conclusion===<br /> From the perspective of Eco-translatology, this paper analyses the subtitle translation strategies of Prison Break. Under the guidance of this theory, its subtitle translation language can be described as quite refined, from which we can see the translator's cultural connotation and translation ability, and the application of Eco-translatology theory in subtitle translation of the show is in place. <br /> However, this study is still very limited in the use of analytical Eco-translatology theory. The first is that translation studies are scattered but not specialized. Second, this study is still at the stage of quoting relevant terms or general concepts of ecology, and it has not yet given a systematic, in-depth and detailed description and interpretation of translation activities according to the basic connotation of ecology. Third, the thesis is narrow-minded, lacking multi-dimensional interpretation and generalization of more problems. In addition, some studies are only on the matter, not on the background of global ecological trend and academic trend of thought. Therefore, Eco-translation theory needs to be enriched and developed in subtitle research.<br /> ===References===<br /> [1]Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Language and culture: Context in translating[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,114.<br /> <br /> [2]胡庚申.生态翻译学:产生的背景与发展的基础[J].外语研究,2010(4).<br /> <br /> [3]胡庚申. 翻译适应选择论[M].武汉:湖北教育出版社，2004.<br /> <br /> [4]胡庚申.从术语看译论——翻译适应选择论改观[J].上海翻译, 2008 (2).<br /> <br /> [5]胡庚申.例示“适应选择论”的翻译选择和翻译方法[D].外语与外语教学，2006 (3).<br /> <br /> [6]钱邵昌.字幕翻译——翻译园地中愈来愈重要的领域[J].中国翻译, 2000(1).<br /> <br /> [7]杨丽.文学作品翻译中的语气翻译策略研究[J].语文学刊,2013(9).<br /> <br /> [8]董捷,易永忠.生态翻译学视角下译者主体性在字幕翻译中的体现[J].校园英语,2020(19):243-244.<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of HUAWEI’s Advertising Videos from the Eco-translatology Perspective 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> ==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng==<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin 202020080617==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;林鑫 Lin Xin &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Since the 20th century, translation has been gradually examined and discussed more from a scientifical and linguistic perspective, yet in Bell's view, translation theorists have almost invariably made little systematic use of contemporary linguistic techniques in their practice. As a linguist, Bell has framed his translation theories in terms of diagrams and models, and developed unique insights into translation issues. His main work on translation is &quot;Translation and Translating:Theory and Practice&quot;. Liu Chongde, a well-known Chinese translator, critically inherited the translation principles proposed by Yan Fu, put forward the translation concept of &quot;faithfulness&quot;, &quot;expressiveness&quot; and &quot;closeness&quot;, compared the two translation methods of direct translation and Italian translation, and proposed the translatability of poetry. He compares the two methods of translation, direct translation and Italian translation, and proposes the translatability of poetry. The influence of Liu Chongde on the study of translation theory is comprehensive and profound. A comparison of Bell's and Liu's translation theories is useful for comparing the similarities and differences in their translation theories and providing references for the practice of translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Roger T. Bell; Liu Zhongde; Translation Theory; Comparative Study<br /> ===题目===<br /> 贝尔与刘重德翻译理论的比较研究<br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> ====1.1 Introduction to Roger T. Bell's Translation Theory====<br /> ====1.2 Introduction to Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory====<br /> ===2. Comparative Study on Bell and Liu Zhongde's Translation Theory===<br /> ====2.1 ====<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Reference '''===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Nida's Theory and Jin Di's Theory 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''key words'''===<br /> <br /> ===Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect===<br /> <br /> ===Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence===<br /> <br /> ===Difference Between Jin's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Translation , Translating and interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai==<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories in the Late 19th Century 202070080588==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;郭露 Guo Lu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> As China suffered from wars in the late 19th century, western culture was introduced into China inevitably. Chinese intellectuals at that time knew little about western works and were prejudiced against them. During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world, there were several translators and scholars who had translated numerous western works and came up with their translation theories, which promote the development of translation studies and helped people to know more about the western country. This paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time, it also introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepen our understanding towards translation theories in this period.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br /> <br /> ==='''题目'''===<br /> <br /> 19世纪晚期中国翻译理论简介<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 19世纪晚期，中国遭受战争磨难的同时，外国文化随之涌入中国。当时中国各界人士对于西方作品的了解极少，并对其作品抱有较大的偏见。在这一时期，翻译充当了中外交流的桥梁，中国涌现出了许多伟大的译者，他们的作品为中国的翻译发展做出极大贡献。本文旨在讨论当时的翻译发展以及严复和林纾两位在当时具有突出贡献的译者，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br /> <br /> === '''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> 翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The defeat of the First Sino-Japanese War at the end of the Qing Dynasty put China and the Chinese nation as well in great danger. In order to educate people and save the nation, scholars including Yan Fu and Lin Shu realized that they need to learn from Western countries and bring in their culture and advanced thinking. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3) Therefore, those scholars started to translate western works. For example, during the translation of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'', Yan Fu quoted the survival of the fittest and called for people to save the nation from subjugation and ensure its survival. (Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 2002, 1-3)<br /> <br /> In addition, with the growing demand for culture and entertainment, coupled with the improvement of printing technology, the market for books and magazines also underwent rapid development, which also provided room for the development of novels. While scholars favoured classical books, common people preferred novels, providing an opportunity for the development of novel translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br /> <br /> As many scholars began to translate foreign books, they too formed a variety of translation theories in the process of translation, which made a lot of contributions to the development of translation.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 34-35)<br /> <br /> ==='''Yan Fu'''===<br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the rendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91)<br /> <br /> Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that &quot;there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;. Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.(Wang Shi 1986, 1321-1322)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.(Chen Fukang 2010, 91-99)<br /> <br /> '''2. Translation Theory'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still, another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative &quot;f&quot; so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br /> <br /> (1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.(Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br /> <br /> (2)In addition to faithfulness and expressiveness, we should strive for elegance in translation. This is not just for extending the effects far. In using the syntax and style of the pre-Han period one actually facilitates the expressiveness of the profound principles and subtle thoughts whereas in suing the modern vernacular one finds it difficult to make things comprehensible. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 44-47)<br /> <br /> Here, faithfulness means to be faithful to the content of the original, the translation should be accurate, and translators are not allowed to change the meaning in the original text. “Meanwhile, translators should translate words correctly and concisely, and omission and amplification are not recommended.”(Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 2020, 1-4) Furthermore, expressiveness means to be expressive as the original, the translation should be in accordance with the expression of Chinese habit and be fluent and readable. And as for elegance, which is ''ya'', originally means the authentic and correct use of the Chinese language. However, with the development of the times, the meaning of ''ya'' has also undergone much development, it doesn’t require translators to keep the syntax and style of the pre-Han period, instead, they should translate the original text depending on its language style. (Wang Shi 1986, 48)<br /> <br /> '''3. Case Analysis'''<br /> <br /> Example1: He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-forty days now without taking a fish. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 他是一个老头子，一个人划着一只小船，在墨西哥湾大海流打鱼，而他已经有84天没有捕到一条鱼了。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 那老人独驾轻舟，在墨西哥湾流里捕鱼，如今出海已有84天仍是一鱼不获。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 他是个独自驾一只小帆船在湾流上捕鱼的老人。到今天为止，老头儿已经接连下海84天，一条鱼也没捕到。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 2)<br /> <br /> Translation analysis: In this example, the skiff were translated into “小船”, “轻舟” and “小帆船”, and according to the context, we can easily draw a conclusion that the third one is the best, as “小船” didn’t tell the reader what does the skiff look like, it has a much broader definition. Besides that, “轻舟” in China is a poetic word, which does not conform with the style of the original text. And “小帆船” seems more vivid and specific. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1)<br /> <br /> Example 2: The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 老人瘦而憔悴，颈后有深的皱纹。面颊上生着棕色的肿起一块块，那是热带的海上反射的阳光晒出的一种无害的瘤。顺着脸的两边，全长满了那肿起的一块块。他的手因为拉绳子，拖曳沉重的鱼，有纹路很深的创痕。 (Zhang Ailing 2015, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 老人瘦削而憔悴，颈背皱纹很深。热带海上阳光的反射引起善性的皮癌，那种褐色的疮痍便长满两颊，两手时常用索拉扯大鱼，也留下深折的瘢痕。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 老头儿身形单薄，脖颈子上皱纹很深。从他的腮帮子上一溜顺着颊边往下，长着些褐色的疙瘩，那是太阳在热带海面上的反光晒出来的良性皮肤瘤。他那双手则因为同大鱼较量，被钓索勒出了深深的伤痕。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 3)<br /> <br /> Translation analysis: Among all the translation versions, the last is the most understandable one, it is in accordance with the logical order and more natural. For example, “较量” in the third version seems very different from the original meaning of “handing”, but considering the context, “较量” is more authentic than “拖曳” or “拉扯” which are just translated literally. This also reflects the importance of expressiveness and elegance.(Sun Yanyu 2019, 2)<br /> <br /> Example 3: He did not remember when he had first started to talk aloud when he was by himself. He had sung when he was by himself in the old days and he had sung at night sometimes when he was alone steering on his match in the smacks or in the turtle boats. (Ernest Hemingway 2016, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 他记不起自己从什么时候开始，便爱一个人大声自言自语。往日，在孤独的时候，他曾爱唱歌自娱；有时夜间独自在渔船上或龟船上轮班掌舵，他也会唱起歌来。 (Yu Guangzhong 2010, 27)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 他记不得一个人独处的时候是何时开始大声说话的。以前他独个儿时曾唱过歌。在小帆船或者捕龟船里，独自值班掌舵时曾在夜里唱过。 (Huang Yuanshe 2011,16)<br /> <br /> Translation 3: 他不记得自己从什么时候起，在独自一人的情形下会大声说话。从前独自一人时，他会唱歌；当年在渔船或捕龟船上轮夜掌舵的时候，他有时也会唱歌。 (Zhang Chiheng 2015, 22)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: Though these translations are all faithful to the original text, the first one is beyond compare among all the versions. By reading the first one, we can have a deep understanding toward the loneliness of the old man who was fishing on the sea and we can also feel his optimism, especially in “自言自语” and “唱歌自娱”. This translation can undoubtedly arouse the sympathy of the readers. (Sun Yanyu 2019, 1-3)<br /> <br /> '''4. The Criticism of Yan Fu’s Theory'''<br /> <br /> Though Yan Fu’s translation theory was widely recognized by Chinese scholars, it also provoked heated debates, and elegance, which is ya, was criticized mostly by other scholars, some of them even believed that it is useless. And the reason why Yan put elegance into his translation theory is that he preferred the writing style of Tong Cheng School. Since this pompous style is obsolete, the standard of ya may also out of fashion. (Gao Xiaopeng 2017, 1-2)<br /> <br /> Nevertheless, “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is still one of the most important translation theories in China. Faithfulness means being faithful to the author and conveys the core values and meaning of the work to the readers. Expressiveness means the translation should be plain and fluent. And elegance requires the translation to obey the aesthetic concept of the target language. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 28-30) This theory has inspired later scholars in translation practice and theoretical exploration. Due to the limit of time and history, the translation study should be conducted in a historical context, so we also need to evaluate Yan Fu’s translation thought and translation works historically.<br /> <br /> ==='''Lin Shu'''===<br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Lin Shu(1852-1924) was a traditional Chinese literatus and translator, most famous for introducing the Western literary works into Chinese in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Though being ignorance of foreign languages, Lin Shu collaborated with different interpreters and translated more than 180 western literary works, mostly novels, from England, the United States, France, Russian, Switzerland, Belgium, Spain and Norway, etc. into classical Chinese in his lifetime. (Zhu Yu 2008, 3-7)<br /> <br /> Because of his ignorance of foreign languages, Lin seldom concerned himself with the original or with the equivalence of any sort. What he cared about most was the functions of his translation works. In Lin’s opinion, to translate books it to enlighten the mind of our people in a contest against foreigners. In his foreword to ''Yilin Monthly'', he stated:<br /> <br /> “The inferiority of Asia to Europe can be attributed to the fact that the Europeans are daily intent on learning whereas the Asian peoples moon away in a stupor or, jealous of the European learnings and slandering them as eccentric extremity, throw themselves into blind combats, fancying of victory. That is the so-called landlubber swimming against the good swimmer. As for me, to enlighten the mind of our people, we must begin with the establishment of schools. But the schools work steadily and slowly, so timely speeches in academic associations are preferable. Considering the inconveniences in preparing speeches, translating books becomes the ultimate choice.” (Chen Fukang 1992, 133)<br /> <br /> '''2. Translation Methods'''<br /> <br /> Lin Shu knew no foreign languages, so he had to cooperate with a collaborator who was familiar with foreign language and worked as an interpreter for him. Though he was an efficient translator, he didn’t come up with any significant translation theories. Having said that, during his translation process, there were four translation methods that he mainly used, which includes omission, addition, alteration and adaption. (Chen Jianyong 2013, 20)<br /> <br /> (1) Omission<br /> <br /> In his translation process, Lin deleted some words or sentences for some reasons. Omission is a very common practice in his translation. He deleted some contents for the sake of Chinese literary norms and so as to arose the Chinese reader’s interests. In the late19th century, Western literature was novel to the Chinese people. As Chinese readers prefer the tradition of story-telling in traditional Chinese fiction like ''The Water Margin'', Lin had to delete the psychological description in the western novel as it has nothing to do with the development of the story.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> (2) Addition<br /> <br /> During his translation, Lin Shu made some additions to polish and improve the original text so as to help the readers to have a better understanding of the original. Being a writer and a good story-teller, Lin was excelled in making the translation more interesting and appealing thorough addition. Even Qian Zhongshu, another Chinese translator and writer, mentioned Lin's addition in his translations: “When Lin Shu found a perceived void in the source text, he would add here and polish there so that the wording in the version was more concrete, the scene more vivid, and the description more substantial.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> For example: The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon... (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 20)<br /> <br /> 彼夫妇在蜜月期内，两情忻合无间（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归） (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br /> <br /> Here, Lin translated “honeymoon” literally into Chinese, but to help his readers better understand the Western tradition, Lin made a specific explanation of this word. Addition is quite a common phenomenon in Lin's translations, he took the readers into consideration, which makes his translation popular in China. In the meantime, he broadened the horizon of his readers and narrowed the gaps between Chinese and Western culture.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> (3) Alteration<br /> <br /> Due to the social and cultural differences between the source and target languages, alterations are inevitable. Hence Lin Shu made some compensation or replacement in his translation. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> For example: The slanting light of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like expanse of the river; the shivery canes, and the tall, dark cypress, hung with wreaths of dark, funeral moss, glow in the golden ray. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 23) <br /> <br /> 日脚斜穿云罅而出，直射江上芦港 。芦叶倒影，万绿荡漾于风漪之内，景物奇丽，江光如拭。 (Lin Shu 1981, 4)<br /> <br /> Lin Shu made the alteration considering the Chinese reader's aesthetic tendencies. Although Lin Shu changed the word order of the original, the style and literary effect of the original are reproduced.(Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> (4) Adaptation<br /> <br /> Considering the Chinese culture and the reader's acceptation, Lin Shu had to retranslate or rewrite the original text, which is similar to domestication. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 37)<br /> <br /> For example: On which Mr. Micawber delivered a eulogium on Mrs. Micawber's character and said she had ever been his guide, philosopher, and friend and that he would recommend me, when I came to marrying time of life, to marry such another woman, if such another woman could be found. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 18)<br /> <br /> 密考泊遂历称其妻嘉言懿行，为世贤女，能相夫教子，共处患难，且谓余曰：“汝论娶者，所娶亦当如吾妻。惟不审闺秀中更有贤类吾妻否?” (Lin Shu 1981, 3)<br /> <br /> In Lin's time, the wife had a very low status. For her, the most important responsibility was to take care of the husband and rear the children. So here in Lin's version, it was rewritten according to Chinese feudal ethics. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 36-37)<br /> <br /> '''3. Case Analysis'''<br /> <br /> Example 1: In that pleasant district of merry England which is watered by the river Don, there extended in ancient times a large forest, covering the greater part of the beautiful hills and valleys which lie between Sheffield and the pleasant town of Doncaster. The remains of this extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble seats of Wentworth, of Warncliffe Park, and around Rotherham. Here haunted of yore the fabulous Dragon of Wantley; here were fought many of the most desperate battles during the Civil Wars of the Roses; and here also flourished in ancient times those bands of gallant outlaws, whose deeds have been rendered so popular in English song. (Ivanhoe 2009, 25)<br /> <br /> Translation 1: 英国东河流域之内，前此有大树林，踞歇非儿、东加斯德二城之间，楼橹雉堞，均为树荫所被。至今老树凋残，尚有一二根株在焉。相传古来有神龙窟蟠其地。当时玫瑰之战，兄弟争立，即以此地为战场。而绿林豪客，仗侠尚义，亦据为寨。至今诗人歌曲恒举其事，播为美谈。 (Lin Shu 1981, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: In this translation, Lin translated the original text in classical style, which was more acceptable to his readers at that time. Instead of translating the word literally, he even translated the “Dragon of Wantley” and “gallant outlaws” into “神龙窟蟠” and “绿林豪客” respectively, which are two positive phrases. （Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br /> <br /> Example2: Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master. (Harriet Beecher Stowe 2008, 5)<br /> <br /> Translation 2: 门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黯，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主。 (Lin Shu 1981, 1)<br /> <br /> Translation Analysis: There are many descriptive words in this example like “a gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid”, “the dark and rich style of his beauty”, and etc., which makes the sentences more appealing and attractive. However, considering the Chinese literary norm, Lin Shu translated all these phrases into “服饰之善”, which is much more concise compared with the original one. (Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 2015, 49）<br /> <br /> '''4. The Criticism of Lin Shu’s theory'''<br /> <br /> During the 1917-1919 New Culture and May Fourth movements, Lin Shu was severely criticized and his popularity suffered badly. Many scholars deemed Lin as an unfaithful translator and there exists non-correspondence between his translations and their sources as they thought he deleted and edited the source texts at will, which violates the principle of “faithfulness”. “In Lin Shu’s opinion, however, retelling the story is more important than acting as a faithful intermediary between the writer and his Chinese readers.” (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 38-39)<br /> <br /> In the meantime, his translation changed Chinese people’s disregard of foreign literature. During the late 19th century, the intellectuals in China lacked of interest to learn from the West, they even thought that they had nothing to learn from there in the areas of art and literature. And Lin was the first translator who introduced such famous writers as Shakespeare and Charles Dickens to Chinese readers. With the help of Lin’s translation, those intellects and the younger generation began to eliminate their prejudice against the Western literature and realized its value. (Li Changbao, Shao Bin 2013, 39-41)<br /> <br /> ==='''Similarities and Differences Between Yan Fu and Lin Shu'''===<br /> <br /> Being the two famous translators in the late Qin Dynasty, Yan Fu and Lin Shu achieved remarkable success in translation theory and practice, both of them played critical roles in China. And there are several similarities and differences between them. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> After the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War, Yan Fu started to translate western works so as to introduce western advanced culture to Chinese people. Yan once stated that he wants to serve the nation through translation. Lin Shu, however, started his translation out of interest. But as time went by, he also translated western books to enlighten Chinese people. Therefore, we can say that both of them tried to save the nation through translation. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> Besides that, Yan Fu had a higher contribution than Lin Shu in terms of translation thoughts. He is known for “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, which is one of the most outstanding translation theories in China while Lin Shu didn’t come up with a systematic translation theory during his lifetime. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1)<br /> <br /> Furthermore, as Yan Fu had an opportunity to study abroad while Lin Shu learnt Chinese traditional Confucianism, Yan had a better understanding of western culture. Meanwhile, most of the western works Yan Fu translated were about social science, he was the first person who introduced western social science in the 19th century to all Chinese people. As for Lin Shu, who was especially famous for novel translation, translated ''La Dame aux Camélias'' and was well-received by Chinese readers. They are quite different in terms of translation works. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br /> <br /> And as for translation theory, Yan Fu once put forward faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, he attached high importance on faithfulness and believed that be faithful to the original text is of great importance during translation. And this translation theory helped people to know more about western society and culture. Meanwhile, Lin Shu preferred faithfulness, too, but during the translation, he tended to delete those unnecessary words and sentences so as to help readers have a better understanding of the text. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 1-2)<br /> <br /> To sum up, while Yan Fu and Lin Shu are similar to each other, they are quite different in some aspects. However, both of them made great contributions to Chinese translation and left a profound impact on later translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the 19th century, Chinese people’s lives were filled with untold suffering, being the two great translators, Yan Fu and Lin Shu had made great contributions to not only the nation but also the whole world. The principle of Yan Fu stands as one of the most significant translation theories in China, which guided numerous translators and scholars as well in the later generation. Meanwhile, Lin Shu’s translation works broadened people’s horizons at that time, enriching their lives as well as eliminating their prejudice against Western literature. Although there are several shortcomings in their translation thoughts and translation works, they had a far-reaching influence on future generations. Until now, there are still many scholars that analyze and learn from their translation theories. (Wu Yingli, Li Yan 2018, 2)<br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> Charles Dickens. (2008). ''David Copperfield''. Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (1992). 中国译学理论史稿 [''Draft of Chinese translation theory'']. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). 中国译学史 [''A History of Chinese Translation'']. Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House 上海人民出版社.<br /> <br /> Chen Jianyong 陈建永. (2013). 从《黑奴吁天录》看林纾的翻译策略 [A Study of Lin Shu’s Translating Strategies: Taking Uncle Tom’s Cabin as an Example]. 山东大学 Shandong University 20-36.<br /> <br /> Ernest Hemingway. (2016). ''The Old Man and the Sea''. Beijing: Affairs Press知识出版社.<br /> <br /> Gao Xiaopeng 高晓鹏. (2017). 严复翻译标准——“信达雅”再思考 [Yan Fu’s Translation Standard: A Rethinking of “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”]. 四川外国语大学 Sichuan International Studies University 1-2. <br /> <br /> Harriet Beecher Stowe. (2008). ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Oxford University Press.<br /> <br /> Huang Yuanshen. (2011). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br /> <br /> Li Changbao, Shao Bin 黎昌抱, 邵斌. (2013). 中外翻译理论教程 [''Translation Theory: A Coursebook'']. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Lin Shu 林纾. (1981). 撒克逊劫后英雄略 [''Ivanhoe'']. Shanghai: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> Ouyang Lifeng, Shang Minrui 欧阳利锋, 尚敏锐. (2002). 以西方观点解读二十世纪中国翻译理论 [Twentieth--century Chinese Translation Theory Against the Background of Western Views]. 语言与翻译 Language and Translation (01) 1-3.<br /> <br /> Sun Yanyu 孙演玉. (2019). 经典儿童小说的复译与信、达、雅——以《老人与海》为例 [Retranslation of Classical Children’s Fiction and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: Taking The Old Man and the Sea as an Example]. 英语广场 English Square (04) 2-3.<br /> <br /> Walter Scott. (2009). ''Ivanhoe''. Signet Classics.<br /> <br /> Wang Rui, Wei Shengxin 王蕊, 韦生鑫. (2020). “信、达、雅”翻译原则在文学翻译中的应用.[Analysis of the Application of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in Literary Translation]. 吉林化工学院学报 ''Journal of Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology'' (10) 1-4.<br /> <br /> Wang Shi 王栻. (1986). 严复集 [''Yan Fu Ji'']. Shanghai: Zhonghua Book Company 中华书局.<br /> <br /> Wang Tao 王涛. (2016). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Qunyan Press 群言出版社.<br /> <br /> Wu Yingli, Li Yan 吴萤丽, 李艳. (2018). 严复与林纾: 中国近代两大翻译家的对比 [Yan Fu and Lin Shu: A Comparison Between Two Chinese Modern Translators]. 开封教育学院学报 ''Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education'' (09) 1-2.<br /> <br /> Yu Guangzhong 余光中. (2010). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Nanjing: Yilin Press 译林出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Ailing 张爱玲. (2015). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Beijing October Arts and Literature Publishing House 北京十月文艺出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Chiheng 张炽恒. (2015). 老人与海 [''The Old Man and the Sea'']. Beijing: Beijing Institute of Technology Press 北京理工大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhang Zheng, Peng Fasheng 张政, 彭发胜. (2007). 中西翻译理论简明教程 [''A Coursebook of Chinese and Western Translation Theories'']. Beijing: Tsinghua University Press 清华大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Zhu Yu 朱瑜. (2008). 林纾的翻译和时代 [Lin Shu’s Translation and His Time]. Beijing: 中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Studies (05) 3-7.<br /> <br /> ='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han==<br /> &lt;center&gt; Chen Han 陈涵, Student no.202070080580 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 严复与泰特勒的翻译理论比较<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards (Xu Baoqiang, Yuan Wei 2001, 162). In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Martha P.Y. Cheung, 2006). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 213)<br /> <br /> In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===2. An Overview of the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'': <br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Luo Xinzhang, Chen Yingnian 2009, 202)<br /> <br /> In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 97)<br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation====<br /> <br /> Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler 2007, 8-9) <br /> <br /> According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler 2007, 9) The first principle is that the translation should be faithful to the content and ideas of the original. The second principle is that the translation should be faithful to the form and style of the original. The faithfulness to the style is not limited to the equivalence of the original style or subject, but consistent with the original author’s personal writing style and the background of the corresponding period. The third principle is to emphasize that the translation should be as natural and smooth as the original writing. From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 201) <br /> <br /> The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it created a research method of induction through theory.<br /> <br /> ===3. The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Due to the rapid development of social production, the increasing prosperity of the economy and the increasing number of educated people, more and more people have requirements for reading, writing and translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 84)<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Social Background of the Two Theories====<br /> <br /> The emergence of new theories is often related to the prevailing translation practice at that time. Tytler lived in the 18th century. The rise of the industrial revolution and the further development of modern technology have highlighted the importance of translation, especially the demand for scientific and technological translation has increased dramatically during this period. In addition, Renaissance and classicism occupy the main position in the literary field, which also played a role in promoting the development of translation activities. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) <br /> <br /> Yan Fu had a solid foundation in Chinese when he was young and then he learned from Wu Rulun, a master of the Tongcheng School, acquiring a rich knowledge of ancient Chinese. In 1877, Yan Fu studied in the United Kingdom to delve deeply into the Western society, and began to come into contact with some important Western classics. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) As a result, profound research on Chinese and Western culture and language has laid a good foundation for Yan Fu’s translation career. <br /> <br /> At the end of the 19th century, China suffered from internal and external troubles. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895 was an important turning point to Yan Fu. He realized that the backwardness of China included political, economic, social and ideological factors, so that he believed that learning from the West could help the country get rid of the predicament. The political purpose of Yan Fu’s translation was quite clear. He wanted to arm the minds of scholar-officials ideologically. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) <br /> <br /> In addition, A large number of people with lofty ideals realized that the only way to save the country was to learn advanced political ideas, economic systems and democratic ideas from the West. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132) Translation is the best way to bring those to China, which also promoted the second translation climax in the history of our country.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Theoretical Background of the Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Both “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Three Principles of Translation were proposed on the basis of other translation theories or thoughts. In other words, Yan Fu and Tytler learned from their predecessors and put forward their ideas. <br /> <br /> Like many translation theories in the 18th century, Tytler’ s Three Principles of Translation was influenced by some ideas from outstanding translation theorists. Etienne Dolet, a French linguist and translation theorist, proposed translation principles in La manière de bien traduired d’une langue en autre (《论如何出色地翻译》) in 1540 : The translator must fully understand the content of the original text; the translator must be proficient in both the source language and the target language; the translator must avoid translating word by word, because word-by-word translation is detrimental to convey the original meaning and aesthetic value; the translator must use popular language form; the translator must make the translation produce the appropriate effect by choosing proper words and adjust the order of them (Tan Zaixi 2004, 70-71). John Dryden was a prominent translator in the 17th century and he put forward a number of translation principles and views. From his perspective, translation is an art; translators should master the characteristics of the original; target readers should be taken into consideration; translators need to absolutely follow the original meaning; translation can be divided into three types—metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 120-122) It is easy to find that Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation can be partially derived from their theories.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is also not new. The basis of it can date back to the Three Kingdom Period. During the Qing Dynasty, there was another translation theorist, Ma Jianzhong, who was ignored by the public. Before Yan Fu’s translation principles made its first appearance, Ma Jianzhong put forward three requirements for good translations in On the Establishment of Translation Academy (《拟设翻译书院议》): The translator is proficient in foreign languages ​​and Chinese, and knows the similarities and differences between the two languages; the translator should fully understand the meaning, spirit and style of the original text and express these accurately in the translation; there should be no difference between the translation and the original text. That is, the translation and the original are the same. (Chen Fukang 2010, 77-78)<br /> <br /> It is shown that Ma Jianzhong sets a high demand for translators which can be summarized in “faithfulness” (信). This word includes not only the faithfulness of the original text and the translation, but also the consistency in style and spirit. Therefore, compared with Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, Ma Jianzhong’s requirements are more comprehensive. However, his translation theory is not as influential as Yan Fu’ principles. Generally, speaking, there are two reasons. One is that Ma is a grammarian, not a translator. The other is that he did not do any translation practice. (Fan Yun 2007, 98)<br /> <br /> From the analysis and comparison of Tyler's and Yan Fu’s social and theoretical background, we can see that both of them are affected by political, economic, cultural and other factors. And both of them were influenced by the previous translation theories and put forward their theories similar to the previous ones.<br /> <br /> ===4. Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Similarities between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br /> <br /> Although Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation were not put forward at the same time, the two theories could be found some common ground. <br /> <br /> By comparing the content of the two theories, three similarities can be found. Firstly, both Yan Fu and Tytler emphasize the importance of faithfulness, namely the fidelity to the original. From their perspectives, it is necessary to convey the meaning or ideas of the original text. They both agree that a translator should put faithfulness first. Secondly, both Yan Fu and Tytler stress the importance of fluency and acceptability of translation. Yan believes that a translation which is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. And in the third principle of Tytler’s theory, all the ease of the original text is highlighted which refers to the translation should be natural, fluent and readable. In other words, translators need to regard their translating process as a re-creating one. It requires that they not only convey the ideas of the original but also make their words smooth and readable. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Differences between “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and “Three Principles”====<br /> <br /> Both Chinese and Western translation theories have a profound history. At the very beginning, they almost developed independently. It was not until the early 20th century that the two theories began to communicate. As the focus of translation theory research, translation standards have attracted many scholars at the beginning of their exchanges. Some scholars believe that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is extracted from Ttyler’s “Three Principles of Translation”, which is a copy of Ttyler’s translation theory. (Luo Xinzhang 1984, 681-687) In fact, there are indeed similarities between the two theories literally. But a deeper look will present the difference between the two. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.1 Differences in Content=====<br /> <br /> In the previous chapter, we have discussed the similarities literally in terms of the content. However, the two theories are not quite similar. First of all, the most prominent characteristic of Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is the semantic vagueness. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) He did not clearly define the three. If “faithfulness” includes the style of the work, the word “xin” can cover all the content of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “faithfulness” is the core, and achieving the principles of “expressiveness” and “elegance” is on the basis of the core. As for Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, although they are arranged by importance, the principles are not presented to tell which one is the most important. (Di Dongrui 2012, 132)<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s “faithfulness” and Tytler’s first principle focus on different scopes. According to Yan Fu’s point of view, the translator should accurately reproduce the ideas of the original work, and he also emphasizes the important role of understanding. But Tytler’s “that the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work” discusses the fidelity from three aspects: meaning, form and language. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133)<br /> <br /> In addition, the main difference between their translation principles is the translation technique and style. (Fan Yun 2007, 97) Tytler’s second principle and Yan Fu’s “elegance” both discuss this issue. In Yan Fu’s opinion, “elegance” refers to use elegant words, especially the words before the Han Dynasty. This is a special method used by Yan Fu in a specific historical period to attract specific target readers and achieve specific translation purposes. The “elegance” explained by later generations is equivalent to “consistency in technique and style”, which has actually deviated from Yan Fu’s original intention. But Tytler’s “style and manner of writing” refers to a broad sense. He believes that an outstanding translator should be able to quickly identify the characteristics of the original author’s writing style and apply this style to his translation. In other words, what kind of writing style the original work is, and the translation should correspond to this style. (Tytler 2007, 9)<br /> <br /> =====4.2.2 Differences in Cultural Origin=====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu and Tytler are in different cultural backgrounds, and the formation of their theories have their own cultural characteristics. <br /> <br /> It is believed that Yan Fu’s theory of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is deeply rooted in traditional Chinese cultural origin. As we all know, Chinese translation has a long history, and the discussion of translation standards has been recorded in Zhi Qian’s ''Preface to the Translation of he Dharmapada''(''Faju jing xu''). (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 57) He emphasized that although Jiangyan (将炎) was good at the language of India, he was not necessarily versed in Chinese. Thus, in his translations there were either Sanskrit expressions literally rendered or simply literal transliterations. Zhi Qian used to dislike Jiangyan’s work for lack of elegance. Weidinan (维祗难) argued that the translation of Buddha’s words should be adherent to the meaning, disregarding rhetoric, and we should retain its Dharma, free of rigidity. Those who translate should stress on transparency without losing the original meaning, hence good translations. Laozi said that beautiful words are not faithful and faithful words are not beautiful. And Confucius believed that words fail a book and senses fail a form. What a saint said is the profound of the profoundest. Therefore, Zhi Qian argued that when translating sutras, we should follow the original import without using ornate words. (Martha P.Y. Cheung 2006, 59-60)<br /> <br /> It can be seen from the above that traditional Chinese translation theories often appear in the form of prefaces, which are relatively fragmented and conforms to the characteristics of Chinese people’s emphasis on perceptual thinking rather than rational analysis, and personal perception rather than logical reasoning. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In addition, it can prove that Yan Fu’s translation principles are not new but put forward on the basis of some thoughts from the ancients. We can see that theories similar to “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” have appeared in the past. <br /> <br /> Chinese translation theory is closely related to the words of sages and classic literary theory so that translation theorists often use the words of the ancients to make arguments or the aesthetic standards in literary theory to evaluate good translations. On the one hand, it embodies the inheritance of classical translation theory of advocating the ancients, and on the other hand it reflects the profound literary tradition of classical translation theory. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) It can be seen that the principles were put forward by Yan Fu in the preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s Evolution and Ethics, which is consistent with the traditional Chinese tendency to place important points in the preface. In the era when Yan Fu lived, people greatly respected the words of the ancients. The language of Yan Fu’s translation theory is as concise as the traditional literary theory, and the connotation is profound. It often brings endless speculation for future generations with uncertain meaning. <br /> <br /> Different from the Chinese cultural accumulation carried by Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, western translation theories pay much attention to the inherent continuity. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202) In western culture, people emphasize rigorousness in language so that they treat translation as rigorously as science. Scholars have studied on translation standards for a long time and their generalization of standards is much more systematic. <br /> <br /> Eticnne Dolet was the relatively early one who summarized the translation standards systematically. He put forward four principles of a successful translation. Then came Martin Luther’s “Seven Principles for Translation”. An in the 18th century, Charles Batteux, a French translation theorist, put forward twelve rules in Principes de littérature (《论文学原则》) for dealing with issues such as word order in translation. Compared with the 17th century, although some achievements have been made in the study of translation theory in the 18th century, substantial progress has not been made and some research just focused on the theory of Dryden in the 17th century. However, at the end of the 18th century, there was a breakthrough in the history of translation theory. Theoretical research was no longer limited to scattered viewpoints and methods, and monographs on translation issues have begun to appear comprehensively, scientifically and systematically. The first to bring this breakthrough was the translation theorist George Campbell. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 127) Before Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation appeared, he had put forward the three principles of translation for the first time: translation should accurately reproduce the meaning of the original work; on the premise of conforming to the characteristics of the target language, translation should try to transplant the spirit and style of the original author as much as possible; the translator should make the translation as natural and smooth as the original. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 128)<br /> <br /> From the discussion of translation standards by many translation theorists above, we can see that Western translation theories are rigorous in thinking and clear in expression as a whole. They represent a unique academic spirit and character, which deeply reflects the inherent continuity of their thinking and methodology of Western translation theories. According to the previous discussion, it can be found that there is an obvious relationship between Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation and Dryden’s translation theories. The two theories from Yan Fu and Tytler are from different cultures, featuring Chinese and Western signs respectively. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.3 Differences in Thinking Patterns=====<br /> <br /> Translation itself is a complex practical activity, and it has a close relationship with the way of thinking. The huge differences between Chinese and Western historical and cultural traditions and thinking habits are reflected in language that has such characteristics: Chinese people pay attention to understanding in the way of expression, focusing on grasping things through intuitive understanding of the whole. Chinese are not as good at logical reasoning and experimental argumentation as Westerners. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 202)<br /> <br /> The consciousness of subject and object has always been prominent in western thought. Tytler’s framework of his principles tends to be rational and aims to seek the truth, while Yan Fu’s framework tends to be perceptual and aims to be practical. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) In the historical context of the Enlightenment, Tytler inherited rationalism of the European continent, thus his three principles of translation all reflected the speculative, logical and systematic nature of philosophy. When he discussed the three principles of translation, they were clear, progressive, and well-organized, but they were too fragmented, ignoring the internal connection. <br /> <br /> When it comes to Yan Fu’s proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, although it refers to three simple words in Chinese, it condenses the traditional Chinese doctrine of the golden mean and profoundly embodies the influence of traditional culture on the research of translation theory. Compared with Western translation theories, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” includes more humanistic spirit and pays more attention to humanistic care. (Liu Junbiao 2009, 221) Although Yan Fu’s translation theory lacks logic, organization and system, its refined and implicit artistic conception bring endless imagination for future generations. If we want to understand “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” comprehensively, we must have an understanding of the thoughts of our ancestors. <br /> <br /> =====4.2.4 Differences in Motivations=====<br /> <br /> When it comes to their motivation, the times of Yan Fu and Tytler have a huge impact on their translation studies. Tytler was in a relatively comfortable environment, and the society at that time was relatively relaxed and free, making it possible for him to learn for the sake of academics. Tytler put forward the three principles of translation only for theoretical research, not for practical purposes. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203)<br /> <br /> However, Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” came from the enthusiasm of waking up the world and saving the country. The old China where Yan Fu lived was suffering from internal and external troubles. The social and historical environment enabled him to spread Western learning through translation. The works translated by Yan Fu were all Western classics. They either promoted natural selection, survival of the fittest, or explained human rights, democracy and freedom. Undoubtedly, reading Yan Fu’s translations became a major way for Chinese intellectuals and even the whole society to learn the development of the world. The target readers of these translations were the increasingly decadent feudal ruling class and intellectuals. Feudal thoughts were deeply ingrained in their minds, and they could not immediately accept the advanced thoughts of the West. As a translator, Yan Fu put forward the standards of faithfulness expressiveness and elegance on the basis of summarizing traditional Chinese translation theories. He used the language of Han and Tang dynasties to promote the Western democracy, so as to make the feudal scholar-officials easy to accept. (Chen Fukang 2010, 91) It can be seen that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” reflects Yan Fu’s desire to save the country and his awareness of difficulties and risks. <br /> <br /> In addition, a misunderstanding should be mentioned. After Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” made its first appearance, many scholars gave it various titles such as translation principles, translation standards and translation norms. As a matter of fact, Yan Fu did not describe it as standards or norms. He only realized that there were three requirements difficult to fulfill from his own translation practice. In his opinion, the difficulties of translating were also the dao (道) of problem-solving (Liu Miqing 2012, 1). Therefore，Yan’s dao of translation was expressed by “translation principles” in the West. To a certain extent, people tended to regard Yan Fu’s propositions as translation standards, thus deviating from Yan Fu’s motivation. <br /> <br /> In short, by comparing the content, cultural origins, thinking and motivation of the two theories, we can see that Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are quite different. In other words, although the two theories are very similar in terms of forms, they are quite different in essence.<br /> <br /> ===5. Significance of the Comparison between the Two Theories===<br /> Generally speaking, different translation principles are essentially the same for they are all determined by the nature of translation. (Fan Yun 2007, 98) In a broad sense, translation is a bridge for international communication. It involves the source language and the target language or the original text and the translated text. No one can deny the extraordinary contribution of translation in exchanging ideas, spreading knowledge, and enhancing intercultural communication. As an ancient activity, translation has a history of more than 3,000 years in China and has been popular in the West for more than 2,000 years. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 2) Although the translation principles put forward by translators and translation theorists seem to be different, they are essentially the same and cannot be mentioned without translation itself. <br /> <br /> Through comparison, we can realize the characteristics and development of their translation principles respectively. The Chinese and Western translation principles are the same on the macro level, but different on the micro level. The differences are mainly determined by the characteristics of the Chinese and Western languages and do not reflect the subjective wishes of people. Both the traditional Chinese and Western translation theories focus on faithfulness or truth. (Di Dongrui 2012, 133) They are based on the original texts, and at the same time do not neglect the reception of the readers and the artistic and aesthetic value of the translated texts. <br /> <br /> Through the analysis between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories and their development, we can know that Chinese and Western translation principles present a diversified pattern of development, but the West seems to be more open in terms of research ideas and academic view. Western theorists place translation in the multi-dimensional space between the original text and the target text, and they are good at analyzing from different perspectives. What’s more, Western theorists have comparatively strong awareness in theory. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, making full use of the achievements of related subjects to make translation principles and research methods become truly diversified. (Ren Qingliang, Deng Jingjing 2016, 203) Therefore, the achievements of translation research in the West are more fruitful.<br /> <br /> However, we must learn from each other. In fact, there is no gap between Chinese and Western translation theories. Although the study of translation theory in the West is earlier than that in China, (Tan Zaixi 2004, 1) we should not belittle ourselves. The development environment of Chinese and Western theories is different so that the theories put forward are definitely different. Through comparison, we can grasp advanced Western theories, and with Western theories as a reference, we can avoid detours and make progress in Chinese translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> This chapter compares the similarities and differences between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s theories by reviewing the theories of them and pointing out social and theoretical backgrounds of their theories. The translation theory is often closely related to cultural background, theoretical background and way of thinking. From the above analysis, it can be seen that Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation are different in specific content, cultural origin, theoretical basis, way of thinking and motivation. If these differences are not analyzed and pointed out, it is easy to think that the two theories are roughly the same. <br /> <br /> The comparison between Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s translation principles gives us the following enlightenment: When studying Chinese and Western translation theories, we must correctly understand the advantages and limitations of traditional Chinese translation theories, and we cannot ignore the achievements of other countries. We should actively absorb the achievements of western translation theories on the basis of developing the traditional Chinese translation theories to make contributions to the translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> * Alexander Fraser Tytler. (2007). ''Essays on Principles of Translation''. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press 外语教学与研究出版社. <br /> * Martha P.Y. Cheung. (2006). ''An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation''. London/New York: Routledge. <br /> * Chen Fukang 陈福康. (2010). ''中国译学史'' [History of Chinese Translation] Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House 上海人民出版社. <br /> * Di Dongrui 狄东睿. (2012). 论“翻译三原则”与“信达雅” [On the Three Principles of Translation and &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot;] ''海外英语'' Overseas English (06) 132-133. <br /> * Fan Yun 樊云. (2007). 泰特勒和严复翻译原则的比较 [A comparison of the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu] ''宿州教育学院学报'' Journal of Suzhou Education Institute (02) 97-98. <br /> * Liu Junbiao 刘俊标. (2009). 辨析严复“信达雅”说与泰特勒翻译三原则 [Discussing Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''经济研究导刊'' Economic Research (09) 220-221. <br /> * Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2012). ''中西翻译思想比较研究'' [Translation Thinking: In China and in the West] Beijing: China Translation&amp;Publishing Corporation 中国对外翻译出版有限公司. <br /> * Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋. (1984). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> * Ren Qingliang 任庆亮, Deng Jingjing 邓晶晶. (2016). 严复“信达雅”与泰特勒翻译三原则的比较 [A comparison of Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance&quot; and Tytler's Three Principles of Translation] ''太原城市职业技术学院学报'' Journal of Taiyuan Urban Vocational College (05) 201-203.<br /> * Tan Zaixi 谭载喜. (2004). ''西方翻译简史'' [A Short History of Translation in the West] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> * Xu Baoqiang 许宝强, Yuan Wei 袁伟. (2001). ''语言与翻译的政治'' [The Politics of Language and Translation] Beijing: Central Compilation&amp;Translation Press 中央编译出版社. <br /> * Luo Xinzhang 罗新璋, Chen Yingnian 陈应年. (2009). ''翻译论集'' [On Translation] Beijing: The Commercial Press 商务印书馆.<br /> <br /> == Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili NO.202070080594==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representative of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida put forward the famous &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory and &quot;functional equivalence&quot; theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devoted himself to teaching, and put forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points, and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br /> ===关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> ====Eugene Nida====<br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American linguist, a biblical research and translation expert, as well as one of the outstanding representatives of the western contemporary translation theory research center. Nida's academic activities and achievements are multifaceted, but Nida's main theoretical contribution is that he helps to create a new attitude towards different languages and cultures, so as to improve the language communication and understanding between human beings. He thinks that what can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another. Different languages and cultures can communicate each other by searching for translation equivalents and reorganizing the form and semantic structure of information in an appropriate way. With the help of linguistic achievements, Nida has made a descriptive rather than a normative study of various subjects in translation studies, and made a serious discussion on the problems that may be encountered in the theoretical research and practice of translation. His thoughts can be roughly divided into three stages: first descriptive linguistics; second, communicative theory; third, social semiotics.（Liao Qiyi 2000，85）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Descriptive Linguistics=====<br /> At this stage, Nida publishes a series of works and articles on the study of English syntax and gramma. Besides, he tries to clarify the structural nature of language through the description of syntax, morphology and language translation. He is greatly influenced by the American structuralist school. In language research, he attaches much importance to the collection and analysis of language materials and collects many examples of differences between different languages. However, he do not regard these differences as insurmountable barriers between languages, but as different phenomena of their same nature. （Liao Qiyi 2000，86）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Communication Theory =====<br /> ======Translation Science Theory and Translation Communication Theory======<br /> Nida believes that translation is not only an art, a skill, but also a science. Its so-called science refers to the scientific way to deal with language structure, semantic analysis and information and a descriptive method of linguistics to carry out translation activities when there are translation problems. Nida applies information theory to translation studies and believes that translation is communication and judgment. Whether a translation is successful or not depends on whether it is understood by the receiver or whether it can play the role of communication of thoughts, information and feelings. Nida points out all languages in the world have the same ability of expression and that the first task of translation is to make the readers understand the translation clearly. That is to say, the translation should be fluent and natural, so that readers can easily understand it even if they do not have the cultural background knowledge of the original language. This requires that in the process of translation, we should use as few rigid words in the source language as possible, and use as many expressions as possible coming from the target language. For example, in the language without snow, “白如雪” may be confusing, so we had better change it into something as white as frost or as white as egret hair. （Liao Qiyi 2000，87）<br /> <br /> ======Dynamic Equivalence Theory======<br /> According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language message (Tan Zaixi 1984,10)”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translators cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, they should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and what degree the translator can change the form of the original text.<br /> Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers have the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. For example, “black tea” can be literally translated “黑茶”，but it should be translated into“红茶” in Chinese. Another example: “The old man was the worst form of unluck.” Because “worst form” is used to modify “unluck”, it can be translated into “这个老人倒霉到了极点。” instead of “这个老人是倒霉的最高形式。” Such examples achieve lexical equivalence. （Liao Qiyi 2000，88）<br /> <br /> =====The Stage of Social Semiotics=====<br /> At this stage, he describes his theory as follows: first, based on the translation theory of social semiotics, he emphasizes that everything in the text has meaning, including language form, which means form cannot be easily overlooked; second, rhetorical features of language play an important role in language communication and should not be underestimated; third, it is to replace the dynamic equivalence theory with the functional equivalence theory in order to make the meaning of the terms clearer and easier to be understood.（Liu Junping 2009,143）<br /> <br /> ====Newmark====<br /> Peter Newmark is a famous translation theorist and educator in Britain. He has devoted his whole life to the teaching of translation between English and German or English and French. He has made a lot of research on translation theory, applied the research results of cross-cultural communication theory and modern linguistics to translation practice, and made a brilliant exposition on translation theory, teaching translation, linguistics and translation skills. As a result, he puts forward the famous communicative translation and semantic translation method, and then puts forward the correlative translation method, which indicates that his translation theory is becoming more and more systematic and perfect. Most of his views are reflected in the papers published in the past 20 years. Communicative translation and semantic translation theories, which have a great influence in the field of translation, were introduced into China as early as the 1980s and have aroused great repercussions in the fields of Chinese translation. He focuses on the past and present of western translation studies, states the views of various schools, and then puts forward his own opinions. He is a typical practical theorist. The purpose of his research on translation theory is to solve the practical problems in translation, and he always discusses translation from the details. His books summarize some rules to guide translation practice accordingly, which has a far-reaching impact on translation teaching and translator training. What’s more, Newmark offers his own unique and rich contemporary translation theory on some controversial issues in translation field, such as the definition and nature of translation, translation standards, translation purposes, the function of critical translation and so on. （Liao Qiyi 2000，123-128）<br /> <br /> The classic Romance of the Three Kingdoms writes: “谋事在人，成事在天”. There are two versions for this sentence, which are &quot;man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; and &quot;man proposals, God disposes.&quot; Although the translated versions are short, they fully reflect the different translation strategies of translators. In Chinese traditional culture, &quot;heaven&quot; dominates the nature, while in the western world, what controls nature is not heaven, but God. Therefore, different cultural concepts are deeply rooted in the hearts of people in the East and the West. In the first translation, the translator translates &quot;天&quot; into &quot;heaven&quot;, which faithfully retains the Taoist concept of the original language culture and conveys the meaning of the original text; while the later translation transforms the Taoist concept into Christian culture familiar to westerners on the basis of &quot;communicative translation&quot; strategy, so that the translated version is more acceptable to western readers. For another example ”grandmother”, when it is translated into Chinese, we should put it into”奶奶” or “外婆” according to real situation. That is because people in western culture do not pay much attention to relationship between family members. And they view father’s mother and mother’s mother as the same. By contrast, Chinese have long held the view that families are quite important, especially those sharing the same surname. We often suppose we come from the same family with “奶奶” rather than “外婆”. As a result, we tend to believe that we have a more intimate relationship with father’s mother than mother’s mother. So we need to distinguish “奶奶” from “外婆”.(Hu Aiping 2014,81)<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> ====The Similarities Between the Theory by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br /> =====Translatability=====<br /> Nida believes that &quot;translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style &quot; (Nida 1969,1）Newmark thinks that: &quot;translation is to take the meaning of a text into another language according to its original author.&quot; (Newmark 1988,21) Nida's and Newmark's translation theories have similar theoretical basis, and they both think that there are similarities between different languages. Nida's translation theory is &quot;Anything that can be expressed in one language can be expressed in another Language. &quot; (Nida 1969,4）He believes that although different nationalities have different languages and cultures, yet the commonness is more than the individuality. Because language of any nation can be used to describe the objective world. No matter what the language form is, the object can be basically reflected. (Lin Minyu 2008,61)<br /> In his About Translation, Newmark also pointed out clearly that “the every layer of meaning can be interpreted in the original text, so everything is translatable. “(Newmark 1991,28）Therefore, both Nida and Newmark recognize the basis of translation theory-translatability. At the same time, they all realize that translatability is limited because it is impossible to achieve absolute equivalence. In the process of translation, a certain degree of meaning will be missing. One of the most important tasks of the translators is to minimize the loss after language conversion. (Lin Minyu 2008,)<br /> <br /> =====Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status=====<br /> Newmark's text category theory divides the text into three categories. Among them, the appealing text thinks readers are the most important, putting readers in the first place, and taking full account of readers' needs, knowledge level and background. Newmark also divides readers into experts, ordinary educators and illiterates. Nida, on the other hand, believes that the success of a translation depends on whether it can be accepted by the target readers. The target readers are object of translation services. Nida also divides readers into children readers, primary readers, ordinary adult readers and experts. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> For example, for the phrase“鱼米之乡，丝绸之府”, when translated into “the land of rice and fish, and the home of silk”, it may cause confusion among foreigners who have no idea what is the meaning of “the land of rice and milk”. Therefore, in order to arouse the similar reaction between the target readers and the original readers, it is better for the translator to translate it as follows: &quot;a land of honey and milk&quot;, which is in line with British and American culture. In this way, English readers and Chinese readers will be able to respond in the same way, so as to achieve the purpose of translation. Another example: “济公劫富济贫，深受穷苦人民爱戴。” It is translated into” Ji Gong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor and was deeply loved by the poor people”. In this case, the translator compares Ji Gong to the hero Robin Hood in English. When foreign readers saw Robin Hood, they would have roughly the same reaction as Chinese readers. (Yang Shanqing, Rao Jialin 2010(1),41-42)<br /> <br /> =====Both Constantly Develop Their Theories=====<br /> Nida and Newmark are real theorists. In their own translation practice, they constantly improve and perfect their own theories. In his initial interpretation of dynamic equivalence, Nida highlights the idea of &quot;content first, form second&quot;. This has caused people's misunderstanding so that they think translation is only the content of translation, without considering the form of language expression. Therefore, all kinds of free translation are characterized by dynamic equivalence. Later, in his book From One Language to Another, he changes &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; into &quot;functional equivalence&quot;. In functional equivalence, Nida further defines &quot;information&quot;, stating that information includes not only ideological content but also linguistic form. The translation of functional equivalence is not only the equivalence of information content, but also the equivalence of form as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br /> <br /> What’s more, Nida makes a further elaboration on &quot;functional equivalence&quot; and hence &quot;the highest level of equivalence&quot; and &quot;the lowest level of equivalence&quot; are proposed. In short, the highest level of equivalence refers to a high degree of equivalence in the translation, which makes the response of the target language readers and that of the source language readers basically the same when they appreciate and understand a text. This is almost impossible. Equivalence at the lowest level refers to the full equivalence of the translated text, so that the target language readers can appreciate the source language readers' understanding for the original text. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),108)<br /> Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are prone to bringing misunderstanding and criticism. Therefore, Newmark puts forward &quot;correlative translation&quot; on this basis. In the past, he believed that the study of language, linguistics and text typology were the main themes of text study. Translation does not always consider the text, discourse, author, reader, source language and target language. By summarizing the translation activities, he finds that translation is mainly reflected in the details of the text processing, that is, when the text is adjusted and changed, there will be under translation. If the metaphor is converted or not translated, there will be over translation. So the method of translation should not only depend on the whole text. The definition of &quot;relevance translation&quot; is that the more important the language of the original text or the target text is, the more closely it should be translated.（Fang Mengzhi 2011, 534）<br /> <br /> ====The Differences Between the Theories by Nida and the Theories by Newmark====<br /> =====Different Definition of Translation=====<br /> Translation, as an independent discipline, should first answer the question of what is translation? Nida points out: &quot;the so-called translation refers to the reproduction of the source language information in the receiving language with the most appropriate and natural equivalence from semantics to style&quot; (Nida, 1969:1). Newmark's interpretation of translation is: &quot;translation is to translate the meaning of a text into another language in the way the original author intends. &quot; (Newmark, 1988:21) After comparing the two definitions, it can be seen that Nida emphasizes &quot;equivalence&quot;, &quot;information&quot;, &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;style&quot;, while Newmark focuses on &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;text&quot;. At first glance, Nida's definition seems to be more comprehensive and specific than Newmark's, but throughout their theoretical systems, we realize that the actual starting point of the two definitions is different. From semantics and information theory, the former emphasizes the communicative function of translation. Although &quot;information&quot; includes &quot;meaning&quot; and &quot;style&quot;, it only exists at the level of communication. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> On the contrary, the latter emphasizes &quot;textual meaning&quot;, which is complex, multi-level and rich. Therefore, it can be said that &quot;text-oriented theory&quot; is the pillar of Newmark's translation theory framework, while Nida's theory is &quot;functional equivalence&quot; at its root. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> <br /> =====Different Nature of Translation=====<br /> The nature of translation has been long discussed. Both Nida and Newmark have changed in their understanding of whether translation is a science or an art. Nida's understanding of translation has gone through a process from regarding translation as a science to viewing it as an art. In the second stage of Nida's translation theory- communicative theory stage, translation is a science, which is a scientific description of translation. At the same time, he also admits that the description of translation can be carried out at three functional levels: science, skill and art. In the third stage of Nida's translation, that is, the stage of social semiotics, he tends to see translation as an art. He believes that translation is an art at its root, and excellent translators are born with it. Meanwhile, he changes the original &quot;translation is science&quot; into &quot;translation research is science&quot;. In the 1990s, he proposed that translation is basically a skill. He believes that translation is not only an art, but also a science and a skill. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> Newmark's understanding of translation has also undergone some kinds of changes. At first, he believes that translation is not only a science but also an art and a skill. Later, he thinks that translation is partly a science, a skill, an art and personal taste. He divides language into standard language and non-standard language. It is said that translation is a science, because there is usually only one correct translation method for standard language, and there are rules to follow, which shows that translation is scientific. This is really true in technical terms. By contrast, there are many correct translation methods in non-standard language. How to choose the appropriate translation method depends on the translator's own vision and ability, which reflects the nature of translation as an art. But the translation must also be scientifically tested to avoid obvious mistakes in content and wording, and the style should be natural. As a result, although Newmark believes that translation is a science, he thinks with a lack of unified and all-round systems in current translation theories, there are no scientific translation. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 88）<br /> <br /> =====Different Theories=====<br /> The core of Nida's translation theory is equivalence theory, including formal equivalence and functional equivalence. Formal equivalence, with the source language as its center, requires to reproduce the form and content of the original text. The equivalence theory pays more attention to readers' reflection and requires the closest and most natural response in order to make the target readers and the original readers get the same information as much as possible. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> The center of Newmark's translation theory is semantic translation and communicative translation. In his opinion, translators should adopt different translation strategies according to different types of texts. Semantic translation is mainly used to translate expressive texts (such as literary works, essays, autobiographies and personal letters). Communicative translation is mainly put into translating informative texts (such as academic papers and teaching subjects, books, newspapers, etc.) and appealing texts (such as advertisements and notices). Semantic translation, from the perspective of the original texts, demands the author pays attention to the meaning and form, and keeps the style and features of the original text as far as possible. Communicative translation takes the target readers as the starting point and focuses on the effect of the translation on the readers. As a result, appropriate rewriting or adaptation is allowed in the translation. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> <br /> =====Application for Different Kinds of Text=====<br /> Nida puts forward &quot;formal equivalence&quot; and &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; in guiding the practice of Bible translation, but he really advocates the latter one and believes that dynamic equivalence is applicable to all text types. Nida's translation theory focuses too much on the intelligibility and communicability of the translation, which limits its application. It is reasonable to emphasize the intelligibility of the translated version in the translation of the Bible and similar original works aimed at expressing information or making some call. However, if it is used in literary translation, it will inevitably lead to the simplification of language and the loss of literary charm. So it has only confined to some specific texts. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> Newmark points out that the specific translation method should depend on different text types. He divides the text into expression function, information function and calling function. On the one hand, in the texts with expressive function, such as literary works and private letters, the priority is to express the meaning, and the form and content of language are equally important, so semantic translation should be mainly adopted. On the other hand, texts with information function, such as textbooks and academic papers, whose core is the real world outside the language, should adopt communicative approach; For texts with calling function, such as notices and advertisements, its core is to call on readers to act and think, so communicative approach should be put into use. Therefore, according to statements above mentioned, it is not difficult to see that Newmark's translation theory is more applicable than Nida’s. (Cui Jianzhou, Lu Jing 2006, 19(3),107)<br /> <br /> =====Different Attitudes towards Translators=====<br /> When it comes to translation as an art, Newmark puts forward the following three requirements that an brilliant translator should be equipped with: first, one should be able to master rich vocabulary and various sentence patterns, and be excellent in writing elegant, lively and concise articles in the aspect of native language; second, be proficient in foreign languages, and have abilities to distinguish common sayings from original ideas and innovations; third, be able to express the meaning obtained from the original works in native language with accurate wording and prominent emphasis. Thus, Newmark believes that good translators can be developed through hard work. However, Nida don’t agree with him. In 1991, Nida published a book, in which he thinks that most translators with outstanding achievements and creative spirit seldom use translation theory. In fact, he thinks that only those who can't do translation well do translation theory. Outstanding translators are born, not made. （Xu Xianghui 2010，9(1) , 89）<br /> <br /> =====Different Level of Emphasis on Readers' Response=====<br /> Although Newmark thinks that readers' acceptance should be taken into account in the process of translating informative texts and appealing texts, but the factor of reader is only a part of the translation criteria. During translating expressive texts, it is necessary to ensure the &quot;sacred status of the original author&quot;, and different readers may have different understandings and reactions to the translation because of their different educational level, mode of thinking and cultural background. On the contrary, Nida believes that the reader's response is the only criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. This is because, from the perspective of information theory, he believes that &quot;translation is communication&quot;. If the original information cannot be fully transmitted to the target text in the process of translation, the translation will not be successful. It can be seen that Nida pays more attention to reader response than Newmark. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> <br /> ===My Views on Their Theories===<br /> Before the new translation principles were put forward, translation was mainly divided into literal translation and free translation. Functional equivalence theory by Nida and semantic translation and communicative translation strategies by Newmark have exerted great influence on the western linguistic and translation circles. Their theories end the endless debate between literal translation and free translation in the west, and provide a new perspective for the guiding translation practice. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br /> <br /> The principle of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; plays an important role in guiding the translation of the Bible. It can also be applied to the translation of some texts that mainly convey information. However, it overemphasizes the communicative nature of the translation, so it has certainly limitations. If applied to literary translation, it may lead to the loss of literariness. One of the defects of Nida's functional equivalence is that the translator not only changes the original information according to his own understanding, but also covers up the cultural differences between different languages. He equates translation with simple language conversion and blurs the cultural characteristics of language. For example, due to the different geographical locations between China and Britain, their monsoon and wind direction are not the same, and hence there are also differences between their translations. Chinese poems mainly praise east wind while English poems focus on west wind. For example, for “东风破早梅，向暖一枝开” and “小楼昨夜又东风，故国不堪回首月明中”, “东风” should be converted into “west wind”. Besides, the vacancy of culture-loaded words is another defect of functional equivalence. As we all know, the concepts expressed by culture-loaded words in the source language may not correspond to those in the target language because many English words are derived from religious allusions. In the sentence &quot;John can be relieved on. He eats no fish and plays the game&quot;, “eat no fish “comes from the following allusion: in the era of Queen Elizabeth in England, in order to show their loyalty to the government, the Jesuits refused to abide by the anti-government Rome Catholics’ habit of eating fish on every Friday, so “eat no fish” means loyalty. &quot; &quot;Play the game&quot; means fair play and integrity. There are a lot of allusions from the Bible in English. But if you don't understand its symbolic meaning, you may be confused. For example: “thirty pieces of silver” means getting money from betraying others and “apple” means temptation. (Wang Xiaodan 2009, 131-132 )<br /> <br /> Newmark's greatest theoretical contribution is communicative translation and semantic translation, and he believes that all translation is both semantic translation and communicative translation to a certain extent, which makes up for the defects of Eugene Nida's theory. Newmark advocates that communicative translation and semantic translation should not be viewed in the same way, but should be combined together. Actually, during translating an article, the two are often used together. At the same time, determining the type of text before translation is helpful to select appropriate translation methods. However, there are following limitations for his communicative translation: first, the translator has an imaginary reader in his mind. If he wants to conform to the readers’ expression habits, he will express getting out of the original form or meaning; second, it is difficult to determine to what extent basic information is simplified and emphasized, because the knowledge and emotion of readers are difficult to define; third, it is not objective to examine a text only through the readers’ reaction. (Newmark 2001, 40)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> There is no universally applicable theory in the world. Nida and Newmark are also developing their own theories. We should treat them dialectically. It is undeniable that Nida's functional equivalence theory and Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are very rich in content and have practical reference value for the majority of later translators. But we should also see the shortcomings of these theories. What we can do is to &quot;extract the essence&quot; and then we will further study and learn more valuable things in practice and further improve our translation theory. (Lin Minyu 2008,62)<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> *谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1984<br /> *廖七一.当代西方翻译理论探索 [M].译林出版社，2000<br /> *刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社， 2009.9<br /> *方梦之. 中国译学大辞典[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2011<br /> *林敏煜.浅议纽马克与奈达翻译理论之异同 [J].文教资料 2008：61-62<br /> *崔建周，卢静.尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想比较 [J]. 河南商业高等专科学校学报 2006，19(3) ：106-108 <br /> *徐向晖.尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译思想之对比探讨 [J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报 2010，9(1) ：88-89<br /> *杨山青，饶家林. 奈达与纽马克的翻译理论在旅游资料翻译中的运用 [J]. 黔西南民族师范高等专科学校学报 2010（1）：41-42<br /> *胡爱萍. 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克翻译理论对比研究 [J].铜陵学院学报 2014：81<br /> *王小丹. 奈达的功能对等论及其评价[J].陕西师范大学学报2009：131-131<br /> *纽马克. 翻译问题探讨[M]. 上海外语教育出版社，2001<br /> *Tam Jae-hee. [Nida on Translation] [M]. Beijing: [China Foreign Translation and Publishing Company] 1984<br /> *Liao Qiyi. [Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory] [M]. 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London: Prentice Hall International (UK), 1988<br /> <br /> ==A study on the division of western translation theories 刘柳 Liu Liu==<br /> <br /> Abstract:Western transaltion theories have been paid more and more attention in modern times and will be of graet help and value to our translation practice and further development of transaltion.Western translation theories have a strict methodology, precise theoretical description, delicate and qualitative and quantitative analysis. Western translation studies have flourished with a variety of translation schools and outstanding translators after the World War Ⅱ, as well as a great many of translation thoughts, translation methods, and views of research.Based on this background, this paper discusses and analyzes a great number of schools of western translation theories, its representative translators and their representative works, and expresses opinions on the significance and value of western translation theories from a historical perspective.<br /> <br /> Keywords:western translation theories, <br /> <br /> 摘要：西方翻译理论在现代受到越来越多的关注，其对我们的翻译实践和翻译的进一步发展有很大的帮助和价值。西方翻译理论具有严谨的方法论、精确的理论描述、细腻的定性和定量分析。西方翻译研究在二战后蓬勃发展，出现了各种翻译流派和优秀的翻译家，也出现了大量的翻译思想、翻译方法和研究观点。本文基于此背景，讨论并分析了西方翻译理论诸多流派及其代表人物和代表译作，并从历史的角度对西方翻译理论的意义和价值陈述相关意见。<br /> <br /> 关键词：西方翻译理论 <br /> <br /> Ⅰ.Introduction<br /> <br /> Throughout the development of western translation studies in the past 30 years, there are many transaltion schools and excellent translators. Western translation theorists had different points of view towards the division of western translation theories. Peter Newmark divided the development of translation theories by major translation activities. According to the development of translation thoughts, Nida divided western translation into philological translation, linguistic translation, communicative translation and socio-semantic translation.(Nida,1984:9--15) According to George Steiner, the study of western translation theories has gone through four periods: 1) from classical translation theory to the publication of the &quot;three principles of translation&quot; by Tytler and Campbell at the end of the eighteenth century, 2) from Schleiermacher to the middle of the twentieth century, 3) from the post-war period to the 1970s, marked by the rise of the translation linguistics school, represented by Nida, Mounin and Catford, 4) from the 1970s to the present, marked by the emergence of new schools of thoughts and the flourishing of interdisciplinary research. Liu Miqing basically adopts this classification method. Tan Zaixi divided western translation into six periods: 1) the beginning of the fourth century B.C., 2) from the late period of Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, 3) the Middle Ages, 4) the Renaissance, 5) the modern translation period, i.e., from the seventeenth century to the first half of the twentieth century, 6) from the period after World War II to the present. E. Gentzler divided modern translation theories into five schools based on translation thoughts, which is The American Translation Workshop, The Science of Translation, Early Translation Studies, Polysystem Theory and Deconstruction. Western translation theories research realizes the transition from linguistics to literary, and to culture and science of international politics. Accordingly, the trend of translation research has changed from the source language text to target language text, from the prescriptive to the descriptive, and the status of target language text has changed from inferior to the source language text to be equal to it,and in the end, more important than the source language text, and the status of translator has changed from less important than the author of source language to play a decisive part in translation activities and so on.(Pan Wenguo, 2002) Li Wenge analyzed and studied eight schools of translation, including the literary theory of translation, the linguistic school, the translation studies school, the Hermeneutics, the deconstruction, the American Translation Workshop, the French interpretive theory, etc. The literary theory of western translation includes: the literary theory of western translation before the 20th century, such as the literary theory of Russian translation, the literary theory of translation in the former Soviet Union, and the literary theory of western translation in the 20th century. The linguistic school of translation includes the Prague School of Jakobson, the London School of Catford and Newmark, the American Structuralists of Quine, the Communicative Theory of Nida and Wilss, the German Functionalists translation theory of Nord, and the Soviet Linguistic School of Federov and Barkhudarov. The Translation Studies school includes the Early translation Studies school of Holmes, the Polysystem Theory of Even-Zohar, the Descriptive Translation Studies of Toury, the Cultural School of Lefevere and Bassenett, the Integrated School of Snell-Hornby, Feminism, &quot;Cannibalism&quot;, and post-colonial translation studies. The Hermeneutics includes two ways of translation of Schleiermacher, the hermeneutic model of translation of Steiner, and the hermeneutic view of understanding of Heidegger and Gadamer. The deconstruction of translation includes the idea of &quot;différance&quot; deconstruction translation of Derrida, the idea of &quot;pure language&quot; deconstruction translation of Benjamin, and the deconstruction translation strategy of Venuti. The American Translation Workshop includes the theoretical foundation of Translation Workshop of Richards, detailed translation theory of Pound, contradictory view of translation of Will. The French interpretative theory includes the basic problems of interpretative theory, translation procedure, translation evaluation criteria, interpretative theory and translation teaching. From the ancient Roman Empire to the European Union, from the establishment of nation-states to the foundation of the United Nations, cultural (including philosophy, literature, art, science, technology, etc.) exchanges between countries and political and economic exchanges and communication have been increasingly expanded and strengthened through the participation of translators.(Tan Zaixi,2004:15)<br /> <br /> Ⅱ.The division of western translation theories<br /> <br /> 2.1 Translation in Ancient Times<br /> <br /> The history of western translation started in the third century B.C. The translation activities in ancient Rome was the first great upsurge in the history of western translation, with a distinctive literary character. In the late Roman Empire, religious translation gradually became the mainstream of the western translation. In a broad sense, the earliest western translation was the translation of ''Old Testament'', i.e. ''Septuagint'', which was translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt, between the third and second century B.C.. Strictly speaking, the first western translation work was the Homer's Epic ''Odyssey'' translated in Latin by Andronicos in Rome around the middle of the third century B.C..(Tan Zauxi,1991: 4)<br /> <br /> 2.1.1 Marcuss Tullirs Cicero<br /> <br /> The earliest theorist of translation in the West was Cicero in the Roman Empire. He first made a distinction between translation as interpreter and translation as orator. He wrote in Volume 5, Chapter 14 in ''De Optimo Genere Oratorum'', &quot;...And I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and the forms, or as one might say, the 'figures’of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage.And in so doing , I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language. For I did not think I ought to count them out to the reader like coins, but to pay for them by weight, as it were.(Robinson,1997: 9) Cicero viewed translation from the perspective of a rhetorician and an orator. Translation as interpreter is a translation without creativity, while a translation as orator is a translation that is creative and comparable to the source language text. In this way, Cicero set the seal on the two basic methods of translation, thus pioneered in the field of theory and methodology of translation studies. Subsequently, the history of western translation theories has developed centred on the issues of literal translation and free translation, word-by-word translation and flexible translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness, accuracy and inaccuracy.<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 Quintus Heratius Flaccus<br /> <br /> Heratius was deeply influenced by Cicero in the aspect of literary criticism and translation theory, he insisted that translation should be flexible, and opposed word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation. He also believed that translation should be &quot;sense for sense&quot;. At the same time, Heratius advocated to create new words or introduce foreign words in creation and translation when necessary in order to enrich the national language and enhance the expressive power of the work. He advocated that &quot;a translator who is faithful to the original text is not fit to translate word for word&quot;. This sentence is often quoted to criticize those of literal translation by those of free translation.&quot;(Tan Zaixi,1991: 26).<br /> <br /> 2.1.3 St. Jerome<br /> <br /> St. Jerome is considered one of the four leading theologians in the West, who was proficient in Hebrew and Latin, and was fond of Latin literature.He translated ''Vulgate'' in the late Roman Empire and proposed that literary translation and religious translation should be treated differently, arguing that when translating ''Bible'', literal translation should not be used in the whole text, but mainly in literal translation.But in literary translation, translators could and should convey the meaning of the original text in an understandable style, so as to use one's own style and language to make the translation as beautiful as the original text. It is a good idea to use a combination of literal transaltion and free translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1.4 St. Augustine<br /> <br /> St. Augustine did not translate many works, only revised some parts of the ''Vulgate'', but his translation theories are extremely valuable, which can be mainly found in ''On Christian Education'', as well as several interpretations of the ''Psalms'' and two letters, one of which is to his son Adeodatus.He believed that a good translator must be proficient in two languages, familiar with the material to be translated and have the ability to revise. He suggested that people should use &quot;simple&quot;, &quot;elegant&quot;, or &quot;sacred&quot; style according to different readers. He related the style of target language text to targeted readers, holding that people should use &quot;simple&quot; style when translating enlightment texts, use &quot;elegant&quot; style when it comes to texts praising the God, and use &quot;sacred&quot; style to translate texts with the characteristic of exhortation and guidance. He quoted the &quot;semiotics theory&quot; of Aristotle and emphasized the triangular relationship of the &quot;significatio&quot;, &quot;sonus&quot; and &quot;judgment&quot; in translation. He is regarded as the originator of the linguistic school in the history of western translation, whose theories have exerted profound influence on linguistics and translation studies.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Translation in the Middle Ages<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Manlius Boethius<br /> <br /> Manlius Boethius contributed not only to translating and introducing Greek philosophical thoughts, but also to translation theories. His views can be mainly found in the preface to the translation of Porphyrius's work (Boethius, 1906; referring to Kelly, 1979; 71, 134-135, 204, 222-224), which can be summarized as follows: 1) Content and style are contrary, either style or content can be preserved. 2) Translation is centralized on objective things, and the translator should abandon subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, what the translator seek is accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express &quot;truth without error&quot;, the translator should use word-for-word translation.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Dante<br /> <br /> Dante held a pessimistic view on translation in his work ''The Banquet'', holding the view that poetry is untranslatable. The significance of this viewpoint strated the long debate on translatability and untranslatability of literary translation in the history of western translation, and at the same time, it drew people's attention to the organic connection between poetry and language in poetry translation, which was very helpful for future generations to establish the correct principles of poetry translation. Don Quixote, the protagonist in the Spanish writer Cervantes's novel ''Don Quixote'', held the similar point of view.<br /> <br /> 2.3 Translation in Renaissance<br /> <br /> 2.3.1 Martin Luther<br /> <br /> Martin Luther was a German translator and the leader of Religious Reform. His translations of ''The New Testament'', which was written in Greek and ''The Old Testament'' written in Hebrew were published in 1522 and 1534 respectively, and his translation of ''The Bible'' in German became the model of German, exerting an unprecedented influence on the development of the national language in German. In addition, his translation of ''Aesop's Fables'' is also of high literary value. His outstanding contributions to translation theories can be summarized as follows: First, he held the view that people should translate in a language that is straightaway and easy to understand, and is acceptable to the public. He insisted on the humanistic view of language, believing that different languages cannot be equated absolutely in terms of structure and vocabulary. Since the target readers of The Bible is the public, &quot;we must use authentic German instead of Latinized German.&quot; (Tan, 1991: 81), and get rid of the traditional principles that ''The Bible'' can only be translated in Latin, &quot;let the prophets of ''The Old Testament'' use natural German.&quot; (Nida, 1984: 10) Secondly, Luther believed that the form, style, and spiritual essence of the original text can only be reproduced in free translation to some extent. Thirdly, translators should respect the original text, understand its spiritual essence in depth, and should not be credulous about the traditional explanations of priests. In order to reproduce the spiritual essence of the original text, the translator can add some meanings which are implicit between the lines but not literally Fourth, translators ought to put heads together. Finally, he proposed seven principles that translators should follow: they can change the word order of the original text; they can use modal particles; they can add conjunctions; they can omit words; they can substitute words with phrases; they can replace metaphor with non-metaphor and vice versa; and they should pay attention to the variation of words and the accuracy of translation. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 83)<br /> <br /> 2.3.2 Etienne Dolet<br /> <br /> Etienne Dolet was the first person who put forward translation theory in a systematic way in the history of modern western translation. Apart from several translations and monographs on Greek and Latin, his contributions to translation can mainly be reflected in his famous paper ''La manière de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'', which was published in 1540. The paper was short but innovative, and the issues involved have already been connected to the matters of principle which were raised by later translation theorists. The basic principles of translation he listed in his paper were as follows: 1) The translator must fully understand the content of the texts to be translated. 2) The translator must have a good knowledge of source language and target lanuage. 3) The translator should avoid word-for-word translation, which can not express the original meaning of the text accurately and the sense of beauty of the language. 4) The translator must translate in an understandable way. 5) The translator must make the target language text an appropriate one through diction and adjustment of word order.<br /> <br /> 2.4 Translation in the Early Modern Times<br /> <br /> 2.4.1 John Dryden<br /> <br /> John Dryden was a famous poet, translator and translation theorist, whose contributions to translation exceeded that of his predecessors and other contemporaries, with a large number of translation works and systematic theories. His most well-known translation work is Virgil's ''Aeneid'', which was published in 1697. In his numerous papers and prefaces, he clearly put forward comprehensive and systematic views of translation: First of all, translation is an art, translators must have the temperament of an artist, a keen appreciation of art and a rich expressive power, only in this way can they grasp and reproduce the artistic features of the original text. Secondly, translators must consider target readers. When translating dialects, translators should focus on the fact that whether target readers can accept and understand it or not, and can appropriately borrow some foreign words, but these words should be carefully considered. Thirdly, translators are slaves of the original author, &quot;only working in other's manor, fertilizing and pruning the grapes, but the wine is for the master's&quot;. (Tan Zaixi, 1991: 153). Finally, he roughly divided translation into three categories: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation,arguring that imitation was close to creation, which broke away from the original text. Therefore, he advocated paraphrase that emphasizes the meaning while neglects the linguistic form. His division of translation broke through the limitations of traditional classificationof translation, i.e. free translation and literal translation, which was a major development in the history of western translation and was of great significance.<br /> <br /> 2.4.2 Alexander Fraser Tytler<br /> <br /> 2.4.3 Matthw Arnold<br /> <br /> 2.4.4 Francis W. Newman<br /> <br /> 2.4.5 Friedrich Schleiermacher<br /> <br /> 2.4.6 Wilhelmvon Humboldt<br /> <br /> 2.5 Translation in Contemporary Time<br /> <br /> 2.5.1 Federov<br /> <br /> 2.5.2 Roman Jakobson<br /> <br /> 2.5.3 John Catford<br /> <br /> 2.5.4 Eugene A. Nida<br /> <br /> 2.5.5 James Holmes<br /> <br /> 2.5.6 Lawrence Venuti<br /> <br /> Ⅲ.Discussion<br /> <br /> Ⅳ.Conclusion<br /> <br /> References<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 06:48, 7 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of the translation theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford 陈莎 Chen Sha==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶Xu Mengdie ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie，Student no.202020080657 &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features which should be distinguished from Pound's. Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish their principles in poetry translation so as to better comprehend their contributions.<br /> This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation principles from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 埃兹拉·庞德和闻一多诗歌翻译原则的对比研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，他的一些诗歌翻译原则和庞德的有不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br /> 本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br /> ===I.Introduction===<br /> 1. Research Background<br /> <br /> With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition， but at the same time， Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell， etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poetic compositions might be ''A Rainy Night'' (雨夜) and ''Moon and Men'' (月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014). He distinguished himself from the other representatives of vernacular writing movement by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br /> The reason why these two figures are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to learn the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to know these two poets and translators better.<br /> <br /> 2. Research Method<br /> <br /> Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them. By close reading, we come to know their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are, ''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo'' (闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound,etc.<br /> <br /> Comparison study: since there are some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement, their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation principles.<br /> <br /> ===II.Literature Review===<br /> Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter, classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer than on his identity as a translator, so this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br /> <br /> [[File:A.png]]<br /> <br /> Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all aspects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems, etc. From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the beginning of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time. With cultural development, now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry (吕进，2005).<br /> <br /> [[File:8.png]]<br /> <br /> Major works often cited by scholars are these two biggest black dots in the picture, works of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984).<br /> <br /> As for papers about comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 papers published in recent years in China.<br /> <br /> Among 18 papers, phrases mentioned the most often are &quot;Chinese new poetry&quot;, &quot;poem translation&quot;, &quot;the beauty of painting&quot; in these papers. Most of these papers study on Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements (vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares these two figures in an all around way, which was written by Fu Jianan (傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture. Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by the features of nationality and creativity in Ezra Pound's literary creation and criticism.<br /> <br /> ====III.Discussion====<br /> Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into the May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in subjects of his poems, for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons'' (七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night'' (静夜), etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences. <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo had experienced several transitions in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems (1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse'' (马赋), ''Ode on Pine'' （松赋), ''Spring Willow'' （春柳), etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after he was back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems, which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in ''Dead Water'' (死水) (闻一多全集，1993).<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation, which is to find an answer to his epoch and to solve problems existing in society. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the &quot;order&quot; and &quot;benevolence&quot; mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed, to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, etc. (蒋洪新，2001). Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name &quot;imagism&quot; for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br /> <br /> In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father, they two had to share the same root and sap. Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme, and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that, he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment'' (尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables which is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br /> <br /> ====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images. When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandburg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing. Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001：134-135). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short excerpt of his earlier composition:<br /> <br /> 太阳辛苦了一天，<br /> 赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br /> 喜得满面通红，<br /> 一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br /> <br /> This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image. As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition in his using of color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Color'' (色彩) to ''Dead Water'' (死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea on both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊) and ''Dead Water'' (死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work (辛春生，2011：28-29). All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br /> <br /> ''&quot;这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。&quot; （《冬夜》评论）<br /> <br /> &quot;Don’t use such an expression as &quot;dim lands of peace.&quot; It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol.&quot; (A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chinese, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art （郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem, he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br /> <br /> “落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”&quot;A wet leaf that clings to the threshold.&quot; <br /> <br /> This sentence has shown Pound's superimposition of images well. Here &quot;wet leaf&quot; and &quot;threshold&quot; are two different images but the verb &quot;cling&quot; is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both &quot;fallen leaf&quot; and &quot;threshold&quot; are classical images used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. &quot;Blue, blue is the grass about the river&quot;, &quot;White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door.&quot; There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words &quot;青青&quot; and &quot;皎皎&quot;, which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br /> <br /> Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagism and Ezra Pound, but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum'' (忆菊).<br /> <br /> ====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in rhyme translation====<br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse. When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form. And translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Wen Yiduo, 1926). In his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator for using free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems. Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses (黄焰结，2014：611). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br /> <br /> Sea Fever<br /> by： John Masefield<br /> I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br /> <br /> And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br /> <br /> And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br /> <br /> I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br /> <br /> Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br /> <br /> And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br /> <br /> I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br /> <br /> To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br /> <br /> And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br /> <br /> And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br /> <br /> 我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br /> <br /> 还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br /> <br /> 海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br /> <br /> 是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br /> <br /> 我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br /> <br /> 再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br /> <br /> 走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br /> <br /> 我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br /> <br /> 临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。<br /> <br /> John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhyme to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations &quot;a star to steer/ a clear call, etc.&quot; are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, &quot;I must go down to the seas again&quot;, which could emphasize the poet's emotion.<br /> <br /> To maintain the original features, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in his translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is artificial decoration together with natural beauty. In his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words. For example, &quot;I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,&quot; &quot;again&quot; this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and &quot;lonely sea and the sky &quot; was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom &quot;天涯海角&quot;. &quot;To steer&quot; this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-&quot;做她的向导&quot; to ensure the balance of translation.<br /> Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version is even more concise and has clear beats to form music. To form a parallel structure and the clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by the translator which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature. This can help to achieve an effect of a balance between the loose and the tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural (诗歌节奏的研究). In this poem, Wen wanted to present the poem in the rhythm of waves.<br /> <br /> Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that &quot;It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert&quot; (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste). Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter'' as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasis is more on the other side as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without being translated, for its musicality to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images as conveyable and was devoted to convey images from Chinese poems to English translation. <br /> <br /> Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were indispensable ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', &quot;It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music&quot;. Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said, some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language for he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations added. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem and once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost (英译李太白诗，1926).<br /> <br /> ====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br /> <br /> Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br /> <br /> In a Station of the Metro<br /> The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br /> Petals on a wet, black bough.<br /> <br /> This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is &quot;word&quot;, which is distinct from &quot;syllable&quot; in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony. Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words (吴笛，2007：55-56).<br /> Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry (王贵明，刘佳，2006). <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be &quot;pure form&quot;. So he appealed to &quot;beauty of architecture&quot; and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form, which is also asked for in poem composed by himself (陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both Chinese architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br /> <br /> Thursday<br /> ——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br /> <br /> And if I loved you Wednesday, <br /> <br /> Well, what is that to you?<br /> <br /> I do not love you Thursday— <br /> <br /> So much is true. <br /> <br /> And why you come complaining <br /> <br /> Is more than I can see.<br /> <br /> I loved you Wednesday,<br /> <br /> —yes—but what Is that to me?<br /> <br /> 礼拜四<br /> <br /> 即使我礼拜三爱你，<br /> <br /> 你管它做什么？<br /> <br /> 礼拜四我并不爱你，<br /> <br /> 却一点也不错。<br /> <br /> 我真不懂，你何为还<br /> <br /> 找着我来纠缠。<br /> <br /> 礼拜三我爱你—对—<br /> <br /> 可是那与我又何干？<br /> <br /> This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator transferred the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, &quot;—yes—but what/Is that to me?&quot;, to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word &quot;—yes—&quot; into the verse before the last one, &quot;礼拜三我爱你—对—&quot; to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -&quot;And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see&quot;. To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, &quot;你何为还找着我来纠缠&quot; into two verses, &quot;你何为还/找着我来纠缠&quot;. Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added &quot;却&quot; to echo &quot;可是&quot; in the last line of the last stanza and replaced the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br /> In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose in form, but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture.<br /> <br /> ====4.Conclusion====<br /> To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images comes from Fenollosa, and ''Cathy'' is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's, for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take &quot;order&quot; as &quot;balance&quot;. His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets, and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br /> Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his family background, China's social environment at that time, and his life experiences. Before he became a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and to spread it through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems, as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying that one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like what we discovered in both their own writings and translations.<br /> <br /> ===V.Reference===<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound. Cathy. ''London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv''.<br /> <br /> Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br /> <br /> Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br /> <br /> Guo Wei 郭为.(1988).埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[The Chinese Soup of Ezra Pound].''读书 Reading''(10):104-110.<br /> <br /> Jiang Hongxin 蒋洪新.(2001).庞德的翻译理论研究[Study on Pound's Translation Theory ].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)''(04):77-80.<br /> <br /> Bei Ta 北塔.(2011).略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[On the English Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''中国现代文学研究丛刊 Modern Chinese Literature Researches Series''(12):97-108.<br /> <br /> Cheng Liming 陈历明.(2016).闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[On Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poetry and the Generation of Metrical Poetics].''文艺理论研究 Theoretical Studies in Literature and Art'' 36(01):64-75.<br /> <br /> Jiao Jianping 焦建平.(2001).卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[Carl Sandburg and Imagism].''西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Northwestern University (Philosophy and Social Sciences)''(04):134-137.<br /> <br /> Huang Lina黄丽娜.(2013) 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[Research on the Translation of Wen Yiduo's Poems].''湖南师范大学 Hunan Normal University''.<br /> <br /> Huang Yanjie黄焰结.(2014) 英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[English Translation of Li Po's Poems-- Cultural Study on Wen Yiduo and Shigeyoshi Obata's Talk on Poetic Translation ].''外语教学与研究 Foreign Language Teaching and Research'' 46(04):605-615+641.<br /> <br /> Lv Jing 吕进.(2005)三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[Three Major Reconstructions: New Poetry, the Second Revolution and Rejuvenation ].''西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版)Journal of Southwest Normal University (Humanities and Social Sciences edition)''(01):130-135.<br /> <br /> Sun Dangbo, Yuan Zhengchun 孙党伯 袁春正.(1993).闻一多全集. [Complete Works of Wen Yiduo] ''武汉：湖北人民出版社 Wuhan: Hubei People's Publishing House.''12<br /> <br /> Wu Di吴笛.(2007)论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[On Characteristics of Chinese Poetry in Pound's ''In a Station of the Metro''].''外国文学研究 FOREIGN LITERATURE STUDIES''(05):53-57.<br /> <br /> Wang Guiming, Liu Jia王贵明,刘佳.(2006)今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[Archaic Style in Modern Form-- On the Archaic Tendency in Ezra Pound's Poetry Translation and Creation].''北京理工大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Beijing University of Science and Engineering (Social Sciences Edition)''(06):79-85.<br /> <br /> Wen Liming 闻黎明.（2014）闻一多年谱.Chronology of Wen Yiduo ''北京：群言出版社 Beijing: Qunyan Publishing House''.11<br /> <br /> Xin Chunsheng辛春生.(2011) 闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[A new Exploration on the Beauty of Painting of Wen Yiduo's Poem &quot;Reminicence of Chrysanthemum&quot;].''名作欣赏 Master Pieces Review''(35):28-29.<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of ''The Moon and Sixpence'' from the Perstive of Functional Equivalence Theory 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Differences in style and language expression in Japanese-English narrative translation 谢子熠 Xie Ziyi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 14:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' When Japanese narrative texts translated into English, the translated versions often have different forms and syntax from the original texts. From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, it is thought that the difference in form and structure is due to the difference in cognitive practices of the actors who recognize and conceptualize the situation in the narrative as a linguistic expression. In the present paper, mainly based on Langacker 's theory, I argue that there are two opposing modes of situation recognition, one in which the conceptualize　perceives the situation objectively from outside and the other in which the conceptualize perceives it subjectively from inside the situation, and that before and after translation, the former is dominant in the English narrative and the latter in the Japanese This study confirms the fact that the trend appears in the trend. The paper concludes with the following points: (1) the present tense in the past-tense story, (2) the clarification of the person who experienced the situation (mainly the subject), and (3) the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words as useful objects for future contrastive analysis in Japanese and English.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Conceptualization, conceptualization, subject (gender), perspective, Japanese-English translation<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> In one study, I contrasted Soseki Natsume's &quot;I am a Cat&quot; with its Chinese translation, focusing on the use of poses, and found that there were far more examples of translating the original passive sentence into the active voice than the reverse. This means that it is essentially a misuse (or non-use) of Chinese to express its context passively. It can be said that I consciously changed the form of expression to the Chinese form from the perspective that it would be a good fit. Even if the Japanese conception is natural for the passive, it may be an unnatural idea that does not fit in with the Chinese language. The same can be said for the translation of narrative text in Japanese and English. Japanese to English and vice versa. In both cases, the forms and syntax used in the translated language are often different from those in the original.<br /> <br /> This paper considers the above-mentioned problems in the translation of Japanese and English narrative texts within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, every linguistic expression reflects the subject's interpretation of the situation it represents; in other words, the subject conceptualizes the situation it perceives on its own initiative, and the product of that interpretation is the linguistic expression. In other words, subjects conceptualize the situation they perceive on their own, and the product is their linguistic expression. If different forms of expression and syntax used to express the same situation before and after Japanese/English translation, the degree of subjectivity of the cognitive subject's interpretation is different.<br /> <br /> Based on this concept, the present paper structured as follows. First, we mainly support previous studies and this &quot;subjectivity&quot; and &quot;conceptualization&quot; and their closely related &quot;perspectives&quot; and &quot;perspectives&quot;. The concepts of cognitive linguistics that form the basis of the analysis are presented, and at the same time, these concepts are used as the basis for the analysis of Japanese and English. I will describe the differences in the style of situation recognition in the language. Next, we will describe them in the narrative sentences of Japanese and English. In the following section, we present the framework of &quot;cognitive narrative&quot; contrastive research, which is applied to the contrastive analysis of The following are some examples of the use of the present tense in past tense stories in Japanese and English narratives via translation use, the clarification of the cognoscenti, and the use of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. We have shown that differences found in English and that it is the style of situational awareness in Japanese and English differences. In addition, in Section 4, we will show a concrete example of this in the actual Japanese English Briefly presented with examples of analysis of the translation of narrative sentences, and in the final section as the cornerstone of the subsequent specific linguistic analysis. We shall describe the prospects. In other words, this thesis is the first of many Japanese English narrative texts and their adaptations in the future. Contrast analysis with the translated version and consider the stylistic and syntactic differences between the Japanese and English versions. In doing so, we will focus on the above perspectives from the framework of cognitive linguistics, and thus we will be able to translate the narrative text into Japanese and English The purpose is to describe the basis for trying to explore contributions to language typology in terms of it is.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2. Definitions of cognitive linguistic concepts'''<br /> <br /> Since language is a product of human activities, it is not in itself independent of the language user. Rather, all linguistic expressions reflect the subjective and subjective interpretation of the language user subject. The &quot;subject&quot; is, specifically, the language in which a situation verbalized. It is the subject of conceptualization, and at the same time, it is the conceptualizer that interprets the situation that the linguistic expression represents. In other words, as a conceptualizer, the language user is the subject that first recognizes the situation around him or her, conceptualizes it subjectively, and then expresses it in language. Behind every linguistic expression, there is always a conceptualizer who interprets the situation it represents. Perspective&quot; is a concept that focuses on the role of this conceptualizer. It includes (i) orientation, (ii) vantage point, (iii) directonality, (iv) how subjectively or objectively one interprets an entity (i.e., how subjectively or objectively It contains four elements: (anentity is construed). To recognize a situation, the conceptualizer stands on a standpoint and perceives the situation from there. The concept that encompasses the conceptualizer's standpoint and the direction of his or her gaze is the &quot;viewpoint&quot; (viewpoint). In other words, &quot;viewpoint&quot; is a concept that encompasses not only the position from which one looks at an object, but also the extent to which one interprets an object as subject-object. The subject interprets the situation by focusing on the subjectively selected perspective, and reflects it in words. And then individual language expressions are produced on that basis.<br /> <br /> In cognitive linguistics, these concepts considered to produce linguistic expressions, and it is known that the subject that produces the linguistic expressions perceives the situation in various cognitive modes when it conceptualizes the situation. There are cases in which the subject grasps the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, and there are cases in which the subject grasps the situation as a part of the situation. There are also cases in which the situation is grasped as neither subject nor object, but rather as an existence that forms the situation. In other words, depending on the perspective of the subject, the same situation can be interpreted in several ways.<br /> <br /> Based on the above conceptualization and discussion, I will confirm the facts that have been pointed out in the previous Japanese/English contrastive studies. It has been said that English is a language that prefers objective expressions, while Japanese is a language that prefers subjective expressions. While English native speakers tend to grasp the situation objectively, Japanese native speakers tend to grasp the situation subjectively. Unlike English native speakers, Japanese native speakers tend to place themselves in a situation and directly grasp the situation as a whole by feeling it with their own bodies. In Japanese, there are many linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings that reflect this kind of cognition of a situation. In other words, in English, linguistic expressions that reflect a point of view taken outside of a situation are prototypical, and linguistic expressions that express subjective meanings established through the special process of manifesting conceptual operations. On the other hand, at least in Japanese, it is more prototypical to take a point of view into a situation and express a subjective and subjective understanding of the situation through it.<br /> <br /> Furthermore, the following facts have been identified as characteristic characteristics of the linguistic representation of Japanese stories. There are two attitudes to narrative expression in Japanese writing: one is to explain the development of the situation from the standpoint of an observer, and the other is to describe it as such from the author's point of view. In addition, there is a proactive narrative attitude of accepting events from the point of view of the characters in the story. Moreover, one is allowed to use them all at will, sometimes even shifting to a different level of narrative attitude. For example, in addition to the author, there may be another person in the story, and the story described from that person's point of view. In other words, there is a shift in perspective in the relationship between the two parties in the story. In other words, there is a shift in point of view from a bystander to a character in the story. In other cases, when explaining a topical scene, the author does not look down on the overall geographical situation with the eyes of a bystander, but rather passively perceives the scene from his own point of view within the realm of the story. Here, too, we can see the peculiarity of the Japanese language way of thinking. In any case, what is prototypical in the Japanese language is a mode of situational awareness that conceptualizes and expresses a situation from a point of view within the context of a situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''3. Cognitive Narrative Theory'''<br /> <br /> Before going into a specific translation analysis of Japanese and English narrative sentences, it is necessary to describe here the basic idea of cognitive narrative theory as its foundation.<br /> <br /> If we define narrative as a formal text in which a speaker, who is a cognitive subject, manipulates the narrator to convey the situation he or she grasps (constructs) to the receiver, the problematic aspect of cognitive narrative theory is how the cognitive subject perceives and expresses the event or event. From this perspective, it can be said that the perspective of how we perceive a situation plays an important role in narrative structure. Even when describing the same object, the way of describing it differs depending on the viewpoint from which the object viewed. The narrative world reflects the dynamic cognitive process of the subject presenting that world. This kind of cognitive process is created by the subject's mode of interpretation, such as viewpoint projection, gaze movement/transformation, etc. The subject's cognitive processes constrain various aspects of narrative representation, including form and structure.<br /> <br /> If we apply Nishitaya's cognitive narrative theory, a study of Japanese and English narrative texts in terms of translation and contrast will ultimately depend on the differences in cognitive styles between languages, how the subject and conceptualizer of a situation perceives and expresses the situation in language, as well as the form of expression and syntax before and after translation. It can be considered to make a difference above. Hence, in the following, we will first describe typical human cognitive styles and then identify which cognitive style predominantly adopted by Japanese and English as the dominant language. If differences in the predominant tendency of the cognitive style of the situation reflected in both languages clarified, it can be a basis for differences in the forms and syntax produced before and after translation of the same situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''4. Findings from translation studies'''<br /> <br /> As mentioned above, the subjective interpretation of the translator enters into the translation. It is impossible in principle for a source text to be objectively interpreted, objectively represented in its meaning, and objectively textualized in the target language on the basis of these objective representations. The act of translation is (1) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the individual translator, which is subject to the indeterminacy of meaning, and (2) a single, on-the-spot act of interpretation by the translator. That is to say, there is an inherent indeterminacy of interpretation of the original text itself, as well as of the linguistic structure of its expression in the target language. Second, at the micro level, the habitus acquired by the individual translator in the professional field of translation plays a role as a control factor and influences the translator's disposition to act in a greater or lesser degree. There are also translation instructions and power dynamics from publishers and clients, as well as political, social, and cultural macro-contextual factors (the main ones being &quot;norms&quot; and &quot;purpose,&quot; which will be discussed below) that are behind the translator's disposition to translate. At the same time, the indeterminacy and subjective bias of the translator inherent in the act of translation will inevitably lead to different results in the translation. Therefore, when we make a translation into a counter-language study, we need to pay attention to the (1) linguistic and social actions of the translation act, and (2) the interpretive tendencies of the individual translator.<br /> <br /> The following is a summary of the changing trends in translation studies. There are two aspects of translation: linguistic action and social action, and theories have been shifting their analysis from the former to the latter. Theories that focus on the linguistic action of translation are the linguistic stages of translation studies: equivalence, translation shift, translation strategies, and text-type theory. When socio-actionality was added to these theories, Scopos theory, register analysis, systems theory, and normative theory were developed, which became the next generation of the linguistic stage. However, as translation studies experienced a &quot;cultural and ideological turn&quot; from its textual analysis-centered era, it began to focus on &quot;translation as rewriting,&quot; &quot;translation of gender,&quot; &quot;postcolonial translation theory,&quot; &quot;(non)visibility of translation,&quot; and &quot;power networks of translation,&quot; among others. This covers not only translation but also the social, cultural, and historical significance and role of the social practice of representation. In recent years, research has also focused on &quot;people,&quot; with a focus on the translator's life history and life story, and an analysis of how the individual translator's habitus affects the translation. To summarize this trend, we can see a shift from (1) focusing on the linguistic action of translation to (2) social action, and (3) research that takes into account the interpretive tendencies of individual translators.<br /> <br /> On the basis of the above, let's first discuss the aforementioned case of Ikegami (2007) in the context of translation studies. For now, the case of Snow Country can be reduced to the issue of equivalence and shift. The concept of equivalence itself is disputed and has been defined and characterized in numerous ways (see Pym 2010, pp. 7-42), but I will operationally define it as the same linguistic and cultural value between the source and target texts. Five levels can be assumed for this equivalence: word level, phrase level, grammatical level, textual level (thematic progression and cohesion), and pragmatic level (Baker 1992), and this paper will mainly focus on the grammatical level. The &quot;shift&quot; is a linguistic shift between the source and target texts due to structural differences between the source and target languages (Catford 1965). In this connection, &quot;conversion operations&quot; refer to various operations to achieve a translation shift, either obligatory because of linguistic structure, or selective in order to achieve target language identity or certain stylistic effects.<br /> <br /> Let's apply this to the case of Ikegami (2007). If we assume that there is a certain situation objectively portrayed in the original text, then if we can faithfully reproduce that situation in the target text, we have achieved an &quot;equivalent&quot; translation. However, because of the difference in linguistic structure between Japanese and English, and the different grammatical categories that must be expressed as linguistic expressions, obligatory conversion operations must be performed to conform to the linguistic norms of the target language (for example, the subject is zeroed in Japanese, but in English it is basically, because the subject is obligatory, do the operation of making the subject stand up).<br /> <br /> In practice, however, there is a process of chronological translation involved, which means that there are more than just static differences in linguistic structure. (1) The translator first interprets the source text (interpretation; a situation from the words). Then, (2) based on this interpretation, he or she contextualizes it in the target language (construal).<br /> <br /> <br /> '''5. Subject's Perspective and Style of Situational Awareness in Japanese and English'''<br /> <br /> In general, there are two kinds of opposing modes of conceptualizer subject's perception of a situation.<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Form A. Subject (C) grasps a situation (O) in which it is not a participant from outside the situation, corresponding to Langacker's optimal viewing arrangement, Ikegami's &quot;objective grasping,&quot; and Nakamura's &quot;D mode.<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Form B. The subject (C) enters a situation and grasps its situation (O), corresponding to Langacker's egocentric viewing arrangement, Ikegami's &quot;subjective grasping&quot; and Nakamura's &quot;I-mode&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> In terms of these viewpoint arrays, English tends to prefer the optimal viewpoint array and Japanese tends to prefer the egocentric viewpoint array.<br /> When the subject takes a perspective, as in Form B, where the language subject enters a situation that is the object of conceptualization and interprets it subjectively and subjectively, the degree of subjectivity is very high in the language expression reflecting that subjectivity, e.g., in (1) a. below. On the other hand, when the subject interprets the object of conceptualization objectively from the outside, as in Form A, the linguistic expressions reflecting the subjectivity of the subjectivity are less subjective (or in other words, more objective), such as b. and c. below. In b., the existence of the subject as a reference point is explicitly stated, but here the subject &quot;conceptually splits&quot; itself up and objectively perceives another real self in the situation from outside the situation. In other words, the speaker plays the role of both the subject of conceptualization and the object of conceptualization. In contrast, in c., the subject, as the subject of the conceptualization, perceives it objectively from the outside without entering the object of the conceptualization. Therefore, c. has a lower degree of subjectivity than b. It is the linguistic expression that expresses the most object-oriented meaning among the three linguistic expressions. The degree of subjectivity reflected in each linguistic expression depends on the degree to which the linguistic expression reflects the subjective and subjective interpretation of the subject. In other words, differences in the degree of subjectivity based on each cognitive style embodied in differences in the form and syntax of the resulting language expressions.<br /> <br /> <br /> ⑴ a. Vanessa is sitting across the table.<br /> b. Vanessa is sitting across the table from me.<br /> c. Vanessa is sitting across the table from Veronica.<br /> （深田・仲本2008：171-172）<br /> <br /> <br /> As seen in the present example, multiple linguistic expressions based on cognitive styles with different degrees of subjectivity are possible in English as well, but as mentioned earlier, style A tends to be used relatively more often than style B.<br /> I will now mention what Langacker calls the &quot;stage model&quot;. The &quot;stage model&quot; is a cognitive model that idealizes the meaning of linguistic expressions and the typical positioning of &quot;speakers&quot;. According to this model, the speaker typically observes what is on the stage from the outside and encodes the conceptualization of it into a linguistic representation. In this case, the speaker is the &quot;subject&quot; of the concept and the object of expression is the &quot;object&quot; of the conceptualization, and their roles completely separated. In other words, we can say that the speaker's perspective is &quot;off-stage&quot;. From this point of view, subjectivization is a phenomenon in which the speaker that not directly depicted, but rather the speaker that is non-explicitly incorporated into part of the semantic structure of the object of description (the object). In other words, in subjectivized, highly subjective linguistic expressions, the speaker's perspective is &quot;on-stage&quot;. A relative comparison between English and Japanese shows that the &quot;off-stage&quot; type is more prevalent in English forms and syntax, while the &quot;on-stage&quot; type is more prevalent in Japanese.<br /> <br /> Next, let us look at the two cognitive modes presented by Nakamura. This is also true for Japanese and English. Tendentious differences which is found according to Nakamura, from the aspect of subjectivity, there are two types of human perception of the situation, two modes of cognition, and each syntax (linguistic representation) is thought to reflect one of these two modes more strongly. The first is called &quot;I-mode&quot; (situationally attuned cognitive mode), which is the predominant mode in Japanese for situational perspective; in relation to Langacker, it is &quot;on-stage&quot; and is often viewed as &quot;situation-centered&quot; and the speaker is the participant in the situation (S-perspective). Also, because the perspective is within the situation, it is &quot;direct experience&quot; and its expression is &quot;non-reporting&quot; in that it is experiential and not reportive in tone. These are exactly the features that have been revealed to predominant in the linguistic expressions of Japanese narrative sentences. In contrast, the &quot;D-mode&quot; (cognitive mode from outside the situation) is the predominant mode in English that places the perspective outside the situation; in relation to Langacker, it is an &quot;off-stage&quot; and &quot;out-of-situation&quot; mode, so the perspective is literally &quot;extrinsic&quot; and &quot;external&quot; to each participant in the situation, which will be the focus of attention (the &quot;person-centered&quot; view, O-Perspective). Thus, the expression is &quot;reportive&quot;. These are, if anything, the predominant features of linguistic representation in English narrative writing.<br /> <br /> The predominant cognition in Japanese, where the speaker interacts with the situation/object, is the situation-based cognition, or &quot;I-mode,&quot; which is a subjective cognition in which the speaker and the experiencer assimilate (and thus the speaker himself becomes the cognitive subject). In other words, it is a state in which the cognitive subject and the object of cognition fused together, which called &quot;subject-object unity. On the other hand, the cognitive mode of objective recognition of a situation/object, which is dominant in English, is the extrinsic cognitive mode, or the &quot;D-mode&quot;, which does not presuppose the interaction between the subject and the situation/object. This is characterized by the point that the cognitive subject goes outside the interactive cognitive field and takes a viewpoint as if it were viewed objectively from the outside. In that sense, this one is a &quot;separation of subject and guest,&quot; so to speak, against the former.<br /> <br /> The Japanese language has a self-centered viewpoint arrangement and Mode I dominance, while the English language has an optimal viewpoint arrangement and Mode D dominance, and for this reason, the following differences in linguistic expressions expected to appear in the narrative as a tendency. This difference in cognitive mode is thought to be the basis of the different structures and forms of expression in translation, which may lead to the selection of linguistic expressions, and thus to the differences in expression between the source and target texts.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> The reason for (1) and (2) in the Japanese language, where the I-mode is predominant, is that the narrator describes the situation in a way that puts him or her in it. The following argument about the frequent use of the present tense in Japanese narrative writing will also reinforce this point. The underlined part of the sentence is only possible when the narrator puts himself in the situation.<br /> <br /> The use of the non-present present tense effectively moves past events to the present moment, so the reader or listener can re-experience the story.<br /> The use of the present tense in Japanese narratives has the effect of giving immediacy, making the reader feel the suspense and assimilate into the author's inner world in the time in which the story is going on.<br /> <br /> The reason for (3) is that onomatopoeia and mimetic words are situationally relevant forms of expression. In general, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently in Japanese than in English and other languages. In Japanese, onomatopoeia and mimetic words which used more frequently than in English and other languages, such as &quot;pochan&quot; and &quot;shito&quot;, respectively. A linguistic expression that expresses the phenomenon in its entirety, without the need for the subject to enter into the situation and adhere to it. If we consider that a situation cannot be grasped as a whole unless the subject enters into the situation and follows it closely, we can say that Japanese onomatopoeia and mimetic words are linguistic expressions expressing subjective meanings that manifest the existence of the subject who recognizes and interprets the situation subjectively. Therefore, they can be considered to be forms reflecting the I-mode. In Japanese narratives, which are much richer in onomatopoeia and mimetic words than in English, the I-mode is dominant.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''6. Japanese and English Narrative Sentence Contrastive Analysis'''<br /> <br /> In order to confirm the previous discussion, I will look at and analyze the actual narrative text in Japanese and English through translation. The purpose of this paper is to examine how the cognitive style of the situation in the narrative texts of Japanese and English before and after translation reflected in the linguistic expressions and how it leads to the differences in the linguistic expressions in Japanese and English, especially in the three points mentioned in the previous section. The quantitative and quantitative data analysis itself will be done another time due to space constraints. Therefore, in this section, we will limit ourselves to a fact-finding exercise.<br /> <br /> First, let's see how explicit and non-explicit tenses and situation recognizers in past-tense narratives differ between Japanese and English, depending on the conceptualizer's perspective. These perspectives correspond to those of (1) and (2) in the previous section. I will use Kawabata Yasunari's novel Yukiguni (Snow Country) and its English translation as the subject matter. From the previous discussion, it can be seen that the degree of subjectivity increases as we go from 1. to 4. below. In other words, 1. is the typical D-mode, which is dominant in English, and 4. is the typical I-mode, which is dominant in Japanese.<br /> <br /> 1.Past tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. &quot;Off Stage”<br /> 2.Past tense, experienced non-explicit, perspective. &quot;Off Stage”<br /> 3.Present tense, experienced person clarification, and perspective. &quot;On Stage”<br /> 4.Present tense, experienced person non-explicit, point of view. &quot;On Stage”<br /> <br /> ⑵ a. …女はぷいと窓へ立っていって国境の山々を眺めたが、そのうちに頰を染めて、…<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> b. She stood up abruptly and went over to the window, her face reddening as she looked out at the mountains.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑶ a. …島村が内湯から上がって来ると、もう全く寝静まっていた。古びた廊下は彼の踏む度にガラス戸を微かに鳴らした。その長いはずれの帳場の曲り角に、裾を冷え冷えと黒光りの板の上へ拡げて、女が高く立っていた。<br /> (Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> b. ...and by the time Shimamura had come up from the bath the place seemed to be asleep. The glass doors rattled slightly each time he took a step down the sagging corridor. At the end, where it turned past the office, he saw the tall figure of the woman, her skirts trailing coldly off across the dark floor.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑷ a. …島村はなぜかそれが心のどこかで見えるような気持ちもする。<br /> (Present tense; empiricist explicit: the conceptualizer's Perspective is &quot;On Stage”.)<br /> b. Somewhere in his heart Shimamura saw a question, as clearly as if it were standing there before him.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist explicit; the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> ⑸ a. 島村はその方を見て、ひょっと首を縮めた。鏡の奥が真白に光っているのは 雪である。その雪のなかに女の真赤な頰が浮んでいる。<br /> (Present tense; empiricist non-explicit: the conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;On stage”.)<br /> b. Shimamura glanced up at her, and immediately lowered his head. The white in the depths of the mirror was the snow, and floating in the middle of it were the womanʼs bright red cheeks.<br /> (Past tense; empiricist non-explicit; conceptualizer's perspective is &quot;Off-stage”.)<br /> <br /> From the above example, it can be seen that the English translation has a reduced degree of subjectivity in its form compared to the original Japanese.<br /> Now let's look at the perspective in the previous section (3), i.e., examples of onomatopoeia and mimetic words. The following is the original English text of Hemingway's &quot;The Old Man and the Sea&quot; and its translation into Japanese, in which the situation is expressed subjectively in Japanese as onomatopoeia and mimetic words, respectively. In the Japanese translation, the subject's point of view penetrates into the situation and which is closely connected to it to understand the situation as a whole. In this respect, it can be said that the degree of subjectivity of the cognizant subject is relatively greater than in English.<br /> <br /> ⑹ a. ...and he loved to walk on them on the beach after a storm and hear them pop when he stepped on them with the horny soles of his feet.<br /> b. また彼は嵐のあとなど、海岸に打ちあげられた浮袋を、角のように硬くなった踵で踏みつけては、それがプスッ、プスッと音をたてるのをききながら歩くのが好きだった。<br /> <br /> ⑺ a. In the dark, the old man could feel the morning coming and as he rowed he heard the trembling sound as flying fish left the water and the hissing that their stiff set wings made as they soared away in the darkness.<br /> b. 老人は暗黒のうちに朝の近寄る気配を感じとっていた。飛魚が水を離れるときに生じるブルンという音、その硬い翼が暗い空をよぎるヒューという音、オールを操りながら老人はそれらの物音をはっきりききとっていた。<br /> <br /> ⑻ a. It floated cheerfully as a bubble with its long deadly purple filaments trailing a yard behind it in the water.<br /> b. 黒ずんだ紫色の細い糸が水中に一ヤードも尾を引いていたが、それはまるで水泡のように、のんきにふわふわと漂っていた。<br /> <br /> ⑼ a. The bird went higher in the air and circled again, his wings motionless.<br /> b. 鳥はさらに上空めがけて舞いあがり、ふたたびぐるぐる輪を描きはじめた。<br /> <br /> <br /> '''7. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> In this paper, the framework and considerations of the contrastive study of Japanese and English narrative texts through translation are presented from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, with a particular focus on the concepts of &quot;perspective&quot; and &quot;subjectivation,&quot; and some of the possibilities, methods, and examples of the analysis of linguistic representations of situation recognition in Japanese and English narrative texts have been seen. In particular, the contrastive analysis of Japanese and English The analysis from the standpoint of the opposition between the self-centered viewpoint arrangement and the optimal viewpoint arrangement proposed by Langacker, the I-mode and the D-mode proposed by Nakamura, and the subjective and objective grasping that Ikegami advocates seems to be effective, but it is necessary to collect data and attempt a quantitative analysis of more works in the future. In particular, with regard to item (1) of section 3, the position of the conceptualizer's point of view differs between the past and present tenses, with the former in the off-stage and the latter in the on-stage. Also, the item (2) in section 3, i.e., whether or not the perceiver of the situation is explicitly stated in the linguistic representation, may be explained by whether or not it is profiled in the direct scope. Further data analysis is needed to verify these as well. It should be noted that this Japanese-English controlled study may contribute to the further advancement of Nakamura's &quot;cognitive typology&quot;.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Bibliography:'''<br /> <br /> [1] 川端康成 『雪国』、岩波書店、1952年.<br /> <br /> [2] Kawabata Yasunari Snow Country. translated by Edward G. Seidensticker, Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1957.<br /> <br /> [3] Hemingway Ernest The Old Man and the Sea. Kodansha International, 1991.<br /> <br /> [4] アーネスト，ヘミングウェイ 『老人と海』（福田恒在訳）、新潮社、1966.<br /> <br /> [5] 森田良行 『話者の視点がつくる日本語』 ひつじ書房、2006年<br /> <br /> [6] 籾山洋介・深田智 「意味の拡張」 松本曜編著『認知意味論』 大修館書店<br /> <br /> [7] 深田智・仲本康一郎 『概念化と意味の世界』 研究社、2008年<br /> <br /> [8] 本多啓 『アフォーダンスの認知意味論』、東京大学出版会、2005年<br /> <br /> [9] 西口純代 「物語文の現在時制における視点と文脈の変化」 河上誓作・谷口一美共編『ことばと視点』、英宝社、2007年<br /> <br /> [10] ベルク，オギュスタン 『空間の日本文化』（宮原信訳、ちくま学芸文庫）、筑摩書房、1994年<br /> <br /> ==The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication 莫南 Mo Nan==<br /> '''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br /> '''摘要：'''文化负载词是民族文化智慧的结晶，蕴含着深厚的民族文化遗产。文化负载词的准确翻译不仅可以促进跨文化交际的顺利进行，而且有助于传播民族文化，保持民族特色，促进各民族之间的友好交流。尽管文化负载词的翻译存在困难，但它仍然是可译的。前进模型、块模型、标注模型、集成模型和自适应模型是有效的转换模型;直译、意译和音译都是有效的翻译策略。译者应根据不同情况选择合适的翻译模式和翻译策略。<br /> '''关键词：'''文化负载词，翻译，交际<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' Culture-loaded words are the crystallization of national cultural wisdom and contain deep national cultural heritage. Accurate translation of culture-loaded words can not only promote smooth cross-cultural communication, but also help spread national culture, maintain national characteristics and promote friendly exchanges among ethnic groups. Although there are difficulties in translation of culture-loaded words, it is still translatable. The go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models; literal translation, liberal translation and transliteration are all effective translation strategies. Translators should choose the appropriate translation models and strategies in different situations.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Culture-loaded words; translation, communication<br /> <br /> As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br /> <br /> '''1 Introduction'''<br /> Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors.<br /> Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation.<br /> Nowadays, economic and cultural exchanges among various ethnic groups are becoming more and more frequent. In order to better promote friendly exchanges between Chinese and Western nations, eliminate cultural barriers and conflicts caused by cultural differences, and smoothly carry out cross-cultural communication, it is especially important to understand national cultures and characteristics, especially to study the translation of culture-loaded vocabularies.<br /> <br /> '''2 Definition, Classification and Translatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Since Professor Xu Guozhang (1980) published “Culture Loaded Words and English Language Teaching” in Modern Foreign Languages, the study of culture-loaded words has attracted great attention from the academic circles. However, scholars in China have different opinions on the definition of culture-loaded words. In his book Contemporary Western Translation Theory, Liao Qiyi (2000) argues that it “refers to the words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations.” This kind of vocabulary carries a lot of cultural information and is very regional and national, i.e. “culture-loaded words”. Some scholars inherited and developed Mr. Liao’s definition, for example, Hu Wenzhong (1999) pointed out that “culture-loaded words are vocabularies of a specific cultural category, which are directly or indirectly reflected in the vocabulary level of national culture”. Since then, some scholars have argued that culture-loaded words are the phenomenon of lexical vacancies, that is, cultural information in the source language cannot find a corresponding word in the target language.<br /> Culture-loaded words signify the changes of a country and a nation. In both domestic and foreign social life, culture-loaded words are a kind of words that cannot be ignored, which are conducive to the export of local culture and the introduction of foreign culture, so as to achieve the purpose of communication and integration between different cultures. The connotation of culture-loaded words determines that they have many distinctive features. The first characteristic is that it is very rich in meaning. In different contexts, it can express ever-changing and rich meanings. The second characteristic is that its usage is very flexible. It can not only play a significant role in longer and more complex sentences, but also play a similar role as a metaphor in short and sharp sentences. The third characteristic is that it is short and flexible. A few words can express a customary thing, so it can be applied separately to news and notifications, while ensuring that it does not deviate from the subject of news or notifications.<br /> '''2.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> The classification of culture-loaded words is as diverse as the definition of it, but most scholars classify culture-loaded words on the basis of cultural categorization. Wang Rongpei (2002) classifies culture-loaded words into eight categories based on various aspects of human life: political words, social words, color words, legendary allusion words, human body words, animal and plant words, food words, and other words. Based on the classification of cultural factors in language by the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Naida, Li Xuejun (2015) classifies culture-loaded words into material culture words, ecological culture words, linguistic culture words, social cultural words and religious culture words. The words themselves are characterized by generality, ambiguity and ethnicity in their meanings, an they are constantly changing with the development of society. The vocabulary is rich and the classification standards are difficult to unify, which hinders the classification of culturally loaded words.<br /> '''2.3 Translatability of Culture-loaded Words '''<br /> On the question of whether culture is translatable, Steiner, a well-known translation theorist, argues that “Human commonalities make translation possible” (2001: 259). Translatability and untranslatability is a crucial issue for translation studies to establish its principles and make it an independent discipline. Firstly, to deny the translatability of translation is essentially to deny the ability of language to express and describe the unknown. Secondly, untranslatability originates from the limited knowledge and ability of the translator, which is actually unknowable. Thirdly, translation cannot be classified as untranslatable just because it is difficult. The so-called untranslatable actually means that when the source language is translated into the target language, the loss of the source language is great. In addition, it is believed that only by understanding the differences between national cultures and acknowledging the translatability of culture-loaded words, can we effectively communicate with each other and achieve the goal of communication. Translatability is the mark of human language, and the development of human language and culture is built on the basis of translatability, without which there is no way to talk about human cultural exchange.<br /> Due to the great linguistic and cultural differences between the source culture and the translated culture, the translator can only translate on the basis of making the translation as close to the original as possible. The translation of culture-loaded words should follow the following principles (Liao Qiyi, 2000): a. the reproduction of the meaning of the original words is better than the reproduction of the form; b. the context in which the original words are used must be taken into account in the choice of words; c. the key implied meaning of the original words should be converted into non-implied meaning in the translation. All these principles require us to: a. translate the connotation of the original language; b. pay attention to the cultural context of the original language; c. transform the more difficult cultural vocabulary in the original text into easily acceptable vocabulary in the target language. In view of this, when dealing with culture-loaded words, it is important for the content of the translation to be faithful to the original, but the cultural connotation should be paid more attention to. A translation without cultural connotation will make the readers of a different language get a wrong understanding.<br /> '''3 Difficulties in the translation of culture-loaded words'''<br /> '''3.1 Differences in Worldview and Ideology'''<br /> Worldview refers to how people perceive the universe, nature, and how they perceive the relationship between humans and nature. As such, it affects all aspects of human perception, such as beliefs, ideas and behaviors. Chinese and Western cultures with different worldviews may contain different values and perceptions of the same objective thing. Generally speaking, China emphasizes unity, while the West emphasizes independence, which is the biggest difference between China and the West in terms of worldview. For example, the Chinese preach “harmony is precious” and advocate and glorify “collectivism”. However, Western culture focuses on individual independence, individual freedom and individual rights. It encourages people to realize and express themselves, believing that “everyone is unique”. <br /> '''3.2 Differences in the Natural and Geographical Environment'''<br /> Language is a reflection of the objective world in real life, and the environment in which people live produces the languages they speak. In the process of producing and developing a language, any nation is influenced to varying degrees by the geographical environment and climatic conditions in which it lives. Therefore, differences in the natural and geographical environment are also important factors in the formation of different culture-loaded words. For example, the true meaning of the phrase “east wind” and “west wind” in Chinese is very different from that in English. The “east wind” in the minds of the Chinese is warm and can make the grass and trees grow, similar to the spring wind. Because China’s topography is high in the west and low in the east, facing the sea in the east. In China, the east wind is given the cultural connotation of “vitality”, “spring”, “new life” and so on. In the Chinese winter, however, the northwest wind from Siberia is bitterly cold and harsh. In the West, for example, in the United Kingdom, the east wind comes from the northern part of the European continent and is extremely cold, while the west wind from the Atlantic Ocean is warm, humid and pleasant. This is why the famous English poet Shelley’s lyrical poem Ode to the West Wind appeared. <br /> '''3.3 Differences in Historical Culture'''<br /> There are significant differences in the historical culture backgrounds of China and the West. China’s feudal ruling system lasted for more than 3,000 years, and before 1840, China’s traditional philosophical thinking was mainly based on Confucianism, with the addition of Taoism. In the West, for example, the United Kingdom has been developing in the transition to capitalism since 1640. Due to the different historical development backgrounds of the two cultures, their cultural differences are also reflected in the use of words. For example, the English idiom “is it necessary to use a steam hammer to crack nuts?” means “no need to make a fuss”, which is equivalent to the Chinese saying “why use a cow's knife when killing a chicken? (杀鸡焉用牛刀)”. This idiom shows that Britain had entered the industrial age, while China was still in a backward production based on agriculture.<br /> '''3.4 Differences in Religious Beliefs'''<br /> China is a country that mainly believes in Buddhism, and Buddhism has a very wide influence in people’s social life. For example, the Chinese idioms “菩萨心肠”, “跑得了和尚跑不了庙”, “临时抱佛脚” and “借花献佛” are accompanied by connotations of Chinese culture, which are difficult for Westerners to understand. In the West, religion occupies an extremely important position in social life, thought and culture, and is one of the main characteristics of Western culture. For example, for the Chinese, the “End of World” can easily be understood as a terrifying moment when a catastrophe is imminent and mankind is about to be destroyed. However, for Westerners, it does not mean terror, but it means that one day the world will finally end, and everyone will accept God’s final judgment, which means that the time for justice is coming.<br /> '''4 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''4.1 Translation on the Macro Basis of the Values of the Source Language Region'''<br /> The word “worldview” encompasses a large category that reflects people’s understanding of the universe, the world, nature and the relationship between human beings and nature. At the same time, the influence of worldview is also very broad and significant. It affects people’s recognition of the value of things, and influences the way people perceive and think about things. Therefore, if someone want the translation of culture-loaded words to make the target readers feel the same as the readers in the source language, he or she should translate them on the premise of understanding the worldview and values of the source language.<br /> '''4.2 Explanation of the Social and Historical Background and Religious Culture'''<br /> The English-speaking countries of the West believe in the spirit and values transmitted by the ancient Greek and Roman cultures, while China mainly believes in the spirit transmitted by the Confucian culture, which also includes the spirit of Taoist culture. China has a history and culture of 5,000 years, more than half of which has been ruled by the feudal monarchy, while the feudal system in Western countries was established later and developed mainly towards capitalism after the Industrial Revolution. Such differences will be shown in the English vocabulary, so in the translation of culture-loaded words, explanation of the different social and historical backgrounds and religious and cultural beliefs is very necessary.<br /> '''4.3 Understanding of the Natural and Humanistic Environment'''<br /> The differences in the natural environment between the East and the West have a very important impact on the differences in English and Chinese culture-loaded words. For example, “east wind” in China means a good implied meaning, whereas “east wind” in the western population means desperate. It is mainly caused by geographical environment factors and climate factors in the east and west. The humanistic environment here refers mainly to customs and habits, and more specifically in the appellation of relatives and the use of honorific expressions. Easterners pay more attention to respect and courtesy, while Westerners emphasize equality.<br /> '''4.4 Guided by the Semantic Basis of the English-Chinese Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Through various comparative studies between English and Chinese, linguists have found that there are four main types of culture-loaded words: vacancy words, conflict words, reciprocity words and iterative words. Among them, iterative words are divided into two types, one is words with the same meaning but different shapes, and the other is words with the same shape but different meanings. For example, in English, “red” (红) is not only used as “red”, but also as “black” (black tea 红茶) and “brown” (brown sugar 红糖) in some fixed words. It is a common phenomenon that people associate the same word with different meanings. For example, in the West, the English word “dog” is used in a sentence describing a person to express praise. While from the Chinese people’s perspective, the word “dog” is often used in a derogatory way, such as “走狗” (flunky/lackey). <br /> '''5 Translation Models of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> Each language has many words that are used to express its own specific cultural concepts, and their signified is the clearest only in a particular cultural context. The problem of translation may arise once one moves out of a specific cultural context into one that is quite different from one’s own. The principle of translating culture-loaded mainly depends on the cultural background of the source language, the social background, the translator’s cultural concept and the cultural acceptance mentality of the targeted readers, and other factors, which are closely related and mutually reinforcing. In dealing with the translation of culture-loaded words, translators can take the following models.<br /> '''5.1 Go-ahead Model'''<br /> The go-ahead model refers to the direct entry of cultural expressions from the source language into the translation. Many cultural words are translated with the go-ahead model, which means that transliteration or literal translation is used in translation. There are transliterated words such as microphone, yin and yang, sofa, fans and the literal translation of words such as hot dog and three representations. <br /> '''5.2 Block Model'''<br /> The cultural expression of the source language fades away and its cultural meaning is not adopted by the targeted culture, which is the cultural block or block model. Some cultural words are blocked from the target language culture because of the limitation of language function. The most obvious example is some expressions that express self-effacement in Chinese, such as “鄙人”, “拙文” and “贵姓”. Even in the title of an article, people will often find expressions such as “浅谈”, “初探” and “刍议” to indicate one’s immature views. In addition, there are also some honorific expressions, such as “令堂”, “大作”, and “光临”, etc. When translating into English, the cultural connotations of such expressions can be appropriately reflected in the context of China, but it is not necessary to translate every word, i.e., the cultural connotations of the Chinese language can be blocked.<br /> '''5.3 Annotation Model'''<br /> Annotation model refers that the target language provides information about the cultural context of the source language cultural expression, that is, the method of interpretation of the target language provides a little but important context or situational information for foreign cultural concepts in the target language. For example, cynicism, as a foreign word, is one of the four major philosophical schools of ancient Greece, represented by the figure of Diogenes of Sinop. There is no existing equivalent in Chinese. At that time, the philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism seemed to behave, speak, act and even live in a way that was uninhibited, unscrupulous and shameless, but they were loyal, reliable, sensitive and clear-cut, which were very similar to some characteristics of dogs. So people call these philosophers or thinkers who practiced cynicism as “犬儒”. <br /> '''5.4 Integration Model'''<br /> The integration model refers to the fusion of cultural expressions in the source language and the target language, which enters the target language in a novel linguistic form. Obviously, the integration model is closely related to the openness of different cultures and the frequency of interaction. The terms “X-ray”, “typeB ultrasonic”, “T-shirt” and “Coca Cola” imported from the Western seem to be named directly in Chinese. This kind of translation method that integrates transliteration and free translation is undoubtedly an effective way for foreign culture to integrate into the target language culture.<br /> '''5.5 Adaption Model'''<br /> When the cultural expression of the source language is omitted and replaced by a translated one, the cultural meaning of the source language disappears, which is the process of adaption model. The domestication translation method aims to minimize the exoticism in the translation and provide a natural and smooth translation for the target language readers, according to Venuti (1995). The cultural domestication model is usually used together with the annotation model when it is used to translate cultural words. For example, the English expression for “拳击练习” is “shadow boxing”. If it is borrowed to express “太极拳” in Chinese, the word “Chinese” must be added before the expression to become “Chinese shadow boxing”.<br /> '''6 Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> '''6.1 Literal Translation: to Convey Cultural Connotations'''<br /> As the name implies, &quot;literal translation&quot; is the direct conversion of the meaning and structure of the source language words into the target language words, including literal translation and literal translation with annotations. Human beings live on the same earth, and although there are huge differences between Chinese and English national cultures, there are also certain similarities. For some Chinese-English culture-loaded words, the literal translation method can not only retain the cultural connotation of the source language words, but also transmit them to the target language culture, thus achieving the cross-cultural communication purpose of cultural exchange.<br /> There are many examples of literal translation in both Chinese and English languages, and almost no trace of translation can be seen, reflecting the successful fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. For example, “fast food” in English is directly translated as “快餐”, and “all roads lead to Rome” is translated as “条条大路通罗马”. In English, there are also vocabulary expressions directly translated from Chinese, such as “paper tiger (纸老虎)”, “one country, two systems (一国两制)”, and “keep pace with the times (与时俱进)” and so on. The above examples vividly illustrate that appropriate literal translation of culture-loaded words can not only maintain the unique national flavor of the source language vocabulary, but also enrich the vocabulary of the target language to a certain extent, provided that the literal translation does not cause misunderstanding among the target language readers.<br /> The Chinese traditional culture is broad and profound, and the Chinese language is full of words with strong cultural connotations. In order to better retain the connotation and flavor of these culture-loaded words, and to make the traditional culture of the Chinese nation acceptable to the whole world, the translators very often adopt the literal translation method for such words. For example, “四书” is translated as “Four Books”, “五经” as “Five Classics”, “文房四宝” as “Scholar’s Four Jewels”, “龙舟” as “Dragon Boat” and “剪纸” as “paper-cut”, and so on. This kind of literal translation can preserve the profound connotation and infinite charm of traditional Chinese culture in the process of cross-cultural communication between East and West.<br /> '''6.2 Free Translation: to Seek Functional Equivalence'''<br /> Due to different cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, there are many culture-loaded words with specific connotations in both Chinese and English languages, and if a literal translation is used, it is likely to cause misunderstanding among the target language readers and even cultural conflicts. Therefore, the translation of these words can be used to seek functional equivalence of the free translation method, without pursuing the language form of the source language, only to convey the meaning of the source language. As the name implies, free translation means translating according to the meaning of the words. The advantage of the free translation method is that the translator is not limited by the construction pattern of the words, and translators can translate by inferring the deeper meaning and cultural connotation of the words in the source language. Take the typical Chinese dishes with strong Chinese culture as an example, if the expressions such as “四喜丸子”, “醉蟹” and “红烧狮子头” directly translated into English in literal translation, they will definitely make foreign guests who do not understand Chinese culture feel more confused. Therefore, when translating the names of such Chinese dishes into English, the principle of free translation should be followed, indicating the ingredients and the method of preparation, so that foreigners can easily understand and accept them. For example, “红烧狮子头” could be translated as “braised pork ball in brown sauce”, “四喜丸子” as “braised pork balls in gravy” and “蚂蚁上树” as “vermicelli with spicy minced pork”, and so on.<br /> In addition, there are many idioms containing historical allusions in Chinese. Such culturally loaded words cannot find the corresponding cultural connotations in English. If they are literally translated, they will often find it difficult for target language readers who know little about Chinese history and culture. In this case, it is a wise choice for translators to adopt free translation. For example, “悬梁刺股” can be translated as “to be extremely hard-working in one’s study”, “东施效颦” as “crude imitation with ludicrous effect”, and “塞翁失马，焉知非福” as “a loss may turn out to be a gain”, and so on.<br /> By the same token, there are some words in English that are closely related to the characteristics of their national culture, but these words in Chinese do not have similar cultural connotations. In ancient England, the land was mainly ploughed by horses, so there are many slang expressions related to “horse” in English. However, the image of “horse” has no similar associative meaning in Chinese, so when translating from English to Chinese, one should only need to explain its meaning. For example, “horse doctor” can be translated as “蹩脚医生”, “horse sense” as “基本常识” and “work for a dead horse” as “徒劳无益”, and so on.<br /> '''6.3 Transliteration: to Preserve Cultural Identity'''<br /> Transliteration is a translation method that is parallel to literal translation and free translation, and it has an irreplaceable function in certain situations. According to Jin Huikang (2003), translators should not use words with different concepts because of vocabulary vacancies, and he points out that “the most prominent role of transliteration is that it can overcome the expression barriers brought about by linguistic and cultural gaps, bridge the two languages, spread foreign cultures, reduce the loss of information in translation, and thus promote language and cultural communication.” The two languages of Chinese and English have absorbed a large number of foreign words from each other, and these foreign words retain the unique cultural personality of the source language vocabulary. Foreign words are the inevitable product of cultural exchange and integration, and to a certain extent, they are the result of translators’ transliteration strategies in translation activities. The purpose of translation is to break through the language barrier between the source language and the target language and promote effective cross-cultural communication. Therefore, for some words carrying the cultural characteristics of the native language, the translator uses the translation strategy of transliteration or transliteration with annotation, which is effective in preserving the cultural characteristics of the source language words and integrating them into the cultural system of the target language, so that the target language readers can understand the foreign culture to the maximum extent and promote cultural intercommunication and integration.<br /> There are many words in Chinese that are directly transliterated from English culture-loaded words, such as “沙发” (sofa), “汉堡” (hamburger), “吉他” (guitar), “爵士” (jazz) and “麦克风” (microphone). Accordingly, there are a large number of culture-loaded words in Chinese that have been transliterated into English. Most of them are everyday words with Chinese cultural characteristics, cultural specific items and some words related to Chinese politics. For example, “tofu” (豆腐), “chowmein” (炒面), “litchi”(荔枝), “fengshui” (风水), “wushu” (武术) and “erhu” (二胡) in English are all directly transliterated from Chinese culture-loaded words.<br /> When some vocabularies are first introduced into the English context, the target language readers are not familiar with their cultural connotations, so it is difficult for them to be understood only by transliteration. Therefore, the method of transliteration with annotation is adopted, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese words through transliteration, but also enables the target language readers to clearly understand their meanings through annotation. With the in-depth development of cross-cultural communication between East and West and the increase of Western understanding of Chinese culture, the annotation of these culture-loaded words can be omitted and only transliteration can be used. For example, for the Chinese term “阴阳”, translators initially adopted the strategy of transliteration with annotation to translate it, that is, “yin and yang, the two opposing principles in nature, the former feminine or negative, the latter masculine or positive”. Nowadays, most western readers have already understood the cultural connotation of “阴阳”, so many translators directly transliterate it as “yin and yang”.<br /> '''7 Conclusion'''<br /> Culture is national, special and complex. As a special linguistic phenomenon, “culture-loaded words” are rich in cultural connotations and record the influence and penetration of a nation on language in various aspects. This poses a challenge to translators, who are required to be flexible in dealing with culture-loaded words. American scholar Venuti (1992) advocates the use of resistant translation to reveal the gap between the original culture and the target culture, in contrast to the previous reader-centered domestication or transparent translation methods. When translating culture-loaded vocabularies,the original culture should be taken as the core, and the national characteristics of the original culture should be preserved in the translation process, which is respectful of the original culture on the one hand, and meets the requirements of translation standards on the other hand.<br /> In a word, the go-ahead model, block model, annotation model, integration model and adaption model are effective translation models for culture-loaded words; literal translation, free translation and transliteration are effective translation strategies for overcoming culture-loaded word translation barriers. As to which translation model and translation strategy to choose, the translator should make a decision at the right time according to different situations. Every model and strategy has its advantages and limitations, but the translator should be flexible in choosing the right one to make the translation as meaningful and effective as possible.<br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> *Chunyan XIANG. On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words[J]. Canadian Social Science, 2016, 12(6).<br /> *Hua S. An Interpreting Study of Chinese Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Relevance-Adaptation Model[J]. Language and Translation, 2012, 1.<br /> *Lin Yuewu,Yang Qin. An Investigation into the Culture-Loaded Words Learning by English Majors in a Vocational College in China[J]. English Language Teaching, 2015, 8(8).<br /> *Juan Bai. A Brief Analysis of Culture-Loaded Words C-E Interpretation Based on the Interpretive Theory--Taking the COVID-19 Chinese-English Glossary as an Example[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3(8).<br /> *Steiner, G. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2001: 259.<br /> *Venuti, L. (ed.). Rethinking Translation[M]. London &amp; New York: Routledge, 1992: 12-13.<br /> *Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation[M]. Routledge, 1995: 19-20.<br /> *陈喜荣. 从功能语法语境理论看文化负载词的翻译[J]. 外国语文, 1998 (1): 96-100.<br /> *胡文仲. 跨文化交际学概论[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 1-7.<br /> *景芳, 段成. 从语域理论视角浅谈文化负载词的翻译[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2017(03): 110-116.<br /> *金惠康. 跨文化交际翻译[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.<br /> *李雪君. 以汉、英“水”语义对比研究为例看跨文化交际背景汉语文化负载词的教学[D]. 兰州: 西北师范大学, 2015.<br /> *廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]. 南京: 译林出版社, 2000: 232, 236.<br /> *宋洁. 英汉文化负载词图式对比及翻译[J]. 广西民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 2016, 38(06): 172-176.<br /> *汪榕培. 英语词汇学高级教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002: 67-69.<br /> *郑德虎. 中国文化走出去与文化负载词的翻译[J]. 上海翻译, 2016 (02): 53-56.</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies&diff=110220 2020-12-11T13:18:38Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> =Acknowledgement=<br /> I am indebted to the more than 300 students of the Master Course &quot;Introduction to Translation Studies&quot; conducted in the two fall terms 2019/2020 and 2020/2021 at Hunan Normal University, Foreign Studies College. They have enriched this monograph with their ideas, their creativity and the top students even have contributed short passages to this book on single aspects. They have also helped to arrange that the monograph could appear in different languages simultaneously.<br /> The Foreign Studies College is one of the top places of Translation and Interpreting Studies in China.<br /> =Foreword=<br /> Interpretation theories and interpretation studies are as old as human languages, since interpretation practise is not just necessary between full fledged languages, but is practised as soon as two different individuals meet, like a grandmother and her grandchild. The first lay interpreters naturally reflected on their interpreting work and this was the start of theories and studies. As soon as written language was invented, critical reflection also started and with it translation theories and translation studies.<br /> <br /> The first thoughts about transponing the meaning of one language into a similar one of another language were prescriptive with precepts and principles, sometimes exaggerated into dogma and people not adhering to them being tortured or murdered.<br /> <br /> In the 1960s, the translation studies started to become aware of itself as an academic discipline.<br /> =Introduction=<br /> <br /> =The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation=<br /> <br /> =Western Translation Theories=<br /> =='''Impacts of Western Translation Theories on The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' In the west, studies on translation practices and theories have walked through the recorded history of over two thousand years, during which there exist various characters, theories, schools of translation, exerting great influences on translators an translating activities at present. The book ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' has discussed the “Chinglish” by English learners and translators in China. The author’s outlooks on translation also have shown the ideologies of western translation theories.<br /> <br /> '''Keywords:''' Western translation theories; Translation history; Translator’s Guide to Chinglish; <br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''据记载，西方翻译理论与实践的历史已达两千余年，这其中不乏各大翻译家、翻译理论和翻译流派等，他们都对如今的翻译工作者和翻译活动产生了深远的影响。《中式英语之鉴》这本书讨论了中国英语学习者和翻译工作者的“中式英语”问题。作者在此书中的观点体现着西方的翻译理论思想。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''西方翻译理论；翻译史；《中式英语之鉴》<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Translating sets forth on its journey a long time ago. It has been over 2200 years since Livius Andronicus translated Homer’s Odyssey from Greek into Latin around 250 BC, which is the earliest activity of translating from recorded history. Throughout history, translation is not only involved in politics,culture, religion, language and so forth, but also keeps changing as times and social conditions roll on. On grounds of the changes of targets and contents of translation history, considering the specific periods of people’s apprehension of translation and the roles translation plays in society of different times, researchers divided the history of western translation into 3 parts, translation of religious materials, translation of literary classics and translation of non-literary materials. <br /> <br /> The division of western translation history varies from person to person in circles of translation. Generally speaking, from about 250 BC when people translated ''Septuagint'' into Greek to the 16th century when the translation of the Bible prevailed, it is the historical period of translating religious materials, followed by period of translation of literature mainly from literary classics and great works of social sciences.(Wu &amp; Shu 2011:76) After the Second World War, however, translation of non-literary and practical materials began to exert influence as a major force. <br /> <br /> In the west, studies on translation practices and theories have walked through the recorded history of over two thousand years, which is very close to the one in China. Nevertheless, China had made little progress with translation studies because of closed-door policy. Before years around 1980s, the systematic study on theories of western translation had been left incomplete in China, where few books and papers related were published. And even in the western countries, there existed similar situations. However, studies on theories of western translation has made appreciable development since 1980s, especially the books on history of western translation theory written by Rener, Robinson, etc. These books and materials are indisputably of great value for us to take a closer look at theories of western translation, yet it is very hard for people of Chinese cultures to search, unearth and analyse the history of translation theories in the backgrounds of western cultures. As Tan Zaixi put it in his book ''The Brief History of Western Translation'', “From ancient times, translation in the west has been proceeding for over two thousand years, along with extraordinary translators and divergent theories, which can not be expound within twenty or thirty thousand words.”(Tan 1991:1) And for translation studies as a independent discipline, it is a very meaningful job to study translation and its theories from all over the world, which includes the western translation theories. <br /> <br /> Accordingly, while studying the history of western translation theories, we must understand the necessity of describing the development of western translation theories in a proper way and figure out how they are classified, especially for theories of modern and contemporary times. Based on the fundamental way of studying translation or ideologies of various schools, now people would usually divide translation studies into literary school, linguistic school and cultural school. The literary school includes the traditional philological approach and the hermernutic approach; the linguistic school consists of the equivalence approach, the functional approach and the cognitive approach; the cultural school covers translation studies approach, deconstruction approach, feminism approach, post-colonial approach and the integrated approach, of which translation studies approach can be further divided into polysystem theory, the norm theory and the manipulation theory. By contributing new thoughts to this discussion, the study aims to reach more consensus among translation studies scholars in this aspect.<br /> <br /> '''II. School Classification''' <br /> <br /> Beyond dispute, it’s practicable that people describe the history of western translation theories by dividing them into different schools in light of theories and ideologies of translation studies. With the modernization and integration of economy in western society, western translation theories also begin to get over the hurdles in the way of mutual development and blur the distinction among nationalities, which makes it harder to owe some ideology or theory of translation to a certain country or area. For instance, Gideon Toury was famous in the west but lived in Israel. In contrast, when some ideology or theory is proposed by someone in some place, it can probably be responded to or supported by scholars from all corners of the world. They hold it up totally out of agreement with the points someone makes, not necessarily where the points come from. Another example, Eugene A. Nida, who put forward the idea of “functional equivalence”, is American, but Kade, who is his supporter, comes from German. Therefore, it might be easier to understand the present situation and trends of western translation theories from levels of translation schools and ideologies, especially for theories of contemporary and modern times.<br /> <br /> As one would expect, it is just one of the methods to classify western translation theories on the basis of translation schools or ideologies. From a perspective of historical development, it would be a more traditional way to classify western translation theories by times and nations. This diachronic way of studying it helps to organize the historical materials clearly and make profitable comparisons among traditions and characteristics of translation theories among western countries and regions, which enables people to understand the distribution and trends of western translation theories with an open mind. On the other hand, the diachronic way also describes the divergence and amalgamation of western translation theories. To give an example, the debate between free and literal translation never ends during which the eclecticism occurred and then literal translation was overtaken by free translation; the transfer from regarding the words as translation units to viewing sentences, discourses and even the whole passages as translation units... and so on. Despite that, as for studies on western translation theories, it is not the best way to do it only by a certain means. If we completely choose the way of describing the history of western translation theories by dividing them into different schools in light of theories and ideologies of translation studies, the relation between translation theories and specific cultural environment of society may be ambiguous and so is the relation between diachronic and synchronic development of translation. If we only decide on a more traditional way to classify western translation theories by times and nations, our research and description will inevitably be in need of subjects of translation theories. To avoid such deficiencies, we must adopt a way combining both means mentioned above to study western translation theories. In other words, we must take into consideration not only the historical connection between theories and ideas of translation but also the relation of translation theories with the specific social and cultural environment. Only by doing so, our research would be able to describe the whole process of western translation theories from an objective perspective. <br /> <br /> From what we have mentioned above, we view western translation theories from two sides. First, we view it from the respect of historical development steadily. Cicero, was the first translation theorist in the west during times of Roman empire. As a rhetorician and orator, he categorized translation into ones by “ut interpres” and “ut orator” for the first time. Translation by “ut interpres” means translation of no creativity but translation by “ut orator” means translation of creativity which may even rival the original. As a matter of fact, Cicero put forward two fundamental ways of translating and pioneered the study of theories and methods of translation. Since Cicero’s studies on translation, western translation theories have been dealing with arguments between free translation and literal translation, word-for-word translation and excessively free translation, faithfulness and unfaithfulness and so forth. <br /> <br /> Besides Cicero, there are an abundance of excellent translation theorists in western translation history, who have proposed assorted theories and ideas from different angles in different times. In ancient times, aside from Cicero’s categorization of “literal translation” and “free translation”, Marcus Fabius Quintlianus thought that the target ought to compete with the original; St. Jerome believed that people were supposed to follow the rules of literal translation when translating ''the Bible'' and use free translation when it came to literary classics; St. Augustine held the view that translation was inspired by God. In the Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius promoted the literal translation that would rather keep “faithful” than “elegant”; Dante was of the opinion that “works of literature are untranslatable”. During the Renaissance, Desiderius Erasmus believed that translation was not a subjection to authority of religious beliefs and translation of ''the Bible'' depended on the language of a translator; Martin Luther held the view of humanism that texts must be rendered in the people’s language; Etienne Dolet reckoned that people translated on “five principles” of understanding the content of the original, being proficient in the original language and the target language, avoiding word-for-word translation, expounding in simple languages and focusing on the style of the target text. From the 17th to 19th century, Charles Batteux was of the opinion that author was the master and translator was the servant, whose work were not allowed to be amplified, to omit and change the wording of the original; John Dryden categorized translating into metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation and he thought translation was some kind of art; Tytler put forward three principles that the target reflected the ideas exactly the original conveyed, the style and skills the target used should be of the same characteristics of the original and the target should be as expressive as the original; Friedrich Schleiermacher made a distinction between translation and interpretation, literal translation and mechanical translation; Humboldt believed his theories that language decided the translatability and untranslatability of the world; Matthew Arnold thought whether a translation was good or not depended on the experts; Francis W. Newman had the idea that it were common readers, not the experts,who determined the criteria of translation. In the 20th century, we have Fedolov’s theories that people should study translation theories from linguistics first and translation theories is categorized into history, introduction and arguments of translation; we have Roman Jakobson’s three classification of interlingual translation, intralingual translation and intersemiotic translation; we have Levy’s thoughts that “translating should make reader have an illusion of the original”, “translating is a deciding process”; we have Gachechiladze’s theories on literary translation that “translation is always a artistic and realistic reflection of the original” and “ translation of literature and art is a artistic work”; we have Carford’s theories of linguistics that translation should reach an equivalence of context; Nida thought “translating is a science”, “translating is communicating” and there exists equivalence between the readers of the original and the target; Mounin’s view of modern linguistics on translation theories; Paul Valery emphasized that the target needed to break the limits of the original. All the thoughts and ideas mentioned above have constituted the most essential parts of western translation theories.<br /> <br /> Furthermore, we could look at the whole system of western translation theories from the other side, which is the schools of ideology. There are two branches of it: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. The school of translation of literature and art stems from the early drama by Terentius in Ancient Rome, ucceeded by Levy and Gachechiladze in modern times, and continues to thrive in the 21st century. People of this branch perceive translation as a kind of literary art, which draws attention to recreation of literature. Theorists have been discussing the defects and merits between faithfulness and unfaithfulness, word-for-word translation and excessively free translation, literal translation and free translation and so on. Besides, they also foreground the purposes and effects of translation. They stress both the original and the literary attributes of the language of it., as well as the idiomatic expression and tradition of literature of the original that people must respect whiling translating. They not only zero in on the style and literariness of the text very much but the talent of literature a translator or interpreter should possess. The school of linguistic theories of translation is from Augustine and people of traditional linguistics or philology in Ancient Rome to various schools of modern linguistics in the 20th and 21st century. For this situation, the core lies in language. People of this school, who think that the goal of translating is to reach the equivalence between the original and the target, combine translation theories with analysis of semantic and syntactic functions and talk on issues of translation from the characteristics of structure and sentence-making skills of a language so as to show how the equivalent texts are made from words, grammars and other features of a language. <br /> <br /> From either branches we can see that they have their own advantages and disadvantages. Translation theories of literature and art give an emphasis to the purposes and results of translating and the artistic effects from a macroscopic view, but neither pay much heed to practical process of translating and skills of using a language nor care about whether the target and the original reach the equivalence of structures. Linguistics theories of translation is also not spotless because some theories don’t stress the aesthetic functions and ignore the recurrences of works of literature and art. They mostly focus on the structure of a language to and theoretically are limited to word, sentence or syntax only, which disregards the main structure of a text and the structure of discourse and the cultural features to a larger extent.<br /> <br /> However, no matter it is the branch of translation theories of literature and art or linguistics theories of translation, they are not completely isolated but complement each other. Although either of two branches has its own shortcomings, there is no translation theorist of literature and art who could talk about the artistic value of literary works divorced from linguistic issues; there is no theorist of linguistics who could be immersed in linguistic structures of a text without issues of aesthetics.<br /> <br /> '''III. About ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'''''<br /> <br /> Joan Pinkham, a professional translator from the U.S., published the book ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' in 2000. She worked for the Foreign Languages Press and Central Compilation and Translation Bureau in China for 8 years from 1980s to 1990s. It is one of the few books by westerners that systematically discuss the “Chinglish” issues in China. In the years working for the Foreign Languages Press and Central Compilation and Translation Bureau, her job was to revise and polish the drafts from Chinese translators, which was inevitably affected by Chinese and mindset of Chinese people. For that reason, Pinkham got to know many English translations with “Chinese characteristics” and wrote this book. ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' consists of three parts, Unnecessary Words, Sentence Structure and Supplementary Examples, which reveal lots of mistakes Chinese translators tend to make. <br /> <br /> First of all let’s take a look at examples given in the fist chapter:<br /> <br /> promoting the cause of peaceful reunification;<br /> <br /> reforms in the sphere of economy;<br /> <br /> to ensure a relationship of close cooperation between.<br /> <br /> Phrases like these can often be seen in some English papers or periodicals and they seem to make sense to English learners or translators in China. But the author regards them as negative examples in the first chapter of the first part, Unnecessary Nouns. The author mentioned that “Many of these nouns are easy to recognize. They are plainly redundant because their sense is already included or implied in some other element of sentence.”(Liu 2002:34) in the book. Here the author perceives nouns like “cause”, “sphere” and “relationship” as “category nouns”, which are the general nouns that sever only to introduce a specific noun to follow. Let’s take the first phrase as an example. In such constructions, the first noun announces the category of the second; in this case, it tells the readers that “promoting” falls into the category of “cause.” That is something they already know. Accordingly, the first noun should be deleted: “ promoting peaceful reunification.”(Pinkham 2000:16) It is the same for other two examples. What’s more, the first chapter also involves “Unnecessary Verbs.” Examples are as follows:<br /> <br /> to bring about a change in this state of affairs;<br /> <br /> until China realizes its modernization;<br /> <br /> trying to entice the Korean army to launch an attack against them.<br /> <br /> “Like unnecessary nouns, most unnecessary verbs in Chinglish occur in phrases. Usually they are combined with nouns (plus the inevitable articles and prepositions that nouns bring with them).”(Pinkham 2000:34) The commonest type is phrases like these. As for “to bring about a change in this state of affairs”, here the verb (“bring about”) is a weak, colorless, all purpose word having no very specific meaning of its own, while the real action is expressed in the noun(“change”). Since the verb is not contributing anything to the sense, it can be edited out: “change this state of affairs.” <br /> <br /> In the second chapter, the author talks about Unnecessary Modifiers, which is not a problem easy to cope with for Chinese translators because it covers the issue of whether they should be used and using the modifiers properly. Five types of unnecessary modifiers are listed, redundant modifiers, self-evident modifiers, intensifiers, qualifiers and cliches. But the author especially points out that it is not appropriate to revise some accepted phrases, which are related to some national policies, even if they have unnecessary modifiers in the sentences, because this may cover political affairs. <br /> <br /> In the third and forth chapter the author talks on Redundant Twins and Saying the Same Thing Twice. For instance, views and opinions, help and assistance, stir up and incite, sentiments and feelings, prudent and cautious. The author classifies the redundant words into three groups according to the relation between synonyms and clauses and offers corresponding reversion. And she adds that examples of redundant synonyms are too many to list even for native English speakers; for example, rules and regulations, bits and pieces, by leaps and bounds, betwixt and between, by hook or by crook, huffing and puffing. After centuries of development, these phrases are now accepted by native English speakers or learners probably because of their jaunty alliteration or rhythm. But the author believes that these phrases unavoidably “exert an influence not only on native speakers of English (including foreign polishers) but on Chinese translators as well, reinforcing the habits of their own language. No doubt this influence contributes to the abundance of twins in Chinglish.”<br /> <br /> The first chapter of the second part is mainly about The Noun Plague. Here the author shows a draft: “The prolongation of the existence of this temple is due to the solidity of its construction.” She also gives a revision: “The temple has endured because it was solidly built.” The first version contains four abstract nouns, while the second has none. Not only do the nouns make the statement nearly twice as long, but they also make it pretentious, wooden and hard to understand.(Pinkham 2000:56) Yet, the author doesn’t think that “noun plague” only occurs in Chinglish but in English by native speakers, especially in theses and government documents where abstract nouns can often be seen, because they want their theses or documents to seem more “authoritative” or “scientific.” The author thinks this is a dangerous trend which we should all fight against. And she advocates to use more verbs, gerunds or adverbs instead of abstract nouns. From the eighth to the twelfth chapter, the author gives some instruction to tell English learners and translators in China how to get rid of the mindset of Chinglish by putting pronouns and antecedents first, then the adjuncts and its purposes, in a logical way. The eighth chapter discussed the improper collocation of pronouns and antecedents. In this condition, personal pronouns, relative pronouns or demonstrative pronouns show up without antecedents or are too far away from antecedents. This is exactly what the uncertainty and lack of rigor of Chinese has brought about. The ninth chapter mainly talks about where we should set phrases or clause in an English sentence. The author is of the opinion that translators should pay attention to where the phrases or clauses are in a sentence so that the logic is clear and key points are highlighted. She also thinks that the phrases or clauses ought to modify what is close to them, otherwise in the sentence may occur the illogical parts. In addition, to stress the key points, the most important information should be imparted at the end of a sentence. <br /> <br /> '''IV. Discussion'''<br /> <br /> From Introduction and School Classification, we have leaned that in western translation history, there are traditionally two branches: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. In 1959, the book, ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' by Roman Jakobson, analyzed comprehensively the relation bewteen language and translation, the importance of translation and some existing problems of translating from an angle of linguistics, which had made groundbreaking contribution to linguistics theories of translation. Eugene A. Nida put forward a concept of “Translating is science” and he also applied Theory of Communication into translation on the basis of linguistics, believing that translating is communicating. He proposed the principle of “Dynamic Equivalence” and further submitted “Functional Equivalence” from the perspective of social linguistics and communicative function of language, which was instrumental in modern history of translation theories in the west as well. Nonetheless, Nida’s theories paid too much heed to content rather than form. To make up the deficiency, Peter Newmark put forward “Communicative Translation” and “Semantic Translation.” The former aimed at restructuring the language of the target in order to make it expressive and underline the effects of information; the latter emphasized the formal resemblance between the original and the target. From theories and ideas above, the core issue they care about is how the source language is transferred into the target language and “equivalence” is what they have in common. Katharina Reiss, Hans Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord from Germany started to use communicative theories, theories of communication, discourse linguistics and ideology of aesthetics to switch the focus of their studies from source texts to target texts, which made it an influential school in international translation circles. In 1971 in the book ''Translation and Limitations in Translation Criticism'', Reiss’s functional theories of translation was in embryonic state, where she believed that translation should reach equivalence in respects of conceptual content, forms of language and communication and name it “integral communicative performance.” In practice, however, she realized that the equivalence was not what people expected so relation between function of the original and the target was the priority. Hans Vermeer proposed skopos theory for that matter, which looked on translating as a process with purposes and results of the original. The skopos theory has three rules: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Skopos rule is considered as the primary one. It means that in the context and culture of target language, translation ought to work in a way exactly the recipient of target language expects and the purpose of translation actions determines the whole process of translating, that is, “the end justifies the means.” Coherence rule is that translation must accord with the standard of intratextual coherence, which means that translation has readability and acceptability to the recipient and makes sense in communicative context and culture of the target language. The fidelity rule means that there exists intertextual coherence between the original and the target. This is actually what other theories have talked about faithfulness in translation but the faithfulness depends on the purpose of the target and how translator understand the original. <br /> <br /> Here we also have talked about the book The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish. This book has discussed some problems English learners and translators in China have in grammar and vocabulary. For discourse and semantics, there also exits some issues. And the author is American who has the typical mindset of the west and is able to find out some problems of translation by Chinese translators. And the author tends to revise those translations in an aspect of linguistics theories of translation. For example:<br /> <br /> the editorial calls on the Chinese people to fully implement the CPC’s basic line, deepen reform and further opening to the outside, so as to further push forward the political, economic and social development of the country in a steady way;<br /> <br /> The author revises it into:<br /> <br /> the editorial calls on the Chinese people to implement the CPC’s basic line, deepen the reform, and promote the opening to the outside, so as to steadily push forward the political, economic and social development of the country.<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “fully” is deleted because the author thinks it is unnecessary for its sense can be taken for granted: policies should always be fully carried out. If the word conveys something more specific in Chinese, that must be spelled out for the reader of English. We must say, for example, “to implement CPC’s basic line in all its aspects,” or “in every respect.” As for “further”, it is obvious that at this point in history any push given to development will be a “further” push. The repetition of “further” in the draft is particularly undesirable because the word is used in two different senses. It appears first as a verb (“to further opening”), then immediately after as an adverb (“to further push ahead”), so that the reader is obliged to go back and read the sentence again in order to make sense of it.(Pinkham 2000:74)<br /> <br /> Even though the author doesn’t talk on any translation theories directly in her book, her discussion on Chinglish and the revision she offers do involve some translation criteria, for example, domestication and foreignization. Translating is the transfer process from one language to another, during which it carries wide backgrounds of culture. To be specific, it is also the process of transferring cultures among each one. In general, there are two ways when it comes to this process: domestication and foreignization. Domestication is that features of the original are abandoned, that is to say, characteristics of translation follow ones of the target, which would, to some degree, make it easier to understand for recipients of the target language and contributory to culture exchanges. Foreignization is that translator translates in a way the original does, translation remaining characteristics of the original language. <br /> <br /> <br /> The author defines “Chinglish” as “Chinglish, of course, is that misshapen, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese but that might be described as ‘English with Chinese characteristics’”in the book. And she also points out that “this book is intended to help them turn their work into real English such as might have been written by an educated native English speaker of the language.” It means that the author is in favor of domestication during the process of translating. Here’s an another example: <br /> <br /> we should draw up correct development and construction plans for all these zones;<br /> <br /> The author revises it into:<br /> <br /> we should draw up correct plans for the development of all these zones.<br /> <br /> The author thinks that two large abstractions plainly used here mean the same thing. And to avoid using the noun “development” as an adjective, we should say: “ for the development of all these zones.” That would be the simplest, most natural word order in English.(Pinkham 2000:87)<br /> <br /> '''V. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> In summary, ''A Brief History of Western Translation Theories'' by Tan Zaixi recounts the history of western translation theories from ancient times by introducing main characters, translation works, translation schools and other events in the west in historical stages. The book also takes preliminary analysis and discussion into development between theories and practices of translation. There are two different directions in terms of translation theories in the west: translation theories of literature and art and linguistics theories of translation. The former one extends from the ancient dramas to modern translations. In this regard, translation is considered as literary art, which focuses on recreation of the original. Theorist mostly emphasize culture, style and literariness of the target and the literary talent of the translator. The latter direction is linguistics theories of translation, which combine theories with semantics and syntax, and believe that translating should reach semantic equivalence between the original and the target through vocabulary, grammar and skills of using a language. In the long term, linguistics theories of translation has had predominance of studies of modern translation theories. Theorists hold the view that translation studies ranges from applied linguistics and contrastive linguistics and is closely related to semantics, along with literature and art studies, sociology, anthropology, psychology, theories of communication and so forth. <br /> <br /> ''The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish'' by Joan Pinkham summarizes the evidence of the common issues in English translation, which are ones translators in China are usually neglectful of. As Jacques Barzun, Dean of the Graduate Faculties of Columbia University, put it, “The clarity of her explanation is equaled only by the deftness with which she states the point of the English usages and the simplicity of the revisions made in faulty sentences. I know of no books as well adapted as hers to the needs of clumsy writers.” Even though the author doesn’t talk on any translation theories directly in her book, her discussion on Chinglish and the revision she offers do involve some translation criteria and the author tends to uphold domestication in this book. And we can’t deny that as a professional translator from America, with the typical western mindset, the author is inevitably influenced in the spectacular background of western translation history. More importantly, the two books this article refers to have demonstrated that theories must be applied into practice, guide practice and reveal the objective patters inside translating, otherwise theories would lose its vitality.<br /> <br /> '''References:'''<br /> <br /> [1]巫阿苗,束学军.西方翻译理论流派划分探索.[J].合肥工业大学学报.2011.12.25<br /> <br /> [2]谭载喜.西方翻译简史.[M].北京.商务印书馆.1991.05<br /> <br /> [3]刘银燕.中式英语, 你在使用吗?——《中式英语之鉴》评介.[J].外语教学.2002.09.30<br /> <br /> [4]-[8] Joan Pinkham.The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish. [M].北京。外语教学与研究出版社.2000.05<br /> <br /> 主要参考书目:《西方翻译简史》、《中式英语之鉴》<br /> <br /> =Derrida and Benjamin=<br /> =='''Comparison of Derrida’s and Benjamin’s Translation View'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract：'''In western traditional translation view, conveying the meaning is the first aim. However, in Benjamin’s eye, this is an agreement of language non-identity, which does no good to the development of linguistic development. Benjamin has used the non-identity of language to overturn the ideas that view language as a tool. In this way, he has been regarded by many scholars as the forerunner who rebelled against the western logocentrism. He also did quite a lot contribution to the development of translation and his idea of pure language can be called the most well-known feature of him. While another dominate figure of deconstructivism is Derrida who has put logocentrism under great challenge. He’s no doubt one of the representatives of deconstructivism and he has created many concepts like différance, dissemination, trance etc., which serves not only in linguistics, philosophy but also in translation.<br /> In the history of western translation, Benjamin has always been classified as a member of deconstructivism. However, compared with another leading figure of deconstructivism, he has totally different understanding on translation. This essay is trying to undergo the comparison study between the two predominant figure’s comprehension on translation mainly through the aspects of pure language and difference, metaphrase and relevant translation, later life and rebirth of original texts. In the conclusion, we have concluded the comparison between the two figures’ attitudes towards five dimensions, respectively, original work, author, translator, translation work and translation criterion. At last we can find that in fact, Benjamin does not belong to deconstructivism.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Benjamin, Derrida, deconstructivism<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''在西方传统翻译观中，传递意义是首要目的。但是，在本雅明的眼中，这是对语言不一致性的认同。因此，这种传统的翻译观对于语言的发展并无益处。本雅明运用了语言的不一致性，并以此一举推翻了传统的观念，人们认为语言知识一种工具。通过这种方式，本雅明被视为众多学者中反抗西方逻各斯主义的先驱。他对翻译的发展做出了卓越的贡献，并且他纯语言的概念深入人心，成为他身上最闪亮的思想之一，也是他被众人所知的特点之一。然而另一位解构主义的大人物，德里达亦是以一己之力推翻西方的逻各斯中心主义。毫无疑问，他是解构主义的代表人物之一并且他也创造了“延异”，“播撒”，“痕迹”等概念。这些概念不仅仅推动了语言学、哲学的发展，也推动了翻译学的发展。<br /> 在西方翻译历史中，本雅明总是被划为解构主义者。但其实与另一位解构主义的大人物相比，他对于翻译有着自己完全不同的理解。 本文打算进行这两位巨人的翻译理论对比，主要通过以下方面：纯语言与差异性，直译与“relevant”翻译，后世生命与重生。在最后的总结部分，笔者从五个角度总结了两位巨人的不同态度，对于原作的态度，对于作者的态度，对于译作的态度，对于译者的态度和对于翻译标准的态度。最终，我们能够发现严格意义上来说，本雅明完全不属于解构主义学派。<br /> <br /> '''关键字：'''德里达，本雅明，解构主义<br /> <br /> '''1.Pure Language and Difference'''<br /> <br /> In its essence, translation is a kind of linguistic activity. Therefore, all translation theories involve linguistic issues. Benjamin has presumed a perfect original language as the origin of subsistent languages in real world after summarizing the deflects of subsistent languages. This original language is from God, and has full creativity and cognition, in which, language and spirit, meaning and form, signifier and signified have been united to show the truth through self-manifestation. Benjamin has pointed out that with the corruption of human, the language has no longer been one but multiple. Naming language has corrupted into the abstract conceptual language. '''(Cao Danhong 6)''' In this way, it descended to instrumental signs. It refers to things in various manual systems but it can never covey the universality through self-manifestation, so the relationship between the human and world has changed from the intersubjectivity into subject-object dichotomy where human dominates.'''(Wei Jiangang &amp; Sun Yingchun 75)''' In another word, due to language descended from the original “being” into lower “having”. Therefore, it has become the synonyms of “abstract”, “judgement” and “meaning”. Language has never been a medium but a kind of means used in communication of “subjects” '''(Wohlfarth 27)'''. As a result, meaning has been the external reference out of sign itself, instead of spirits of self-manifestation of pure language. And the relationship between signified and signifier is actually external instead of being original, direct and internal. Paul De Man has said that we think we use our language freely. We feel comfortable and familiar with the dwelling place within our language, in which we thought we weren’t alienated, but we don’t notice that this kind of alienation has been shown strongly in our relationship with our original language. It has been disintegrated already, which bring a special alienation, a peculiar pain. '''(Paul De Man, 99)'''<br /> <br /> Benjamin has set the transcendental existence of pure language in order to make the path of salvation to human clear, that’s to say to find the lost pure language is to unite the world together. Benjamin thinks that, all practical languages have a common origin and among themselves a kind of affinity that goes beyond the history. As, Benjamin once said, “The reference of pure language just like each language that exists as an entirety, is identical. However, this reference cannot be achieved through one single language, but through the complement of various languages” '''(Benjamin 61)''' That’s to say, if we want to reconstruct pure language, we have to eliminated the external relationship of linguistic reference and restore the identical relationship between spirit and language, which means to promote the linguistic reference of all languages to form an integral complementary, which call duty on translation. Only through translation can the mode of reference of source language enter into the target language. Therefore, to Benjamin, the significance of translation is not to covey the basic meaning and content of source language but the changes to both languages after translation, thereby translation can make us to know more about the differences and complementation of each language.<br /> <br /> What is different between Benjamin and Derrida is that Derrida has invented the concept of “la differánce&quot;, which uses infinitely flowing stream of meaning to overthrow the western logocentrism. Thereout, it has assured the translation view that advocates difference and opposes the identity. Derrida has pointed out that la differánce is the precondition of possibility of multiple meanings so that meaning is the result of its moving. While meaning cannot precedes la differánce, there would be no existence of pure and completely identical origin of meaning, just like what the Babel story reminds us. '''(Davis 10)''' In another word, as meaning is in la differánce so that there cannot be any conceptual or theoretic systems no matter it is in one language or in several languages. Meaning always presents its fluidity, uncertainty and diversity. We cannot make meaning independent of language nor can we make language independent of meaning. On the contrary, meaning is already in language so meaning is the linguistic meaning. Due to the language is so complicated, fickle, ambiguous and different with itself, thus, meaning is also unclear ambiguous and even mysterious. '''(Cai Xinle 200)''' What we can discuss is only the relationship of difference instead of the transcendental identity. In Derrida’s view, word is in a dynamic state, we can only understand it, describe it or listen to its voice in such a dynamic condition. If there is a starting point, the meaning will flow no more as it can be fixed in the very beginning. If we must establish an origin, the difference will be it. Derrida has regarded the difference as the origin, aiming to explain that in the very beginning where meaning formed, that’s to say the source has already had initial difference among meanings. The so-called purity has been contaminated and the source is rather complicated. '''(Zhu Gang 20)'''<br /> <br /> Derrida and Benjamin all oppose to structural linguistic view. What is different is that Benjamin opposed the human control and domination of language by emphasizing the identity of language and spirit. We’d rather to say that it’s opposed to structuralism but to the opposite relation between the subject and object. In essence, Benjamin is not against the concepts like structure, order, and center etc. He just opposes the structure, order and center etc. that are based on the interference to language done by the subject-object relationship, emphasizing that language will not be constrained by the fetter of any subject-object relationship. If we consider more carefully, he doesn’t disapprove the logocentrism completely as he just emphasizes that logocentrism cannot be constructed and learned by the subject and object relation. It must be built and realized by the way of unintentionality or the “presence” of logos will be delusive. On the contrary, Derrida is refusing any metaphysics during the process of his deconstruction of any conceptual system. In his opinion, Benjamin has not cast off the set pattern of logocentrism because Benjamin’s “Pure language” is still a construction of a concept, no matter how transcendental and absolute identity it is. Videlicet, if God were the person who deconstructs, we would see that rationality dominates everything and logos will be the deconstruction in the speaker’s status. It would not be the deconstruction of deconstruction. Once there is an unshakable center, logos will take the domination and everything will obey the authority in the center. Therefore, in order to avoid constructing any central system or structure, Derrida take the difference as the origin of everything. There will be no identity and everything is constantly reproducing and differentiating, so it presents nothing but difference. At any moment, it’s different from others as well as itself. In this way, the identity doesn’t exist. All we can observe is the dynamic stuff, which constantly changes.<br /> <br /> '''2. Metaphrase and Relevant Translation<br /> '''<br /> <br /> As Benjamin and Derrida has different linguistic view, their comprehension about the translation criterion are also different from each other’s. Benjamin thinks that in various languages, the ultimate essence, pure language, is only relevant to the linguistic factors and its changes. In linguistic works, it bears heavy alien meaning. Translation’s unique function is to make the pure language get rid of this heavy burden, to turn the symbolic action into symbolic objects itself, to make the pure language reoccur during the linguistic transition. '''(Benjamin, 67)''' In other words, real languages, without exception, refer to things externally. To recover the identity of language and spirit, we must let the language to break the shackle of meaning while the effects of translation are to make the two languages free of the heavy burden by making the modes of reference of the two languages complementary of each other. To judge whether translation of a work is successful is to observe the combination of signifier and signified of language. Benjamin thinks Hölderlin’s translation work is the perfect sample of for instance, his works are almost perfect transition of texts because they are absolutely literal translation and metaphrase but also not readable. It dismembered the sentences, leading to the consequence that meaning is missing. '''(Paul De Man 104)''' To Benjamin, the translation that gets the language out of the shackle of meaning, and makes the language manifest itself to covey the spirits is the best translation. Anyway, translation has to turn back to language itself, to the reference of language, to reach pure language commonly shared by the two languages by complementing the modes of reference of source language and target language. Benjamin declares that the interlinear version of Babel is the prototype of all translation due to the reason that Babel is the words of God, which are so true that language identifies with spirit. <br /> <br /> Derrida is totally different from Benjamin’s proposition that he proposes the relevant translation. In general, “relevant” is the best translation in Derrida’s view, which is also the sort of translation expected by people. It’s a kind of translation that fulfills its duty and finishes its mission. It’s that kind of translation that finds the most comparatively accurate words for the expressions in the source text, that language used is the most correct, appropriate, relevant, direct and apropos… Obviously, Derrida is trying to use a series of words to set standard for the best translation or the ideal translation. What’ a pity is that many scholars believe the literal meaning that such is what set by Derrida, ignoring the implication. '''(Wang Yingchong 15)''' However, if we reflect on the “relevant”, we can hardly make what it means clear, and Derrida himself has made no ostension on “relevant”, thus, this is actually the word game of Derrida that meaning being not assured makes translation impossible. With the trick of the untranslatability of the word “relevant”, Derrida implies the deconstruction of his standard of translation. What Derrida really wants to express is that if there was a standard of translation, and the standard would work as the same, then would the standard still support itself? The untranslatability of “relevant” has already told us the untranslatability, not mentioning the translation standard. In Derrida’s point of view, meaning is already the delayed presence, leading to the result that translation is a debt that translator can never pay off, a mission that translator can never finish. Therefore, can text really not be translated?<br /> <br /> Derrida says that we have to know what relevant translation is, what relevant translation means and what the essence of translation is, its mission, ultimate purpose and final mission. On one hand, relevant translation, no matter wrong or right, is generally better than irrelevant translation, and is likely to be viewed as the best translation. The definition of translation skopostheorie and the definition of the essence of realization in translation are contained in the definition of relevant translation. Therefore, the question that what relevant translation is goes back to what translation is or what should the translation be. While what the translation should be seems to be equal to what the possible best translation would be. '''(Derrida 429)'''<br /> <br /> Therefore, Derrida’s discussion about the standard of translation goes back to the translatability and untranslatability. Actually, what Derrida wants to prove is that translation itself is a paradox, that is, just in the untranslatability can translation exist and go on. The original text always owes to translation, and constantly summons translation, and in a larger sense, anything meaningful calls for interpretation. '''(Wang Yingchong 17).''' Whereas, the good translation or the translation standard can only be discussed in absolute translatability; pursuit of translation in absolute untranslatability will be nonsense, and it can only be infinitely approached but never reached as once it become absolute translatability, which means translation presents the meaning in limitless differánce in presence, the identity occurs, then the translation will be unnecessary. <br /> <br /> In short, Derrida and Benjamin have different view on translation. Benjamin worships metaphrase through which two languages can supplement each other’s referential pattern to manifest the pure language, whose spirits are the best translation. While Derrida plays a small fraud that he sets relevant translation as translation criterion but he doesn’t make it clear, in which way he indicates his ideas of untranslatability and that pursuit of translation in absolute untranslatability will be nonsense, and it can only be infinitely approached but never reached.<br /> <br /> '''3. Afterlife and Rebirth<br /> '''<br /> <br /> Benjamin also differs most from Derrida in the insight of the relationship between the original work and translation work. In Benjamin’s perspective, the purpose of translation is to promote the complementation of referential modes of different languages so as to restore the identity. Therefore, translation work is never the copy or reappearance of the original work, but the supplement and succession of the original work and in turn, original work can only rely on its translation work to refresh its vitality and go on its subsistence. The relationship of the two can only be understood in the whole purpose of realizing pure language. What Benjamin expects is through constant translation, we can make the referential modes of original work and translation work interflow until we exhaust all the referential modes to realize the final identity of language and spirit in entity. To the relationship of original work and translation work, Benjamin interprets from the perspective of organism and survival. Various forms of life closely correlate with biological phenomena though it has no great significance to biological phenomena. Translation work grows out of original work or we’d rather say it originates from the afterlife. Due to the fact that original work precedes the translation work, and in the range of world literature, no great works meets a perfect translator when its author is still alive, so translation work only marks the continuity of the original work. '''(Benjamin 76)<br /> '''<br /> Benjamin has regarded the original work as vigorous organism so that translation is views as the continuity of original work, which is also the afterlife of original work. Benjamin stresses that life is a historical concept instead of the existential concept. Life doesn’t limit within biological body. Only when we view life as a historical process of organism survival, can the concept of life be understood correctly. With this sense, translation work being the continuity of original work can be comprehended. Those that was flashy will corrupt and those that was fashionable will become old. So does the linguistic form. The linguistic form of the original work will die out with time passing by, but the life of original work will not die with the existential form of original work. With the help of translation work, the life of original work will be continued, updated and expanded, thus being constantly succeeded in its life history. Hence, translation was like the source of rejuvenation. '''(Kramer 24)''' However, in Benjamin’s points, translation work is the afterlife of original work doesn’t mean it’s the end of original work’s life nor that translation work replaces the original one to be an independent organism. Benjamin stresses that continuity of life doesn’t pay much attention to the survival of organism, which means that translation is a medium that pushes the original’s life process, a medium that provides a chance for the continuity of original’s life instead of substitution. The mission of translation is to promote the original work’s linguistic life growing until it ripens and fruit the pure language. <br /> <br /> The final purpose of language is to meet our needs to show that the relation among languages is quite close. Translation cannot reveal or build such hidden relation, but translation can reoccur it by intensification and embryotic appearance. Right through the expression of embryotic form, it makes relation among languages reoccur. '''(Benjamin,60)'''<br /> Accordingly, translation is not the birth of original work nor the death of original work but the living on of the original. It’s the birth after death and death after birth. In this way, Benjamin has assured the position of the original work which is higher than the translation work, on which the original work depends to continue its life. Translation can never be equal to the original work because only the original language has the vigor to embody the fruit of pure language.<br /> <br /> Compared to that, Derrida thinks that translation work is the rebirth of the original work and notes that there are two implications in “rebirth”, which are given by “Fortleben and Uberleben” in Benjamin’s The Task of Translator, indicating that life will continue, consistent and survival continues, but it also indicates resurrection after death. Derrida emphasizes that original work has equal and independent position with translation work, which are complementary for each other. If the original text calls for supplement, that’s because it’s not flawless, complete, entire and self-identified. The original texts to be translated fell into exile from the very beginning. '''(Derrida 2003)''' Starting from such complementary relationship, Derrida abolished the original position of the original work as original work has no difference from translation work in that original work is the translation work of former texts, and translation work can be translated as original work for later texts. La differánce of meaning is infinite that all the texts are the limited comprehension of semantic differánce, which supplement and substitute each other, constructing a constantly flowing semantic chain. A text that depends on other texts but differs from other texts at the same time constantly waits for supplement and substitution in the semantic net. Text is a claiming process that goes beyond meaning in itself; it’s the trace of a sequence of movements. The ultimate text that can cover the infinite semantic differánce doesn’t exist and the ultimate meaning is intangible as meaning is mobile and infinite.<br /> <br /> All in all, Derrida and Benjamin have shown their distinctive comprehension about the original work and translation work. Benjamin has claimed that translation work is the afterlife of original work and original work also depends on translation to continue its life. Due to the fact that only the original work can deliver birth to pure language, although the very relations among languages can be reoccurred in translation work, original work ranks first. Derrida holds another opinion that the two, original work and translation work are equal and complementary. There is a doubt that why Benjamin insists that the fruit of pure language is on the original work’s side, as we mentioned in the beginning that Benjamin want to realize the identity of language and spirit through exhausting all the referential modes of all languages, and making them melt with each other. Though translation is the living-on of original work which just like the baby from a mother, affiliated to the original. Why the final result will be on the original side still needs our attention. During the differánce of texts, original text can become the translation of former text while the translation can be the original text of later text, thus the chain of textual differánce are built.<br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion<br /> '''<br /> <br /> In a word, through the comparative study of Benjamin’s translation view and Derrida’s translation view, we can find something in common but the two still distinct with each other and own their unique perspective and ideas.<br /> <br /> Firstly, on the aspect of original work, translation theories of deconstructivism emphasizing infinite differánce of meaning and relativity and fluidity of text deny the originality of original works with intertextuality. Lots of texts appear, one differing from the former a little bit; all of them are the translation of translation. Each text has its unique features, and at the same time, it’s the translation of another text, thus, no text is the absolute original work plus language itself is a kind of translation. In the first place, it’s the translation of non-linguistic world and in the second place, every sign and phrase are the translation of another sign and phrase. '''(Bssnett 112)''' Nonetheless, Benjamin insists on the originality of original work, emphasizing that linguistic core is contained only in the original work and the function of translation is to liberate the relationship between the signifier and signified. Hence, if Benjamin denies the originality of original work will make the ground of his translation view lost.<br /> <br /> Secondly, on the aspect of the author, deconstructivism emphasizes the intertextuality instead of the author, declaring that God was already dead and trying to overthrow the concept that author is the source of meaning from the ground level, so translation views of deconstructivism denies the originality of the author and even the copyright of the author'''(Jiang Xiaohua &amp; Zhang Jinghua 42)'''. However, Benjamin advocates the originality of the author. Though he has not mentioned the issues about author’s copyright, we can infer from the emphasis of originality of original work and creativity of the author that he should admit the copyright of the author.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, on the aspect of translator, translation view of deconstructivism places the translator in the equal position of author, but at the meantime, it denies the creativity and copyright of translator. What Derrida does is to completely ignore the subjectivity of translator but focus on text. On the contrary, Benjamin does not only emphasize the position of translator and consider that translator contributes creativity as well as author, which just differs in the way of wok and he also points it out that the success of translation depends on the ability of translator.<br /> <br /> Fourthly, on the aspect of translation work, translation view of deconstructivism has eliminated the difference between the original work and translation work, believing that original work and translation work supplements each other and coexists with each other; the original work lives on with the help of translation work while the translation work becomes independent text because it succeeds the semantic differánce of the original work. Whereas, Benjamin stresses that translation is the continuity and supplement of original life but at the same time, he disapproves the independence of translation work as the effect of translation work is only to promote the growth of “pure language” existing in original work and translation itself contains no organism of pure language so translation work has not been equipped with translatability.<br /> <br /> Fifthly, on the aspect of translation criterion, translation view of deconstructivism has deconstructed the traditional translation view that seeks loyalty and equivalence and it has deconstructed the comprehension, extraction and transmission proposed by itself. '''(Wang Yingchong 18)''' As a result, it has treated the translatability and untranslatability in an equal way, indicating that any text can be translatable and untranslatable. Accordingly, the criterion of translation has been dissolved. Compared to Derrida, Benjamin prefers literal translation, advocating that we should promote the supplement of the referential modes of original work and translation work in the general purpose of realizing pure language. The most obvious distinction between the two is that the former has no intention to provide a solution or a conclusion after dissolving the criterion of translation, which is a little bit puzzling while the latter has set the transcendental body of pure language to declare the existence of absolute translatability, with intensified mode to present what is not in presence and to bring things far away nearer to us as distant things. '''(Derrida 79)<br /> '''<br /> <br /> To sum up, Benjamin cannot be classified as a member of translation school of deconstructivism no matter from the perspective of ideas and the structure of his theories. Although Benjamin has many points of view that are similar with ideas of deconstructivism, but his theory system completely different.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> [1]Basnett, Susan &amp; Lefevere, Andre (eds.). Translation, History and Culture. London and New York: Pinter Publishers, 1990.<br /> <br /> [2]Benjamin, Walter. The Task of the Translator: An Introduction to the Translation of Baudelaire's Tableaux Parisiens. Harry Zohn (trans.). Lawrence, Venuti (ed.). The Translation Studies Reader (Second Edition). New York: Routledge, 2004: 75-85.<br /> <br /> [3]Davis, Kathleen, Deconstruction and Translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2004.<br /> <br /> [4]Derrida, J. What is A “Relevant” Translation? Lawrence, Venuti (trans. &amp; ed.). The Translation Studies Reader (Second Edition). New York: Routledge,2004:423- 446.<br /> <br /> [5]本雅明. 写作与救赎:本雅明文选.李茂增、苏仲乐译.上海:东方出版社, 2009: 61<br /> <br /> [6]蔡新乐. 相关的相关——德里达“相关的”翻译及其他.北京:中国社会科学出版社, 2007.<br /> <br /> [7]曹丹红. “本雅明《译者的任务》再解读”，中国翻译：2012（5）：5-9<br /> <br /> [8]德曼.“结论”:瓦尔特.本雅明的“翻译者的任务&quot;. 郭军译.郭军、曹雷雨编.2003:83-112.<br /> <br /> [9]蒋骁华、张景华. “重新解读韦努蒂的异化翻译理论兼与郭建中教授商榷”.中国翻译, 2007 (3): 39-44.<br /> <br /> [10]克拉默.本雅明. 鲁路译. 北京:中国人民大学出版社，2008.<br /> <br /> [11]王颖冲. “再论德里达的 “relevant&quot; translation”. 中国翻译，2011 (5): 11-19.<br /> <br /> [12]魏建刚、孙迎春. “本体论抑或方法论——本雅明《译者的任务》再探”.外语与外语教学，2013(2): 72-76.<br /> <br /> [13]沃尔法思. 一个马克思主义者的“创世纪&quot; . 郭军译. 郭军、曹雷雨编.2003:27-42.<br /> <br /> [14]朱刚. 本原与延异:德里达对本原形而上学的解构.上海:上海人民出版社，2006.<br /> <br /> =Translation Aesthetics=<br /> =='''Study on Gladys’ Translation of ''The Border Town'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' As a famous novel, ''The Border Town'' written by Shen Congwen maninly introduces young people’s pursuit of love in Xiangxi as well as the simple folk customs, so the novel has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''The Border Town'', which is full of aesthetic features, from the angle of Translation Aesthetics. The paper tries to analyze Gladys Yang’s English translation of the novel from five aspects under Translation Aesthetics: beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form, beauty in image and beauty in ideorealm in order to test and measure the practicality and operability of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Translation Aesthetics; ''The Border Town''; Liu Miqing; Lin Yutang <br /> <br /> '''翻译美学视角下《边城》戴乃迭英译本之探究'''<br /> <br /> 作 者：向晓蔚<br /> <br /> （湖南师范大学外国语学院，长沙 410081）<br /> <br /> '''摘 要：'''作为一部名作，沈从文的《边城》以清丽的笔触描绘了湘西地区的青年人对美好爱情的追求以及纯厚朴实的民风，蕴含浓郁的审美价值。对于《边城》这样一部美学价值极高的作品，从翻译美学的角度进行探讨将具有重要意义。因此，本文从翻译美学角度入手，从音韵美、用词美、形式美、意象美和意境美五个方面对小说《边城》戴乃迭的英译本进行分析，旨在验证翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的实践性和可操作性。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''翻译美学；《边城》；刘宓庆；林语堂<br /> <br /> Translation, especially literary translation, is a creative activity in nature. Translation is the pursuit of beauty and truth, and it involves philosophical concerns. Aesthetics, the study of beauty, is an eternal theme of Chinese literature. Ever since the emergence of translation, aesthetics and translation have been closely bonded together. Translation Aesthetics is a perfect combination of translation and aesthetics.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1 About Translation Aesthetics''' <br /> <br /> Translation Aesthetics is to analyze, explain and solve the aesthetic problems emerging in interlingual conversion. Its main contents are aesthetic subjects, aesthetic objects, the aesthetic subject’s experience of aesthetic objects, the methods of representing beauty in translating process, the criteria of translation aesthetics and so forth.<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Development of Translation Aesthetics in China'''<br /> <br /> The traditional translation theory in China originated from the translation of Buddhist scriptures more than 1700 years ago. Chinese translation theory has a close relationship with philosophy and aesthetics. In China, aesthetic thoughts have a long history. Confucius, Mencius, Laozi and other famous ancient thinkers put forward their views on aesthetics. In the process of the formation and development of literary translation, ancient aesthetic thoughts provided the ideological basis for it. Classical aesthetic thoughts made subtle influence on Chinese literary translation theories. The translation theories which contain classical aesthetics are naturally different from other countries' translation theories. Yan Fu, a Chinese scholar, once put forward the theory of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, and Qian Zhongshu also put forward the theory of transformation, and so on. All these theories reflect the influence of classical aesthetics on Chinese writers. Reviewing its development, it is not difficult to find that almost all Chinese translation theories have their aesthetic origin. The combination of translation theory and aesthetics is traditional Chinese feature, and Translation Aesthetics carry forward traditional translation theory. With the increasingly close communication between China and other countries, Chinese classical aesthetics and Western aesthetics have developed a certain degree of integration, which is also a special form of mutual learning between China and the West in a sense. This kind of reference promotes the development and application of Translation Aesthetics.<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Lin Yutang’s theory of Translation Aesthetics'''<br /> <br /> In 1933, Lin Yutang put forward three principles for translation: faithfulness, smoothness and beauty in the article of ''On Translation''. The three principles of translation represent three responsibilities respectively: that toward the original author, that toward the reader, and that toward art. Here, fidelity becomes threefold. It is not only the fidelity to the original author, but also fidelity to the target reader and to art. In Lin Yutang’s opinion, translation is a kind of art. The main difference between art and science is that science is guided by the rule, while art is not. As for the standard of beauty in translation, he thought that “Every writing has its beauty in sound, meaning, spirit and style.”[1] The ideal translator should make his work an art. He should love it with the heart of art, be careful with it and regard translation as fine art. Especially when translating literary works, translator should pay more attention to the beauty of words. Lin Yutang believes that the most important thing in literary translation is to embody the style of the original work. That is, “not only what it says, but also how to say it”. From this point of view, Lin Yutang's translation thought is mainly aimed at literary translation. Among his three translation principles (faithfulness, smoothness and beauty), the third principle--beauty is regarded as the most important point in literary translation. Therefore, Lin Yutang's translation thought is also recognized as “translation of aesthetics” by some scholars.<br /> <br /> So in the article of ''On Translation'' written by Lin Yutang, the main content is about the discussion on translation standards, and the core idea of the full text is that translation is an art. The most important thing in literary translation is to express the beauty of the original work, and to embody the original author's “how to say” in the translation. At the same time, Lin Yutang also affirmed that translation is creation. The translation with beauty features can make the original work be loved by the readers in the foreign culture, spread widely to the other countries, and achieve its equivalent effect in the source language environment to the greatest extent, which is the greatest responsibility and loyalty to the original text, the author, the readers and the art.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Liu Miqing’s theory of Translation Aesthetics'''<br /> <br /> In 1995, Liu Miqing offers a theoretical framework of Translation Aesthetics in detail in his book ''An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics''. “Translation Aesthetics refers to the study on aesthetic object (the source text and the target text), the aesthetic subject (translators and readers) and aesthetic activities in translation, such as aesthetic judgments, aesthetic appreciation, and creative aesthetic representation in translation.”[2] Except for paying attention to the elements of translation, translation aims to find out the ways to produce wonderful works and principles in assessing the quality of translation. Generally speaking, Translation Aesthetics does research on translation theory and practice from the perspective of aesthetics. Its major task is to analyze and elucidate the aesthetic principles, with which we can guide translation practices and assess the literary translation. Moreover, a satisfying version needs some other elements, such as the aesthetic experience of a translator, comprehension of source text, and evaluation and reproduction of beauty.<br /> <br /> “Aesthetic object (AO) refers to the objective matters that human's aesthetic activity targets at.[3] However, not everything in the objective world is aesthetic object. For instance, ''The Book of Songs'' on the bookshelf is not an aesthetic object until translator buys and translate it. In the aesthetic process, the translator appreciate the beauty in sound, beauty in form and beauty in sense in the book. These beauty in various forms is called “aesthetic object”. Translation aesthetic object (TAO) is the source text (ST) which the translator is about to translate. But not every source text can be TAO. For example, if the source text is inconsistent, empty and has no value to translate, it cannot be translation aesthetic object. TAO possesses aesthetic values and is designed to satisfy human's aesthetic needs. It clings to the aesthetic constituents and the aesthetic effects of the ST. If one pursues or analyzes the beauty in translation without adequate consideration of the ST, it equals to fish in the air and yields nothing but vainness. The attribute of TAO is different from the attribute of AO. On the one hand, it is attached to the aesthetic composition of SL. That is to say, translator cannot add something that is not in the aesthetic constituents of ST. If there are no rhymes in the original, translators should not add rhymes. If there is no irony in the original, translator should not add irony. If there is no hyperbole, translator should not add hyperbole, and so on. On the other hand, it has flexibility for aesthetic subject. In some circumstances, we can’t find an appropriate word to translate which is in line with the ST. Under these circumstances, we should translate it in a flexible way.<br /> <br /> According to Liu Miqing, “Aesthetic constituents of source text can be classified into two systems: formal aesthetic constituents and non-formal aesthetic constituents.”[4]. Formal aesthetic system include the scope of phonetics, morphology and syntax. While the non-formal aesthetic system is non-material, non-natural sensible. It is an indefinite, non-quantitative system. So it is also called “fuzzy sets” or “sets of fuzziness”. All kinds of beauty in the two systems are aesthetic objects, which we will experience in translation.<br /> <br /> The aesthetic subject (AS) refers to people who carry out aesthetic appreciation activity on the aesthetic object; and translation aesthetic subject (TAS) refers to the translator. When translating, translator plays a dual role. For one thing, he is the recipient of the SL text who should first decode the aesthetic information in the SL text. In this process, his role is both passive and subjective. For another, he is identified as the creator of the target text. Being so, he undertakes the task of aesthetic representation to the target text readers. Hence he ought to play his dynamic role as the aesthetic subject.<br /> <br /> In aesthetics, aesthetic subject and aesthetic object are two concepts and two categories that cannot be separated. There is a dialectical relationship between them. Therefore, a qualified translator should possess the dual characters as the translation aesthetic subject: objectivity and subjectivity.<br /> <br /> Comparing Lin Yutang’s theory with Liu Miqin’s theory, we can find that their thoughts have something in common. They both agree that Translation Aesthetics plays a significant role in translation, especially literary translation. Lin Yutang believes that literary translation is a creative art with beauty as its soul, so translators should always keep a heart of beauty-pursuit during the process of translating. While Liu Miqing offers a theoretical framework of Translation Aesthetics in detail. He regards source language and target language as aesthetic objects, treats translators as aesthetic subjects, and constructs basic framework of Translation Aesthetics in a dynamic role of subject and object.<br /> <br /> '''2 A case study of The Border Town from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics'''<br /> <br /> ''The Border Town'' is Shen Congwen’s masterpiece, which is also the supporting pillar for him to construct Xiangxi. He adopted a pristine love story to display the pursuit of his ideal life. The love story set in a town of Hunan province which is beside Sichuan province. In the 1930s, it is a quite tranquil place without lots of people in rural area. People there live a simple and honest life. The language of the novel is simple, deep, implicit and subtle, and it is in harmony with the content. It contains rich poetic feelings and produces a beautiful and graceful beauty.<br /> <br /> Literary translation is a very important part in translation studies, and it’s a complicated process that requires many different skills. On the one hand, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very necessary for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should pick up the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. On the other hand, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty in the context of the target language. In this part, a case study is conducted in detail based on Gladys Yang’s English translation of ''The Border Town'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics.<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Beauty in sound'''<br /> <br /> Sound is one of the fundamental forms which carries the aesthetic information of language, either in poetry, drama or fiction. Guided by the principle of preserving the beauty on the phonetic beauty as much as possible without hindering readers’ understanding, Gladys Yang not only reproduces the original rhyme but also tries to preserve the original sound effect of the onomatopoeias.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1 Rhyme'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, rhymes are applied into songs and poems. However, it doesn't mean there is no rhyme in fictions. Technical fiction writers also attempt to select word and phrase patterns so as to make their works imbued with a regular beat. In regard to fiction, rhyme refers to the general way in which a passage moves and flows. “Rhythm, the beauty in sound, often takes the form of wave movement in prose”[5]. To be specific, rhyme is a linguistic phenomenon referring to the repetition of the same or similar syllable sounds. It is achieved by the means of repetition, phrase structure, sentence structure and pause. The function of rhyme is mainly of the aesthetic aspect and the semantic meaning. On the one hand, the use of rhyme adds musicality to the literary .On the other hand, it arouses the readers' resonance and satisfaction. Since the rhythmic features contribute greatly to the aesthetic flavor, translators should take them into consideration and try to present the rhyme in the source text.<br /> <br /> Example 1: 无人过渡时，等着祖父又不来，便尽只反复温习这些女孩子的神气，且轻轻的无所谓的唱着：“白鸡关出老虎咬人，不咬别人，团总的小姐派第一……大姐戴副金簪子，二姐戴副银钏子，只有我三妹没得什么戴，耳朵上长年蜜条豆芽菜。”[6]<br /> <br /> Translation: When no one comes she waits for her grandfather, and when he fails to come she compares the looks of the girls and chants softly: The tiger eats the captain’s daughter first; Most girls have gold and silver for their hair; Poor Emerald is the one who comes off worst-No trinkets, nothing but beansprouts to wear![7]<br /> <br /> This folk song sings Cuicui’s heart at that moment. The density of the rhythm contributes a lot to the reflection of Cuicui’s mood. Owing to the poor condition in her family, she could only admire the landlord's daughter's dress and ornaments. The sound / i / and / ai / repeat five times and emerge in different positions of the original text. When singing, people should open and narrow their mouths forming a beautiful rhythmical meter. In Chinese the sound / i / vividly imitates the sound of weeping, and / ai / is like the sound of sighing. So the shift of the rhyme produces a sort of self-mockery effect to the audience, meanwhile arouses deep sympathy toward the pure girl in the readers’ heart.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2 Onomatopoeia'''<br /> <br /> Onomatopoeia means that an object or something is related to some actions which can be imitated by some vivid words. It is one of the rhetorical devices that are widely used in literary works, which makes great efforts to let speech sound vivid and lifelike. There are plenty of onomatopoeias in English and Chinese, though they have different expression forms, they are all used to imitate the sound. Onomatopoetic words can add interest to the work, which also can create aesthetic effect in literary works.<br /> <br /> The onomatopoeias in ''The Border Town'' demonstrate readers with a lively picture and put them in the scene by themselves. Meanwhile, the use of the onomatopoeias also enhances the aesthetic effect of Shen’s literal expressions. It is fortunate that in many cases English and Chinese onomatopoeias can be inter-translated. However, sometimes it is impossible to achieve. So it is often hard for aesthetic subjects to render the onomatopoeias accurately and appropriately. In some translations, Gladys Yang has selected appropriate onomatopoeias of other appropriate words not only to imitate the sound but also to denote the original meanings. In the end, the description becomes more concrete and vivid, as it is showed in examples.<br /> <br /> Example 2: 那黄狗汪汪的吠着，受了惊似的绕屋乱走，有人过渡时，便随船渡过东岸且跑到那小山头向城里一方面大吠。[8]<br /> <br /> Translation: Barking wildly, he dashes round the house. Next time, passengers are ferried across he follows them up the east bank and races up the hill overlooking town, yapping frantically.[9]<br /> <br /> Example 3: 黄狗为了表示同主人的意见一致，也在翠翠身边汪汪的吠着。[10]<br /> <br /> Translation: To show his agreement, Brownie sets up a furious barking.[11]<br /> <br /> In the two examples, there are three “吠”(fèi, meaning bark)，which is as a modifier of the verb “叫”. In the first translation, Gladys uses “barking wildly” to show the dog’s scare. And the second one is translated into “yapping frantically”, which shows that it’s on duty. And the third one is “furious barking” to show its anger. In Chinese, we can only use different adverbs to modify the same verb. However, the same character in Chinese is translated into three different expressions. In this way, the target readers can understand the original clearly.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Beauty in lexis'''<br /> <br /> Beauty in lexis is associated with word choice, register, and collocation, and there are many rhetorical devices that contribute to the formal beauty on the lexical level, such as euphemism, zeugma, oxymoron, etc. Shen Congwen, with deep affection to his hometown, writes his fiction in a language as genuine and beautiful as the frontier folk songs in his hometown. His language, which has also enriched the modern vernacularism in China, is imbued with metaphors, local jokes and ballads. As for the aesthetic representation on the lexical level, Yang’s English translation have done a satisfactory job in that she attempts to retain the aesthetic features of original lexis as much as possible, though when it comes to the lexis loaded with heavy cultural connotations, due to the cultural untranslatability, the translator has employed domestication to avoid misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> Example 4: 翠翠在风日里长着，故把皮肤变得黑黑的，触目为青山绿水，故眸子清明如水晶。自然既长养她且教育她，为人天真活泼，处处俨然如一只小怪兽。人又那么乖，如山头黄麂一样，从不想到残忍事情，从不发愁，从不动气。[12]<br /> <br /> Translation: Wind and sun have tanned this growing girl’s skin，her eyes rest on green hills are as clear as crystal. Nature is her mother and teacher, making her innocent, lively and untamed as some small wild creature. She has the gentleness of a fawn and seems not to know the meaning of cruelty, anxiety or anger.[13]<br /> <br /> Shen Congwen's description of Cuicui is based on the perfect combination of a pure little girl and nature. Shen Congwen used “dark black” to describe the natural and healthy skin color of Cuicui. She described the clear and bright eyes of Cuicui as “as clear as crystal”. Only through the description of skin and eyes, the youthful image of Cuicui was vivid. In translation, like “small wild creature” and “fawn”, it shows the lively side of Cuicui. Therefore, whether or not the aesthetic value of the source language image can be reproduced in the translation becomes the key to the reader's ability to understand Cuicui’s character. For example, “dark black” Gladys Yang uses “tanned” to indicate that her skin is a natural and healthy beauty after the sun has shined.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Beauty in form'''<br /> <br /> Like sound and lexis transmitting beauty, syntax and paragraphs also carry lots of aesthetic information. There are many differences existing in Chinese and English sentence structures. Chinese sentence is like a bamboo that all structures come out from the base, while English sentence is like a grape tree with branches from the stem and twigs from the branches and the clauses are strictly arranged by the grammatical rules. Sentences can express a comprehensive meaning and carries certain aesthetic information. The successful translation is always with a figure, and most works have their own way of using figures of speech to form their own characteristic style. Thus the beauty in form came into being.<br /> <br /> Structural balance and harmony is one of the basic aesthetic principles, and it is obtained with the use of right rhetorical devices. Here the author chooses three typical rhetorical devices: antithesis, parallelism and repetition to express the beauty of sentences in translation. What’s more, the three rhetorical devices have been used in Shen’s ''The Border Town''.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 Parallelism'''<br /> <br /> Parallelism is to use repetition in equivalent positions to enhance language expression and pay attention to emphasis, clarity and coherence of opinions. In parallel construction, it is necessary for writers to balance word with word, phrase with phrase, clause with clause, and sentence with sentence. At the same time, importance of grammar should be concerned to strengthen coherence of the sentence. In terms of the syntactic level, parallelism is a sprightly succinct rhetorical device. The identical meaning, structure or tone appeals to the readers’ eyes and ears, and heightens the readers’ aesthetic experience. It is one of the valid ways to satisfy aesthetic demands of language: balance and concordance in structure, while rhythm and harmony in tonality. The aesthetic information in parallelism is largely showed in the reoccurrence of a specific pattern, which carries lots of aesthetic value to make the original more lively and impressive. So it is widely employed in literary works. There’s no exception in ''The'' ''Border Town''. Look at the example:<br /> <br /> Example 5: 这事情在本地人并不希奇，边地俗语说：“火是各处可烧的，水是各处可流的，日月是各处可照的，爱情是可各处可到的。”[14]<br /> <br /> Translation: There is nothing strange in these parts, where folk have a saying, “There is no place on earth where fire cannot spread, water flow, sun and moon shine, or love make its way.”[15]<br /> <br /> In this example, the same concise and symmetric sentence structure reoccurred many times. The repetition “各处可”(meaning everywhere) produces rhythm, making the sentence read like a song. By comparing love to fire, water, the sun and the moon, it vividly depicts the honesty, and straightforwardness of the local people. In Gladys’ version, she transforms the original parallel structure into a simple sentence and an attributive clause. Concise as it is, it isn’t in line with the writer’s intention and obviously disobeys the style of the original. Although it has transmitted the meaning of the original sentences, it fails to render the aesthetic features of this local saying.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 Antithesis'''<br /> <br /> Antithesis, a rhetoric technique with symmetric form and harmonious tonality, is designed to illustrate different things or aspects of the identical thing by comparison, and the symmetric components can replenish and contrast each other. Look at the example below.<br /> <br /> Example 6: 轻轻的自言自语：“每只船要有个码头，每只雀儿得有个巢。”[16]<br /> <br /> Translation: “Boats have a wharf, birds have a nest.” he murmurs.[17]<br /> <br /> In this sentence, “船”(chuán, meaning boat) and “雀儿”(què ér, meaning bird), “码头”(mǎ tóu, meaning wharf ) and “巢”(cháo, meaning nest) in the Chineses version make an antithesis with each other, and it is well balanced in form. The writer expresses the grandpa’s care to Cuicui. Gladys’s version is structurally well-balanced. However, the utilization of the word “have” in English version fails to show the strong sense of belonging, reducing the aesthetic value of the original. If she use “need” to replace it, I think the aesthetic enjoyment could be realized better.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 Repetition'''<br /> <br /> From the word of repetition, we know that the same word can be used several times in one sentence. The main function of this rhetoric is to emphasize some things or information. It may help to produce strong aesthetic effect. In The Border Town, Shen Congwen employs repetition deliberately to achieve his purpose of emotive intensification. The intensive repetition can be used as a powerful thematic device. Here is an example:<br /> <br /> Example 7: 老船夫说：“翠翠我看了个好碾坊，碾盘是新的，水车是新的，屋上稻草也是新的！”[18]<br /> <br /> Translation: “Emerald,” he tells her, “I've just seen a fine mill. Brand-new from the millstone and water-wheel to the thatch on the roof.”[19]<br /> <br /> This sentence vividly reproduces grandfather's psychological state after he has visited the new mill. The repetition of “是新的”(meaning new) for three times echoes each other to highlight how the mill knocks the breath out of grandpa, and strengthen his envy and longing for the mill. Gladys translates it into “Brand-new from... to...” Though it fails to keep the symmetric form of the original, it still succeeds in recreating the particular aesthetic effect of the original text. The inverted sentence pattern, the shifted perspective and the emphatic words make up for the loss of the repetition to great extent. Meanwhile, the concise and paralleled sentence structure represents the aesthetic information of the original more appropriately.<br /> <br /> '''2.4 Beauty in image'''<br /> <br /> Image in the literary text refers to the output of the subjective intrinsic emotion of the author and the extrinsic objective substances or the incarnation of emotion produced out of language narration. It is the unity of finity and infinity, the unity of the latent and the outstanding.<br /> <br /> Example 8: 翠翠温习着两次过节所见所闻的一切，心中很快乐，好像目前有一个东西，同早间在床上闭了眼睛所看到的那种捉摸不定的黄葵花一样，这东西仿佛明朗地在眼前，却看不准，抓不住。[20]<br /> <br /> Translation: Going over two festivals in her mind, happily savoring what she had seen and heard, Emerald has the same sensation as when she closed her eyes in bed in the morning and sees yellow sunflowers just out of reach. Something exciting lies ahead as yet indistinct and intangible, but too lovely to let go.[21]<br /> <br /> This sentence is a psychological description of Cuicui. She recalled the days of last two Dragon Boat Festivals when she encountered Nuosong. Her heart was filled with unnamable expectation. She wished to see Nuosong again. The above sentence describes the sprout of love in Cuicui’s heart which is implicit but brings her sweetness and dream. The image “黄葵花”(huáng kuí huā, meaning yellow sunflower) symbolizes that the love has planted its seed in Cuicui’s heart, and is in full blossoms which brings Cuicui happiness and which she would like to pluck. In the translated versions, Yang makes uses of literal translation by preserving the image of “黄葵花”and puts it into “yellow sunflower”. With the help of the context, it is easy for the target readers to understand the image of “yellow sunflower” and acquire the implicit aesthetic value in it in Yang’s version. It depicts the hope and happiness in Cuicui’s heart and brings the same enjoyment to target readers as it does to the source readers.<br /> <br /> '''2.5 Beauty in ideorealm'''<br /> <br /> Artistic ideorealm is defined as an artistic realm in lyric poetry and other literary works, which is an integration of subjective emotion and objective images and feelings. It is characterized as beautiful and implicit as a traditional Chinese painting, which can evoke readers’ association and imagination, and surpasses the concrete vision and ascends an extensive artistic space.<br /> <br /> Example 9: 由四川过湖南去，靠东有一条官路。这官路将近湘西边境到了一个地方名为‘茶峒’的小山城时，有一小溪，溪边有座白色小塔，塔下住了一户单独的人家。这人家只一个老人，一个女孩子，一只黄狗。[22]<br /> <br /> Translation: The highway running east from Sichuan to Hunan comes, just west of the border, to Chadong, a small town in the hills. Nearby a stream flows past a small pagoda, at the foot of which lives a solitary household: an old man, a girl, and a dog.[23]<br /> <br /> This is the first paragraph of the novel. Like telling a story, it is slow and plain. From what Shen Congwen has described, we can see that he has a special writing style which expresses the beauty of nature. Here, the writer uses seven “一”(yī, meaning one) in all, and every one describes different images. What’s more, “一”represents Shen’s melancholy aesthetic sentiment and creation view. Shen uses the rhetorical device of anadiplosis which means repeating the ending words of the precedent sentence in the following sentence. This kind of discourse progression mode is not only good for the coherence of narrative and understanding of discourse but also full of interest. Gladys thoroughly adverts to the aesthetic connotation and narrative techniques contain in “一” of the original text and strive for “formal similarity” and “spiritual similarity”. In sentence structure, Gladys retains the anadiplosis rhetorical device like “一”. More importantly, the static beauty of the original text has been changed into dynamic beauty by the recreation of the translator. To sum up, the whole translation is simple and fluent which correspond to the intangible and solitary artistic conception in the original text.<br /> <br /> Example 10: 那首歌声音既极柔和，快乐中又微带忧郁，唱完了歌，翠翠觉得心上有一丝儿凄凉。她想起秋末酬神还愿时田坪中的火燎同鼓角。远处鼓声已起来了，她知道绘有朱红长线的龙船这时节已下河了。细雨依然落个不止，溪面一片烟.[24]<br /> <br /> Translation: This gay, haunting melody has an undertone of sadness, making Emerald feel a pang of loneliness. Her thoughts fly to the bonfires and drumming in the fields to welcome the spirits at the end of autumn. Meanwhile drums sound up in the distance. The long crimson dragon boats will soon be staring their race. A light rain falls steadily, the stream is misted over.[25]<br /> <br /> In this example, Gladys’ translation almost reaches the realm of “spirit likeness”. In the wording, she not only carefully uses some expressive words but blends her own aesthetic attitude and aesthetic ideas into translation. Cuicui has stirred her love since she met Nousong two years ago on Dragon Boat Festival. Henceforth, she has a load in her mind, which is nothing to do with her grandfather. Dragon Boat Festival comes again, and Cuicui sits alone on the ferryboat, waiting for her grandfather. Then she go to see the dragon boat race together with him in town, where she may meet Nuosong again. The example above come about after Cuicui chanted a folk song on the ferryboat. The lonely and gloomy scenic description to some degree symbolizes that Cuicui’s love will end in tragedy. The repetition, though merely a few characters, forms an echo which achieves the artistic effect of inexhaustible sadness and sympathy of the readers toward Cuicui.<br /> <br /> '''3 Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> After the research and analysis, the author has found that Translation Aesthetics can be regarded as a criteria to evaluate literary works. The unique aesthetic characteristics in literature indicate that Translation Aesthetics is an effective and practical theory to analyze literature translation. A good literary translation should fully express the literary features and artistic connotations of literary works, embody the aesthetic value of the works, and make the readers realize the infinite charm of oriental art and the great vitality of literary works. On the one hand, it is necessary to reproduce the linguistic features of literary works in a proper and flexible way. On the other hand, it is necessary to take into account the cognitive level and understanding ability of readers in different countries, so as to maximize the aesthetic charm of literary works.<br /> <br /> =Culture Loaded Words=<br /> =='''The Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese-English Communication'''==<br /> '''文化负载词在中英交流中的翻译'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''随着经济全球化的深入发展，各国之间的文化交流日趋频繁。文化信息的成功传递是跨文化交流中的重要一环。文化负载词的翻译一直是译者面临的一大难题。准确传译文化负载词关系到译文质量的提高，跨文化交流活动的顺利进行以及文化的传播。本文将由六个部分组成。第一个部分和第二部分将分别讲述文化负载词的定义以及其翻译的难点。第三部分和第四部分将讲述文化负载词的翻译策略及其不可译性。第五部分和第六部分将分别讲述文化负载词的翻译对口译的影响并对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''翻译；文化负载词；文化差异<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' With the development of economic globalization, the cultural exchange among different countries becomes more and more frequent. The successful transmission of cultural message is an important link in international exchanges. In translation activities, the translation of culture-loaded words is a great challenge for translators, because the speaker and the audience come from a different linguistic and cultural environment. The accurate translation of culture-loaded words will help improve the quality of translation, enable successful cross-cultural exchanges and promote culture transmission. This paper will be divided into six parts. The first part will tell readers what is culture-loaded words. The second part will concentrate on the difficulties to translate culture-loaded words.The third part will discuss the translation approaches to culture-loaded words. The fourth part will focus on the question of translatability of culture-loaded words. The fifth part will introduce the interpreter’s translation of culture-loaded words. And the last part will briefly draw a conclusion about the paper.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translation; culture-loaded words; cultural differences<br /> <br /> As we all know, translation plays an important role in intercultural communication. A good translator can help to promote the communication between two different cultures. With the process of globalization, intercultural communication is becoming more and more frequent. However, there exist plenty of cultural differences between different cultures, especially between the East and the West. Cultural differences make it hard for translators to translate well. Culture-loaded words belong to one of the differences between different cultures. Therefore, it is of great significance to be aware of the appropriate translation of culture-loaded words. This is because it can help translators translate better and thus make two different cultures communicate better.<br /> <br /> '''1 The Definition of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> <br /> Before discussing what are culture-loaded words, we should know what is culture first. “Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. As culture is so inclusive, it permeates virtually every aspect of human life and influences predominantly people’s behavior, including linguistic behavior. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can mostly be found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.” (Dai Weidong 2002:127) Culture is learned by human beings. A child is born without any certain kind of culture. A child gets its culture through learning. For example, a Chinese kid will speak, act and think like a Chinese if it grows up in China. An American kid will speak, act and think like an American if it is raised in the United States. Meanwhile, if a Chinese kid is raised by an American family in the USA, he will think, act and speak like American people do and vice versa. Culture is owned by all the social members. The special behavior and habit of a single person is not culture because it is not owned by every member of the society. Culture can be transmitted from generation to generation. During the transmission, culture will also develop. “Generally speaking, there are two types of culture: material and spiritual. While material culture, as the term itself suggests, is concrete, substantial and observable. Most of spiritual culture, the products of mind (ideologies, beliefs, values and concepts of time and space, for example), is abstract, ambiguous, and hidden. In contrast with nature in the sense of what is born and grows, culture refers to what has been grown and brought up with, in other words, what can be nurtured. Culture, especially material culture, is reproduced and preserved through the maintaining of beliefs, traditions, education and other institutional mechanisms, meanwhile, it changes slowly with the development of the society.” (Dai Weidong 2002:127-128) <br /> <br /> “Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and disseminating culture. As the basic unit of language, word is of course the most direct reflection of culture. Culture-loaded words refer to the words, phrases, and idioms only contained in a culture. These words reflect the uniqueness of certain nations. This kind of uniqueness develops from the long historical process.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232) Culture-loaded words can make a distinction between two different cultures. Culture-loaded words can also reflect a country’s social background, financial base and culture in a certain period of time. During different historical periods, different culture-loaded words occur. Different countries differ from each other because every country has its uniqueness that makes it special. Ordinarily speaking, a literary work, which shows a lot of national characteristics, contains plenty of culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words make it difficult for translators to translate. <br /> <br /> '''2 Difficulties in the Translation of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> <br /> Every country has its own cultural origin. And “every nation has its own cultural focus. So its vocabulary always develops according to the cultural focus and becomes more and more detailed and complex.” (Liao Qiyi 2002:232)As we all know, Chinese culture and western culture have different origins. Chinese culture came from the Chinese mainland. There exist two big rivers, the Yellow River and the Huanghe River, across China. So Chinese people fed themselves by fishing, hunting and farming. The vast territory provided Chinese people enough resources to support themselves. The lofty mountains and high ranges, on the one hand, protected ancient China from the invasion of other countries, while on the other hand, also prevented China from communicating with other countries. Therefore, Chinese people is more conservative and emphasize harmony. <br /> <br /> “There is a great difference of the physio geographic condition between China and the western countries, especially the relationship between sea and land. If we say that Chinese civilization came from the land, western civilization came from the sea.”(Huang Yongyuan and Zhang Jing 2011:237) Europe is surrounded by the sea on the west, south and north, and borders on Asia in the east. The whole Europe continent is close to the sea, and the maritime climate is very significant. As the cradle of Western culture, the ancient Greece, was more connected with the sea. Greece was transportation center of the eastern Mediterranean. It had many ports and mountains but had a barren land. This kind of condition forced the ancient Greeks to operate maritime trade very early to support themselves. Therefore, people from western countries are easy to accept foreign cultures.<br /> <br /> China’s national spirit is different from that of the western countries. For example, China’s definition of “dragon” is so far away from that of the western countries. “The dragon, in Chinese myths and legends, is a kind of god . It is a symbol of the Chinese nation. The Chinese all call themselves &quot;the descendants of the dragon&quot;; it is also a symbol of the ancient imperial power, and the emperors of all ages considered themselves to be the true dragon. Each feature of the dragon represents an advantage. The wide forehead represents intelligence, the sword-like eyebrows represent courage, the tiger eyes represent majesty, the lion nose represents prosperity, the horse teeth represent diligence and kindness, the crocodile mouth represents swallowing, the shrimp mustache represents free water absorption , the cattle ears represent the leadership, the antlers represent health and longevity, the fish and clam represent defense, the camel head represents drought resisting, the eagle claws represent the ability to fly, and the snake neck represents the ability of accomplishing a task with ease. The Chinese dragon can be said to be a favorite to Chinese people. In the Western world, the dragon is called Drakon in Greek, Dragon in English, and Draco is in Latin. The dragon is a derogatory term in the West and a symbol of evil. In Western mythology, the dragon is the demon that makes people fear. ''The Bible'' illustrates dragon as a demon, and the devil Satan, who is opposite to God, is called the &quot;great dragon&quot;; the Old Dragon is the Devil, or Satan. In a biological perspective, dragon is a kind of particularly ferocious animal. In many cases, western literature describes the dragon as a monster to be eradicated by the hero.”(Huang Yongyuan and Zhangjing 2011:238) <br /> <br /> Apart from the examples above, there are still many example containing different meanings in different countries because of cultural differences. For example, the color “red” represents happiness, auspiciousness and success. This is because the color red came from the sun. Ancient Chinese people worshiped the sun. Thus, when getting married, Chinese bride’s wedding dress is red. People will hang red lanterns and paste red couplets in Spring festival. However, in western countries, although they have words like, “red-letter day” and “the red carpet”, which contain positive meanings, the color “red” is a kind of taboo. In English, the color “red” is the association of fire and blood. It represents the radical and violent revolutions. So many English phrases containing red have negative meaning, like red-headed, red-light district, red-handed, red ruin, red ink, in the red etc. Similarly, the color “white” contains different meanings in the East and the West. In western countries, white means innocence, honesty, kindness and so on. When getting married, the bride will white wedding dress. Although the color white contains the meaning of purity and innocence, like “白衣天使”(white angel) which represents doctors and nurses in Chinese, white is a kind of taboo color in China. The color white represents death and ill omen. When a family member died, they will hang white cloth inside and outside the house. We can also realize the different meanings of the same word in different countries. For instance, the word “狗”(dog) contains a negative meaning. However, in western countries, dog always contains a positive meaning, like a lucky dog.<br /> <br /> '''3 Approaches to Translate Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> <br /> Under the great progress of globalization, different cultures have more accesses to communicate with each other. According to Eugene Nida, “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” (Nida Eugene A and Charles Taber R 1969:13) “Ordinarily speaking, there are three approaches to translate culture-loaded words, namely foreignization, domestication and translation compensation. The translation of culture-loaded words belongs to the micro aspect of cultural translation. In the context of globalization, the fundamental standpoint of exploring the translation approach is to preserve the unique cultural significance carried by culture-loaded words, which determines that we should use foreignization and translation compensation as the main translation approaches to translation culture-loaded words”.(Wang Xiang 2017:75)<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Foreignization'''<br /> <br /> Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also terms ‘resistancy’ (1995: 305-6), is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture.<br /> Foreignization can preserve the uniqueness of the source language’s culture because respecting the source language culture is starting point. Compared with domestication approach, foreignization considers more about the source language’s cultural background and is more faithful to the source language’s culture. It can keep the exotic flavor of the source language text. However, foreignization is not a perfect translation approach. If the translation doesn’t pay enough attention, the foreignization approach will be abused easily. If the translator misuse the foreignization approach, the target text will be awkward and hard to understand.<br /> <br /> The food culture contains great national characteristics. It shows the creative spirit and unique style of the Chinese nation. The words related to the food culture are rich in Chinese culture. Many examples of using foreignization approach can be found in the translation of traditional Chinese food. Firstly, the translation of traditional Chinese food can be related to Chinese allusions. Let’s take the translation of Yuanxiao or Tang-yuan(glue pudding) as an example. “It’s said that a lady-in-waiting called Yuanxiao during the Han dynasty missed her parents so much that she cried with tears in her face every single day. In order to help her, a minister named Dongfang Shuo lied to Emperor of the Han dynasty that the god of fire with the order of the Jade Emperor would burn Changan(the Capital of China in Han dynasty) on the 15th of the first lunar month. The solution to avoid this disaster was to ask the lady-in-waiting named Yuanxiao to make Tang-yuan, the favorite food of the god of fire, and to ask all the people in Changan to hang lanterns. Emperor Wu approved this plan. Finally, the girl named Yuanxiao met her parents. Thus, the tradition of Lantern Festival ( pronounced Yuanxiao Jie in Chinese, “jie” in Chinese means festival) appeared.” ( Xu Xianling and Li Xiangzhaung 2005:230) Therefore, if we translate the Chinese food “元宵” into Yuanxiao by the foreignization approach instead of translating into the glue pudding, the special Chinese culture in the food can be preserved well.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the translation of Chinese food can be related to Chinese customs. Chinese people eat special traditional food in special Chinese festivals. For instance, people will eat double-ninth cake on the Double Ninth Festival. The Double Ninth Festival is on the 9th day of the 9th lunar month. The translation of double-ninth cake can keep the traditional Chinese culture well. Thirdly，the translation of traditional Chinese food can be related with Chinese people’s appreciation of beauty. For example, “the Chinese cuisine ‘鸟语花香’, can be translated into ‘Singing Birds and Fragrant Flowers(Steamed mandarin fish and bird-shaped shrimps)’’ and ‘青龙过海’ can be translated into ‘Green Dragons Crossing the Sea(Soup with green onion)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106) By using the foreignization approach, this kind of translation can preserve the beautiful image of these cuisines and the explanatory note can also prevent foreigners from being confused. What’s more, the translation of some Chinese cuisine can be related to the traditional Chinese medical science. For example, “‘八珍食品’ can be translated into ‘Eight Delicacies (Stimulate your baby’s appetite and better his or her growth) and ‘当归生姜羊肉汤’ can be translated into ‘ Angelica Ginger Lamb Soup(Replenish your blood and warm your spleen and stomach)’”. (Zhang Jiachen 2014:106) Translating in this way can pass the traditional Chinese medical culture to readers.<br /> <br /> Although the foreignization approach can be of great help to pass the source language’s culture to the target readers, it requires the translator’s great knowledge between the two cultures. Therefore, translators have to do a good preparation before translating.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Translation compensation'''<br /> <br /> George Steiner divides the process of translation into four parts and “By ensuring the translation is possible, compensation is the last step in the whole procedure”.(2001: 176) It should be acknowledged that translation compensation occurs and accompanies translation activity as early as cultural difference exists. It possesses a history as long as translation activity does. Scholar Mona Baker holds the view that compensation is a translation skill, which can be applied when “target language is impossible to directly make up for the losses in meaning, language style or emotional force”.(1992: 33) Due to the translation difficulties caused by cultural default and cultural differences, translators have to employ different compensation strategies to make sure their translation outcome can be totally understood by the TL readers. Hervey and Higgins divided translation compensation mainly into four kinds, namely compensation in kind, compensation by splitting, compensation by merging and compensation in place.<br /> <br /> The translation compensation approach can be often used to translate the name of Chinese teas. China is the birthplace of tea culture. The record about tea appeared in the era of Shennong about 4700 years ago. Since ancient times, the tradition of providing to guests has been preserved. There are various kinds of teas in China like Longjing tea from Hangzhou , Oolong tea from Fujian etc. Chinese tea culture are also involved in Chinese Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism and so on. Chinese tea culture is a treasure in traditional Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Chinese and English belong to different language systems. There are great differences between the two languages. Due to the different social environment , life style and vocabulary, sometimes it is impossible for translators to achieve complete equivalence. Chinese people’s ways to name teas are various. Sometimes, the Chinese character “茶” (tea in English) doesn’t even exit in the name of a tea. For example, some teas exhibited in the China Tea Museum in Hangzhou, like “羊岩勾青”(Yangyan Gouqing), “庐山云雾”(Lushan Yunwu), the names of these teas don’t contain the character of tea. If translators show the English names of these teas to the target readers without explanation, readers may feel confused. Sometimes, the names of some teas are the same as the names of other stuff. For example, “ ‘茉莉花茶’ is translated into Jasmine Tea. This kind of translation mixes the tea name with the flower name. Actually, ‘茉莉花茶’ is a kind of green tea which has the aroma of jasmine. Some kind of ‘茉莉花茶’ contains jasmine flower, some don’t. Similarly, ‘竹叶青’ is translated into Bamboo Leaf Green and ‘玉露’ is translated into Jade Dew. Although the translation of these names of teas used the literal translation approach and realized the verbal equivalence, translators neglected the features of the teas. This kind of translation will mislead the target reader to think of ‘竹叶青’ as the tea made of bamboo leaves and ‘玉露’ as the tea made of jade and dew, which is totally impossible”. (Cui Shan 2019:125) The translation of tea names is also a part of intercultural communication. It can directly influence the transmission of Chinese culture in the world and can also influence the business result. If a translator doesn’t pay enough attention to the cultural differences, it may lead to bad consequences. For example, a Chinese tea called “龙虎斗” was translated into “The Fighting Between Dragon and Tiger ”. Although the translation kept the verbal meaning of the tea, it violated the western taboo. This is because dragon is referred as a kind of evil and fierce beast. A reader without the knowledge of Chinese culture will have the image of two fierce beasts fighting and killing each other when reading the translation of the tea. The target reader will feel uncomfortable to read the name of the tea, let alone buy and drink it. “珠茶” is a kind of special tea from Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province. It is round and bullet-shaped. So it was translated into “gun power”. This kind of translation can easily make people think about the violent images of war. Therefore, when being sold to India, Indian purchasers strongly asked the seller to change the translation of the tea name.<br /> <br /> Due to cultural differences, sometimes literal translation cannot express the true meaning of the tea name well. During this circumstance, translator should compensate the important information under the verbal meaning of the tea name. This kind of purpose can be achieved through the explanation of connotation under the tea name. Let’s take the tea names we have mentioned in the last paragraph as an example. According to the background information of the tea “玉露”, “ the shape of the tea is round and its color is white like jade. So it’s better to translate ‘玉露’ into ‘Jade-green Tea’ instead of ‘Jade Dew’”. (Cui Shan 2019:126) This kind of translation can show the color and type of the tea. It is more acceptable and less confusing for the target readers. Similarly, “‘茉莉花茶’ can be translated into ‘Jasmine Scented Tea’ instead of ‘Jasmine Tea’ and ‘竹叶青’ can be translated into ‘Bamboo-Leaf-Shaped Green Tea’ instead of ‘Bamboo Leaf ’”. (Cui Shan, 2019:126) “Jasmine Scented Tea” can show the true features of the tea and distinguish the tea from jasmine flower. And “Bamboo-Leaf-Shaped Green Tea” can tell the target readers the type and features of the tea and stop misleading readers to think of it as the tea made of bamboo leaves.<br /> <br /> '''4 Untranslatability of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> <br /> Catford thought that untranslatability is caused by the target language’s lack of lexical or syntactical substitute. Different languages differ from each other in the phonetic, grammatical, semantic, pragmatic aspect etc. When translating culture-loaded words, it is hard for translator to translate the culture behind these words in a perfect way. For example, “纸老虎” is translated into “Paper Tiger” in English. But if people don’t have a knowledge of Chinese culture, when they read the phrase “paper tiger”, they will think of it as a kind of artistic work. Similarly, “八股文” is translated into “Eight-part Essay”. When people read this kind of translation, they will only think of it as a kind of article containing eight parts. They cannot understand the moral imprisonment this kind of writing style brought to Chinese people. When the famous sinologist David Hawkes was translating the famous Chinese novel ''A Dream of Red Mansions'', he translated a servant girl in the novel called “紫鹃” into “Nightingale” instead of “cuckoo”. This is because the word “cuckoo” in western countries can be used to refer the woman who cheated in a relationship. In the novel, “紫鹃” is a quite innocent girl. So the word “cuckoo”, although is literally equivalent to “紫鹃”, it was still not chosen by David Hawkes to be the girl’s name. In English, “nightingale” refers to a small brown bird, the male of which has a beautiful song. It can also refer people who can sing beautifully. Although the translator avoided cultural conflict by translating “紫鹃” into “Nightingale”, “nightingale” still cannot show the innocence of that girl. Sometimes, translators will borrow words from other cultures to help themselves translate better. For example, translators translate “a beauty in ancient China named Xi Shi into ‘Chinese Cleopatra’. However, Cleopatra is more like the first and the only female emperor in Chinese history Wu Zetian in Chinese people’s mind to western people. In Chinese phrase ‘蝙蝠迎宾’， the word ‘蝙蝠’ is translated into ‘bird’ in English instead of ‘bat’. This is because bat represents vampires in western culture. This kind of translation avoided the violation of western taboo. But it also doesn’t translate the inner ‘happiness’ behind the phrase in Chinese culture.”(Chen Junming 2013:29)<br /> Catford thought the cultural untranslatability was caused by the lack of the target target culture’s relevant situational features to the source language’s culture. Cultural untranslatability comes from cultural differences. Although it is hard to translate culture-loaded words into target language in a perfect way, translators still need to try to discover the translation of culture-loaded words. Translators can also add some explanations after the translated sentences or words to make the meaning and culture behind the source language text be understood by target readers.<br /> <br /> '''5 The Interpreter’s Translation of Culture-loaded Words'''<br /> <br /> Unlike translators, interpreters have much shorter time to translate. Sometimes, it is a great challenge for interpreters to translate in such a short time. As we have discussed above, culture-loaded words make it hard for translators to translate. So during the interpreting, it may be even harder for interpreters to translate utterances with culture-loaded words. An interpreter’s translation can be divided into three steps, namely comprehension, de-verbalization and reformulation. If an interpreter wants to interpret successfully, he should understand what the speaker has said. The interpreter will keep the content of what the speaker just said in his mind. During step two, the interpreter will forget the structure of these linguistic signs which formed what the speaker said and only remembers the ideas these linguistics signs wanted to express. During the last step, the interpreter uses another language to form new utterances to express the speaker’s ideas. The interpreter has to try to express all the information the speaker mentioned as possible and the interpreter also needs to try to make the translated language easy to be understood by target hearers. <br /> The striking feature of interpreting is its timeliness. Since the interpreter’s memory is limited, interpretation is more about translating the overall meaning of the discourse. Sometimes interpreters have to identify the key information of someone’s utterances and discard the unimportant information. The approach we have discussed above can also be used to interpret. For example, the interpreter can use literal translation approach to translate. By using the literal translation approach, “ ‘莫道今年春将尽，明年春色倍欢人。我期待着明年中国和世界都会变得更好’，can be translated into ‘Do not regret that the spring is departing, come next year as it will be twice as enchanting. I really hope to see that next year in China and in the whole world people will be better off.’”(Guo Huiqing 2018:94) It’s worth mentioning that interpreters have to translate in a limited time. So when confronting some special expression that is hard to find the equivalent in the target language. They will try to explain the meaning of these expression. For example, the interpreter can translate “ ‘山重水复疑无路，柳暗花明又一村’ into ‘After encountering all kinds of difficulties and experiencing all kinds of hardships, at the end of the day we will see light at the end of tunnel’”.(Guo Huiqing 2018:95) This expression is from ancient Chinese poet Tao Yuanming’s poem. This sentence just express the scenery of the countryside. But combing the poem with the utterances the speaker has said, the interpreter translates the sentence into the translation above. This kind of explanation approach can be often used in interpreting.<br /> Translation and interpreting share a lot in common like the approaches to translate. But interpreting has the feature of timeliness while translation doesn’t. This feature brings more challenges for interpreters to translate. It requires interpreter to have to quick response and a better sensibility to cultural differences.<br /> <br /> '''6 Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> “Since the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people, it is extremely difficult to separate the two. On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.” (Dai Weidong 2002:130) Language and culture are interdependent during the process of evolution. Language belongs to culture. Translators, who translate the information from one language to another, have the responsibility to promote the communication between different countries. A good translator can help the transmission of cultures. The cultural differences among different countries lead to different culture-loaded words in different countries. The reason why we call a culture-loaded word a culture-loaded word is because it contains the special meaning of a culture. It is exactly this kind of uniqueness which makes a culture different from other cultures. Although culture-loaded words make it hard for translators to translate well, translators still have to find strategies to overcome this kind of difficulty. As long as cultural differences exist, culture-loaded words will still be there. As a bridge between two language or even two cultures, translators still have to work hard to discover better approaches to translate culture-loaded words well. If translators can translate better, the cultural communication between two countries will be better.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1] Baker, Mona. ''In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation.'' London: Routledge, 1992<br /> <br /> [2] Chen, Junming. [陈君铭]. 谈汉语文化负载词的不可译性[J]. 淮南师范学院学报, 2013(4):28-31<br /> <br /> [3] Cui, Shan. [崔姗]. 翻译补偿视角下的中国茶名英译研. 福建茶叶, 2019(2):125-126<br /> <br /> [4] Dai, Weidong. [戴炜栋]. 《新编简明英语语言学教程》. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2002<br /> <br /> [5] Eugene A, Nida and Charles R, Taber.''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden：E.J.Brill,1969<br /> <br /> [6] Guo, Huqing. [郭卉青]. 释意理论视角下文化负载词的英汉口译策略[J]. 陕西能源学院学报, 2018(2):94-96<br /> <br /> [7] Huang, Yongyuan and Zhang, Jing. [黄永媛, and 张晶]. 中西文化起源对比与研究. 东北农业大学学报(社会科学版). 2011(6):107-109<br /> <br /> [8] Lawrence, Venuti .''The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation''. London and New York: Routledge, 1995<br /> <br /> [9] Liao, Qiyi. [廖七一]. 《当代西方翻译理论探索》. 南京: 译林出版社, 2002<br /> <br /> [10] Steiner, George. ''After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998<br /> <br /> [11] Wang, Xiang. [王祥]. 全球化语境下文化负载词翻译技巧. 开封教育学院学报. 2017(8):75-76<br /> <br /> [12] Xu, Xianling and Li, Xiangzhuang. [徐先, and李相状]. 中国饮食文化. 北京：中国戏剧出版社, 2005<br /> <br /> Zhang, Jiachen. [张佳琛]. 中国“食”文化的异化翻译. 长沙理工大学学报（社会科学版）, 2014(3):140-107<br /> <br /> =Skopos and Functional Equivalence=<br /> =='''A Comparative Study between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory and My thoughts on the Two Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract：'''This paper first makes a brief introduction of the two very important translation theories, which are Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory, put forward by Eugene Nida and Hans Vermeer respectively. Then the paper analyzes the similarities and differences between the two theories from many different perspectives. Through the analysis of the two theories, the author finally puts forwards its own thoughts on the two translation theories.<br /> <br /> '''Key words：'''Functional Equivalence Theory; Skopos theory; Eugene Nida; Hans Vermeer<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''本文首先对翻译研究中两种极为重要的翻译理论，即尤金·奈达提出的功能对等翻译理论和汉斯·弗米尔进行了简要介绍，之后从多个不同的方面对这两种理论的相似点和不同之处进行分析。最后，在对两种理论进行分析后，作者提出自己对这两种理论的看法和认识。 <br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''功能对等理论；翻译目的论；尤金·奈达；汉斯·弗米尔<br /> <br /> '''(1)Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1. Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> In 1964, Eugene Nida, the famous American linguist and ''Bible'' Translator, first put forward the notion of “dynamic equivalence” in his book ''Toward a Science of Translating''. According to Nida, “dynamic equivalence” refers to “ the closest natural equivalence to the source language message(Tan Zaixi, 1984: 10)”. In saying this, Nida means to appeal translators to put emphasis on expressing to the target readers both the messages conveyed in the source language and the forms and styles of the original text. Later, he realizes the name “dynamic equivalence” may confuse some translation learners and they may think he only focuses on translating the content and meaning of the source text and ignores its form and style, he then changes the name of “dynamic equivalence” into “functional equivalence”. Nida thinks that the response made by the target language receptor to the target text should generally be equivalent to the response made by the source language receptor to the source text, so when the translator cannot retain both the form and the content of the original text, he or she should give priority to the content of the original text and change the form of the source text. And in response to questions like how and to what degree the translator can change the form of the original text, Nida then points out that in translation, there are four aspects in dynamic equivalence, namely, lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence respectively. If a translator can convey the language form, the content and the style of the source text in natural target language, and make the target readers give the same response to the target text as the source language made to the original text, then his translation can be said to have achieved the maximal equivalence. On the other hand, if a translation only transmit the content of the original text generally, then the translation can be said to have achieved the minimal equivalence. <br /> <br /> '''1.2. Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was first put forward by Hans Vermeer in his book ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' in 1978. According to Skopos theory, translation means to “'''produce a text at target setting for a target purpose and target addressee in target circumstances'''”(Liu Junping, 2009: 377). Based on this definition, Vermeer Hans concludes the three rules of Skopos theory, which are skopos rule, coherence rule and loyalty rule.<br /> <br /> Firstly, skopos rule, or purpose principle, is the primary principle to be followed in translation. It holds that the purpose to be achieved of the target text determines the whole process of translation, including the choice of the translator in translation skills and strategies, and that all translation activities are determined by its purpose. Generally speaking, the skopos rule has under its umbrella three types of purposes: the first one is the basic purpose of the translator; the second is the communicative purpose of the translation; and the third is the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. But at most of times, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the translation.<br /> <br /> Secondly, coherence rule, also called intra-textual coherence, means that the translation must be understandable and readable to the receptors, and meaningful in the communicative environment of the target culture and the target text.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, fidelity rule, which means that there should be inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. Inter-textual coherence is similar to what is usually called “信” or “be faithful to the original text”. In the traditional translation theory, “faithfulness” is always regarded as the basic translation standard to obey, but in Skopos theory, to what degree the form and style of the target text should be faithful to the original text totally depends on the purpose of the translation and the translator’s understanding of the source text.<br /> <br /> Under Vermeer’ s Skopos theory, the skopos rule is the most important rule among the three rules, the coherence rule the second important, and the fidelity rule the least important. This indicates that in Skopos theory, the end justifies the means(Liu Junping, 2009: 377-378)<br /> <br /> '''II.Similarities and Differences'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1. The Similarities between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1.1. Both Attach Great Importance to the Target Receptor’s Status'''<br /> <br /> Functional Equivalence Theory is a receptor-oriented theory. As revealed by Nida’s definition of translation, that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes that the primary aim of translation is such that the target text should bring the target receptors the similar or same response as the response made by receptors in the source language. Besides, to bring to the readers a similar or same response, Nida even put forward that, if it is necessary, different target texts should be made according to the needs of different receptors. All of the two points reflects that in Functional Equivalence Theory, the target receptor’s status is very important.<br /> <br /> While the Skopos theory, too, put the reader’s needs on a high status. Of the three rules in Skopos theory, the most important one is skopos rule, which includes three purposes, the basic purpose of the translator, the communicative purpose of the translation, and the purpose of specific translation strategies or means. However, to take all the three purposes into consideration, a translator must first know what and who the target text serves, so he or she can immediately know the purpose of the translation task and do a corresponding and qualified translation. This, on the other hand, also means that in Skopos theory, the target reader’s needs indirectly determine the purpose of the translation, so it is also given priority to by the translator.<br /> <br /> '''2.1.2. Both Emphasize the Communicative Function of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Under the Functional Equivalence Theory, the translation should achieve a functional equivalence, bringing the target readers the roughly same experience and making them give the responses as the receptors in the source language culture. In doing this, the translator is in fact trying to achieve the communicative function of the original text by shortening the distance of the source text receptors and the target text receptors, which, on the other hand, means that the process of translation is a communicative process between the original language culture and the culture of the target language.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, of the three purposes under the skopos rule, the communicative purpose is regarded as the most important purpose of a target text. Skopos theory holds that translation is a communicative activity with a purpose, and the process of translation is determined by the intended function or purpose of the target text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The Differences between the Two Theories'''<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1. Different Status of the Source Language and the Target Language'''<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory, a good translation achieving the goal of translation not only needs to provide another message similar to the original message conveyed in the source text, but also needs to clearly reflect the meaning and intention of the original text, bringing to the target readers similar or even same effects and making them give a same response. From this point, one can easily see that Functional Equivalence Theory is centered on the original text, which, to some degree, reflects that Functional Equivalence still put the source language on a high status. The status of the target language is secondary to the source language as the choice of the words, sentence structures of the target text still heavily depend on the source text.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, on the other hand, gets rid of the point of view of the traditional text-centered translation theory, and focuses on the function and purpose of the target text. From the perspective of Skopos theory, a successful translation is not one that places the original text in a sacred and unattainable position. Vermeer further put forward the view of “subverting the source language” in Skopos theory. He stated that “the linguistic and stylistic features of the original text are no longer the only criteria to measure the translation”. All of these reflect that the source text enjoys a relatively low status in Skopos theory compared with its status in Functional Equivalence Theory. Besides, from the three rules of Skopos theory, one can easily know that, the most important one is the skopos rule, then the coherence of the target text, namely the intra-textual coherence and finally the fidelity of the target text to the source text, namely the inter-textual coherence. Therefore, we can see that the status of the source language actually lower than the target language in Skopos theory, which is different from the case in Functional Equivalence Theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2. Different Translation Principles'''<br /> <br /> Nida believes that equivalence is the goal of translation. His translation standard is that the target text should be faithful to the original text in terms of content and style while also being expressive in the eyes of the target readers. As put forward by Nida that, “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source language, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style”, the translation standard of Functional Equivalence Theory include “equivalence”, which is the equivalence of meaning and style, namely be faithful to the meaning and style of the source text. Besides, in front of “equivalence”, there is also a word “natural”, which means the target text should be fluent and be in conformity with the habits of the target culture, namely “expressiveness” in traditional translation theory.<br /> <br /> In Skopos theory, however, “faithfulness” is no longer regarded as the primary translation criteria. As Skopos theory judges the success of a translation by its intended purpose, which reflects the requirements of the target readers. However, as the requirements of the readers are different, Skopos theory advocates the diversification of translation standards. Only when the communicative purpose of the translation requires the translation to have the same communicative function as the original text, equivalence becomes the standard of the translation process. Otherwise, the translation may be very different from the original text in its style and form.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3. Different Translation Skills and Translation Strategies Used in the Translation Process'''<br /> <br /> In Functional Equivalence Theory, as determined by its definition for translation, the translation skills and strategies used in the translation process are all for one common goal, which is to bring the target readers the roughly same or same response. In order to achieve the aim, some translation skills are frequently used under the Functional Equivalence Theory, including literal translation, liberal translation, domestication and borrowing translation. And among all these translation skills, domestication and borrowing translation are two translation strategies most favorably advocated by Functional Equivalence Theory. Here, I will list the translation of a phrase to briefly explain the reason why the two translation skills are often used in translation process. We all know that to grow like mushrooms is an English phrase which means to rapidly grow or increase in number. It vividly describes the scene that after the incessant rain in London, the explosive growth of the mushrooms. While in China, there is also a similar phrase “雨后春笋”, to describe the scene that after a spring rain, the bamboo shoots sprout overnight in the forest. Therefore, when doing a E-C translation, the translator often uses domestication and translate “to grow like mushrooms” into “雨后春笋”, so as to enable the Chinese readers give a same response as English readers did.<br /> <br /> However, Skopos theory is different. In Skopos theory, the end justifies the means, which means all the translation skills and strategies are determined by the purpose and use of the target text as well as the reader it serves. Therefore, it usually adopts different translation strategies to meet different translation purposes. Translators can freely choose the translation skills he wants to use, whether it is literal translation or liberal translation, domestication or foreignization, transliteration or borrowing translation, even simplifying translation and reduction translation, in consideration of the author's writing intention, the theme of the original text, the translator’s purpose and the needs of the readers. <br /> <br /> Here, I want to firstly compare the difference between Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory in dealing with content with cultural characteristics. As I wrote before, the Functional Equivalence Theory emphasizes the same response between the original readers and the target readers and the presence of a natural text to the target readers, so it prefers to use the existed words, phrases, and cultural images in the target language to replace the expressions in the original text, which explains why domestication and borrowing translation are often use under the theory -- that is because by using the two ways, functional equivalence can be achieved. However, in Skopos theory, the translator enjoys a higher degree of freedom. He can select translation skills flexibly according to the skopos of the text. For example, when it comes to cultural translation, the translator should carefully consider the cultural differences between the two languages and have full understanding of the purpose and usage of the original text. If the purpose of a translated text is to diffuse the language characteristics of the original author, the author’s writing intention, or the language characteristics of the source language culture, then the translator can adopt the strategy of foreignization or the strategy of literal translation with some annotations in the target text to help the target readers better understand a foreign concept. For example, in order to maintain the cultural characteristics of Chinese, the Chinese proverb “谋事在人，成事在天” should be translated as “man proposals, heaven disposes.&quot; instead of “man proposals, God disposes”. This is because the translator wants foreign people to know our beliefs -- we Chinese believe in Heaven rather than God. At the same time, sometimes, to meet the needs of some special readers, simplifying translation and reduction translation are also used in the translation process. For example, there are some publishers in China which publish the simplified version of those foreign classics to meet the the children’s needs in reading. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.4. Different Status of the Translator'''<br /> <br /> In what Nida thinks of, the translator is only a cultural envoy, transmitting the idea of a culture to people in another culture. Nida believes that as the second source of information, the translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. Therefore, the translator must understand what the original author thinks. The translator’s role is mainly to convey the original author’s intention to the readers. In addition, the translator should not introduce any personal ideas into the translation of the original text, no matter whether the original point of view is consistent with his own. “The translator should not intervene in, edit or rewrite the original text even if it has shortcomings and errors, nor should he improve the original text even if he has the ability”(Tan Zaixi, 1984). Of course, we can critically accept Nida’s words. When there are obvious mistakes in the original text (such as the original text not conforming to the facts), we should correct them in the translation.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory improves the position of translator. The translator is the receptor of the original text and transmits the information of the original text to the reader. Skopos theory allows the translator to determine the faithfulness of the translation to the source text and determine the proportion of the faithfulness of the target text to the original text. It adopts the translation strategies such as “modification, abridgement and reduction”, and denies that there is only one “correct or best” translation of the source language. Therefore, the translator has more freedom in the process of translation, and can transfer the original text according to the needs, expectations and knowledge background of the readers, so as to achieve the purpose of a translation task.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.5. Different translation processes'''<br /> <br /> In order to achieve functional equivalence, Nida proposed the famous back translation theory by referring to the concepts of core sentence, non-core sentence and transformation. In Functional Equivalence Theory, translation is a complicated process, which includes four stages: analysis, transfer, reconstruction and test (Tan Zaixi, 1984, 144). Specifically speaking, as far as Nida is concerned, when doing a translation task, the translator needs to transform the original text from the surface structure to the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure on the basis of grammatical and semantic analysis, and then translate the deep structure or pseudo-deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally from the deep structure of the target text to the surface structure of the target text. After the translation is done, the translator needs to re-examine and test the translation.(Peng Changjiang, 2017: 09)<br /> Skopos theory, however, unlike the Functional Equivalence Theory, it does not put forward specific translation procedures. The Skopos theory does not give detailed guidelines for the translation of words, phrases, paragraphs and texts, but it do gives some guidance to the translator from the macro perspective, giving the translator more autonomy to do translation and enabling them freely translate a text.<br /> <br /> '''III.My Thoughts on the Two Theories''' <br /> <br /> '''3.1. My thought on Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1. Strengths and Contributions of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Firstly, the Functional Equivalence Theory brings modern linguistics, communication studies, information theory, semiotics and aesthetics into the field of translation. From the macro perspective, it breaks through the limitations of the traditional thoughts on translation and provides a new perspective for translation research. It studies translation in a more detailed way from multiple perspectives, applies new thoughts, concepts and methods to translation studies, and provides many new methods for translation research. Besides, it also lays a solid foundation for modern translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, it must be emphasized that, Functional Equivalence Theory has given many constructive suggestions to translators. From a micro perspective, Functional Equivalence Theory has solved the long-standing dispute between literal translation and liberal translation. It requires the translator use the target language to reproduce the meaning of the source language as fully as possible in different language structures, thus both breaking the restrictions of traditional word-for-word translation and limiting the free and random play of the translator. To some extent, Functional Equivalence Theory has greatly promoted the translation of some types of literary works, such as the translation of prose, help avoiding the creation of many pseudo--translation and translationese cases. At the same time, it eases the argument of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of language and culture, and seeks the balance point of domestication and foreignization from the perspective of multiple disciplines.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Functional Equivalence Theory provides with the target readers a chance to know other country’s culture in their own language. Traditionally, translation is to transform the original language that are different from ours into the familiar language that we use. It can let the people who have not learned a foreign language also understand and appreciate the message under some phrases written in a foreign language. For example, if one has no common sense in English, he will regard “a piece of cake” as “一块蛋糕”. This example reflects the culture gap between the people of two countries. Good translation is one that overcomes these culture gaps and turn them into what the target readers is familiar with. So, it is better for the translator use the Functional Equivalence Theory to translate “a piece of cake” with the well-known Chinese proverb “小菜一碟” . <br /> <br /> '''3.1.2. Deficiency of Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> Although Functional Equivalence Theory has made many contributions to the translation studies, it is not without its deficiencies. Here I list three disadvantages of it.<br /> <br /> First, Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory is concluded from the translation of the ''Bible''. It is, in fact, cannot be a guideline for all kinds of translation. For example, some texts, including some articles with profound historic significance and cultural characteristics, some scientific articles, some lyrical articles, movie subtitles, government reports, actually need different translation standards. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate fields, but it is not universal or omnipotent rule. Though, in fact, there is nothing omnipotent and flawless in the world. Functional Equivalence Theory can play an important role in appropriate area. If it is used in the right place, it can help the translator present a more brilliant translation.<br /> Second, the Functional Equivalence Theory requires the target text to be written in a “common language”, which should be understood by the less educated readers and accepted by the readers with high literacy, but this turns out to be very difficult to achieve in practice. It can be said that the requirements of this theory are way too demanding. Although this is a goal worth pursuing, it is nearly impossible to achieve, as even in the same country, different knowledge levels, different regional cultures and even different life experiences will lead to different understanding abilities.<br /> <br /> In addition, Nida also ignores an important thing, that is, culture is very complex. The generation, evolution and creation of each nation and its culture are different from each other. Some cultural images in foreign works may be something the other country’s readers have never seen and cannot understand. In translation process, it is certainly ideal if the translator can find a corresponding cultural object in the target culture. But at most of times, it is in fact very difficult for the translator to find such a substitute. This makes the so called “functional equivalence” very difficult to achieve, and even show its loopholes -- which is also a difficulty in translation process -- it is usually difficult for translators to translate and explain certain words with special cultural meanings. In fact, the differences between different cultures are absolute and inevitable, while the similarities are rare and precious. For example, in order to avoid the danger and inauspicious emotions of the word “red” in western culture, some British translators translate the original title of the book 《红楼梦》 into “''The Story of the Stone''”. This kind of translation, however, fails to transmit the message of a rich, luxurious, dreamy life hidden in the original book name, let alone bring the western readers the same response. <br /> <br /> '''3.1.3. My Point of View towards Functional Equivalence Theory'''<br /> <br /> The great influence of Functional Equivalence Theory on the whole translation field is obvious to all, but it is not a universal theory. The advantages and disadvantages of the theory of functional equivalence should be treated in a dialectical way. Functional Equivalence Theory is the product of a particular historical period, and it may have some inconsistencies with contemporary translation theories. Therefore, we should take a comprehensive view of Nida’s translation theory. On the whole, Nida’s translation thought can be regarded as a bright gem in the treasure house of western translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''3.2. My thoughts on Skopos Theory''' <br /> <br /> '''3.2.1. Strengths and Contributions of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has many advantages. First of all, as a major breakthrough in the study of contemporary western translation theory, Skopos theory breaks the limitations of Functional Equivalence Theory at the linguistic level and puts forward a translation standard dominated by skopos principle. Skopos theory provides the translator with another perspective in translation practice, which is more conducive to the choice of translation strategies.<br /> <br /> Secondly, Skopos theory focuses on the requirements of the translation client, points out the influence of the client on the translation process, and breaks the limitation of traditional translation theory, which only takes the original author, the translator and the target reader into consideration. From this perspective, Skopos theory can be called a real breakthrough in the history of translation studies.<br /> <br /> Thirdly, Skopos theory emphasizes the initiative and participation of the translator, and holds that the original text mainly plays the role of providing information. Therefore, it shifts the focus of translation from faithful reproducing the source text to the creation of the translation. It overthrows the central position of the original text and establishes the central position of the target text and the translator, which gives all translation learners and researchers a new insight towards translation studies.<br /> <br /> Finally, Skopos theory further studies the development of translation from the perspective of culture. From the perspective of Skopos theory, translation is a kind of cultural comparison and a kind of cross-cultural communication in a certain cultural context, which benefits the target readers a lot.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2. Deficiency of Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> However, all thing is not perfect, Skopos theory is no exception, of course.<br /> <br /> Firstly, Skopos theory allows the translator to rewrite the original text to a certain extent, but it does not indicate the extent to which the translator can rewrite the original text. It gives the translator too much freedom, which may let the translator easily translate the source text out of its context. Besides, the original meaning and usage of the source text may be distorted if the translator unscrupulously use every means in order to achieve the so-called “purpose of translation”. Accordingly, the translator will fall into the whirlpool of random translation, which may violate the intention of the original text.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the Skopos theory overemphasizes the purpose of translation, the purpose of the translator and the purpose of the target language, so that the translator may easily change or omit many stylistic features of the original text in the target text. This makes it not suitable for some styles of text, such as poems. Because if a translator translates a poem into a prose or a descriptive passages out of the purpose of the translation client, he or she may be better said to rewrite or recreate something than translate. After all, translation is based on the original text, otherwise it cannot be called translation.<br /> <br /> Last but not least, there are tens of thousands of readers. To meet the needs of different people, a translation must adopt multiple standards. When there are contradictions among various standards, the translator will be at a loss and the multiple standards will be equal to no standards. For example, if a translator receives the mission of the translation client that he should translate a song faithfully but also retain the beauty of the original text for both the children and adults to appreciate it, then the translator may feel hard to do the translation task with the three contradictory translation requirements. <br /> <br /> '''3.2.3. My Point of View towards Skopos Theory'''<br /> <br /> There are more or less deficiencies in every translation theory, and Skopos theory is no exception. To some extent, the shortcomings of Skopos theory mentioned above are also a major feature of it. It is this distinctive theoretical feature that can make it stand out in many translation theories and attract the attention of many scholars and translation enthusiasts. The author believes that the contribution of Skopos theory to the development of translation theory and its guiding significance in translation practice is far greater than its shortcomings and deficiencies. People should treat it with a more objective and rational attitude and let it play its due role in the field of translation. Generally speaking, the Skopos theory put forward by Hans Vermeer is regarded as a major theoretical breakthrough in the study of western translation theory, and it also plays an important role in guiding the successful translation practice.<br /> <br /> '''IV.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Through the above comparison, we find that both Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos theory have their own advantages and disadvantages, and their differences are greater than their similarities. Functional equivalence pays attention to the equivalence between the form and content of the translation and the original text as well as the reader’s response. Skopos theory can solve some problems that can not be solved by Functional Equivalence Theory and widen the research perspective of translation theory, which is to some extent the inheritance and development of Functional Equivalence Theory. The scope of application of the two is different, but both of them have their own unique excellencies.<br /> <br /> Reference books: 《奈达论翻译》by谭载喜&amp;《西方翻译理论通史》by刘军平<br /> <br /> Bibliography：<br /> <br /> [1] Eugene A. Nida. ''Toward a Science of Translating'' [M]. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br /> <br /> [2] Eugene A. Nida, Charles Taber. ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' [M]. Leiden: the Netherlands, E. J. Brill, 1969.<br /> <br /> [3] Hans Vermeer. ''Framework for a General Translation Theory'' [M] ,1978.<br /> <br /> [4]谭载喜.奈达论翻译 [M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司,1984.<br /> <br /> [5]刘军平.西方翻译理论通史 [M].武汉：武汉大学出版社,2009.9.<br /> <br /> [6]百度百科：功能对等理论<br /> <br /> [7]百度百科：翻译目的论<br /> <br /> [8]百度百科：目的论的优点与不足<br /> <br /> [9]百度百科：功能对等理论的贡献与局限性<br /> <br /> [10]彭长江.英汉--汉英翻译教程[M].长沙：湖南师范大学出版社，2017.8.<br /> <br /> [11]百度百科：功能对等理论与目的论的比较<br /> <br /> =='''Comparative Study on Functional Equivalence Theory and Skopos Theory'''==<br /> <br /> '''摘 要'''<br /> <br /> 近几十年来，翻译理论层出不穷，翻译理论也带有多元化倾向。奈达从语言学的角度出发，根据翻译的本质，提出了功能对等理论，在这一理论中，他指出“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。功能主义目的论的代表人物弗米尔认为翻译是一项有目的的活动，并且以实现译文的预期功能和效果为首要原则。<br /> 这两种理论都是具有较大影响力的西方翻译理论。它们在不同的时期由不同流派提出，本文着重分析两大理论在理论基础、翻译标准、文化观等层面上的差异性，并分析其相似性。通过对这两种理论的共性和差异进行比较，旨在加深我们对这两种貌似神离的翻译理论的认识与了解，让我们在不同的领域中能恰当地使用这两种翻译理论,更好地发挥各自的指导作用。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''功能对等；目的论；差异性；相似性<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> In recent decades, translation theories have emerged in an endless stream, and translation theories have a tendency to diversify. From the perspective of linguistics, Eugene Nida puts forward the theory of functional equivalence according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he points out that &quot;Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style&quot;. While one of the representatives of functionalist skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, considers that translation is a purposeful activity, taking the realization of the target text’s intended function as its first principle.<br /> These two theories have great influence in western translation theories. They are proposed by different schools in different periods. This paper will focus on the differences between these two theories in terms of theoretical basis, translation standards, and cultural direction, and then analyze their similarities. By comparing the differences and similarities between the two theories, it will deepen our understanding of these two translation theories so that we can properly use them in different fields, thus better playing their respective guiding roles. <br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Functional Equivalence; Skopos Theory; comparison<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''Research background'''<br /> <br /> Contemporary western translation theories are flourishing, providing a new perspective for translation studies. In the 1960s, Eugene A. Nida proposed a translation theory based on reader response, namely &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;. With the development of the times, people have further understanding of the complex phenomenon of translation. The theory of equivalence sets the translation within the scope of the language level. However, the essence of translation is not only the conversion of pure language, but also the communication between different cultures based on language form. In the 1970s, translation studies oriented to the target language culture appeared in the West, breaking the traditional translation theory of textual centralism, which made the translator pay more attention to the translation and the target language receivers, the social and communicative functions of the translation. The German functionalist translation theory got rid of the shackles of the equivalence theory that prevailed at that time, broadened the field of translation theory research.<br /> <br /> '''Significance of the study'''<br /> <br /> By comparing the differences and similarities of these two translation theory, it can deepen our understanding of them. Therefore, when we do translation, we can choose the most appropriate translation theory to guide us to translate according to the specific situation. So it is very necessary to make a comparison between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''Layout of this chapter'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be divided into three chapters. In the first chapter, a brief introduction of functional equivalence will be presented, such as the definition of functional equivalence, and its four criteria: conveying information; conveying the spirit and style of the original work; fluent language; and similar reader response. The second chapter involves three parts, that is, the development of skopos theory; the definition of skopos theory and the three rules of skopos theory. The final chapter falls into two part: the differences and similarities between these two theories.<br /> <br /> '''1. A brief introduction of Functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The definition of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence theory is the core of the famous American translator Eugene Nida’s translation theory. It attaches great importance to the response of the target language receivers, that is, the target language receiver and the source language receiver produce the same viewing response. He holds that translation should not only ensure the correctness of information exchange and achieve information equivalence in lexical sense, but also take into account the cultural background and behavioral patterns of the target language receiver and achieve information equivalence in style, semantics and other aspects in the process of translation, that is, to achieve functional equivalence of language. In the process of translation, we should not only consider the formal factors such as vocabulary and grammar, but also pay attention to the linguistic factors such as context, culture and social background, which are very important to translation. Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only equivalence in lexical sense, but also equivalence in semantics, text and style. The information conveyed by translation includes both surface lexical information and deep cultural information. This kind of “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: 1. lexical equivalence；2. syntactic equivalence；3. textual equivalence；4. stylistic equivalence. Among these four aspects, Nida believes that “meaning is the most important and form is the second”(张春柏，1998：50).<br /> <br /> '''1.2 The criteria of functional equivalence theory'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s functional equivalence translation theory has four criteria (Nida, 2001:117): <br /> <br /> '''1.2.1 Conveying information'''<br /> <br /> The “information” includes all kinds of information conveyed by the original language: semantics, style, literary image, scene and psychological effect. In the theory of functional equivalence, the criterion of “conveying information” means that the target language information conveyed by the translator to the target language receiver should be basically the same as the original text information conveyed by the original author to the target language receiver. <br /> <br /> Example: “presidential historian...”<br /> <br /> “总统的史学家......”<br /> <br /> It is not clear that the message conveyed by “presidential historian” to Chinese readers is not the same as that conveyed by “presidential historian” to English readers. However, according to Nida’s functional equivalence theory, the translator translates it into “研究总统的历史学家” by adding words, so that Chinese readers can correctly understand the true meaning of “presidential historian” in the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.2 Conveying the spirit and style of the original work'''<br /> <br /> From Nida’s point of view, translation is to reproduce the original text in the most natural way in the target language, first of all, meaning, then spiritual style, so that the receivers of the translated text can produce basically the same psychological response as the receivers of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example:“来吧，朋友!”<br /> <br /> It is a column broadcast by CCTV. If translated into “come on, friends!”, it seems to be close to the original in form, as a column is not solemn enough. And “solemnity” is the style of “来吧，朋友！”in the original Chinese text, which should be reproduced in the translation. Therefore, “A time to make friends” is quite different from the original Chinese in form, but it accurately conveys the spiritual style of the original to the target readers.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.3 Fluent language: fully in line with the norms and conventions of the target language'''<br /> <br /> This criterion means that, on the premise of conveying the information and spiritual style of the original text, the process of translation should not be constrained by the linguistic form and structure of the original text, and should grasp the connotation and spirit of the original text. <br /> <br /> Example：“车来了！”<br /> <br /> “Here comes the car / truck / bus / minibus / lorry / taxi!”<br /> In Chinese, the category word “car” is used to replace any form of vehicle. But this method is not found in English. On the contrary, English is accustomed to using specific vocabulary. Therefore, when translating similar Chinese into English, it is necessary to make clear the means of transportation and to translate the specific means of transportation according to the habits of English expression. If you cross the street, remind your peers to say “车来了！”You should translate it into “Be careful!” according to English expression habits, so that English readers can really understand the meaning of the original text.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.4 Similar reader responses'''<br /> <br /> The first two standards focus on the transmission of linguistic information, content and style, while the latter two focus on the acceptability of the translation to the audience：The relationship between the target reader and the target text should be basically the same as that between the original reader and the target text, so as to achieve the spiritual fit between the translator and the original author, thus enabling the target reader to get the same feelings as the original reader. <br /> Example: “as white as snow.”<br /> <br /> It can sometimes be translated into “very white” because people in the translated culture may not know what snow is. We can also translate “to grow like mushroom” into “如雨后春笋般地成长起来”, because “mushroom” means exactly the same in English as“春笋”in Chinese.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅱ. A brief introduction of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is the core concept of German functionalist theory, which is put forward by Hans. J. Vermeer. Skopos theory holds that the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed. Vermeer thinks that translators should follow three basic rules in the process of their translation, which are respectively skopos theory, coherence theory and fidelity theory. <br /> <br /> '''2.1 The development of Skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> Before the 1970s, the focus of translation studies was equivalence. In fact, this kind of equivalence was hard to achieve because the differences between cultures are hard to eliminate. In order to solve this problem, translation theorists put forward new theories, using functional and communicative methods to study translation. In this context, functionalist skopos theory continues to develop, and boldly shakes off the bondage of equivalence, taking the skopos as the general principle. So translation is examined in the framework of behavioral theory and intercultural communication, which opens a new path for the world translation theories, including the Chinese translation (Li Changshuan, 2009:11). The development of skopos theory has experienced the following four stages:<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss firstly introduced the concept of equivalence into translation criticism, proposing the prototype of functionalist theory. On the one hand, Reiss still insisted on the equivalence theory with the original text as the center, and pointed out that the ideal translation should be equivalent to the original text from the conceptual content, language form and communicative function. She believed that the ideal translation should be comprehensive communicative translation. On the other hand, Reiss also realized that some equivalence is impossible. For example, the translation and the original text have different functions. In this case, Reiss believes that the translator should give priority to the functional characteristics of the translation rather than the equivalence principle (Zhang Jinglan, 2004:1). Reiss's research laid the foundation for skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Reiss’s student Hans J. Vermeer proposed skopos theory, taking the skopos of the translation as the paramount principle during the process of translation. Vermeer believed that translation is a kind of human behavior, and any kind of human behavior is purposeful, so the purpose of translation should be determined before the translation begins. Vermeer thinks that translation should be based on the original text, and translation is a purposeful behavior that must be completed by negotiation. In addition, translation must follow three basic rules, of which the skopos rule is the most important. After these three rules are put forward, the criteria for judging the good or bad translation are no longer “equivalence”, but whether the translation fully achieves the expected goal of translation or not.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Based on communication theory and action theory, Holz-Manttari proposed translational action. Translational action views translation as purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and focuses on the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds involving intercultural transfer (Jeremy Munday, 2001:77). Translation is a communicative process involving a series of roles and players Manttari regards text as a pure tool for achieving communicative function, and believes that its inherent value is completely subordinate to its purpose. The translator only needs to be responsible for the purpose environment, and the target text can be completely independent of the original text, thus further developing the functionalist translation theory. <br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christane Nord comprehensively summarized and perfected the functionalist theory. Nord proposed the principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot;, which systematically elucidates the internal and external factors that need to be considered in text analysis of translation, and how to formulate a translation strategy that is consistent with the purpose of translation based on the original text.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 The definition of skopos'''<br /> <br /> Skopos theory was originally put forward by the German scholar Han J. Vermeer in 1978. “Skopos is a Greek word for 'aim' or 'purpose' and was introduced into translation theory by Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and of the action of translating”(Munday, 2001: 78). Translation actions have many purposes, but Vermeer divides them into three categories: translator’s basic purpose, such as make a living; the target text’s communicative purpose, like enlightening the readers; and the purpose realized by selecting some special translation strategies or steps, for example, translating one language word by word aims to show the structure feature of this language. Generally speaking, the skopos theory refers to the communicative purpose of the source text.<br /> <br /> '''2.3 Three basic rules of skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> In this part, a detailed analysis of these rules will be presented with examples.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.1 The skopos rule'''<br /> <br /> In the three rules of Skopos theory, Skopos theory is the prime principle to be followed in any translation. Vermeer explains this rule as follows:<br /> <br /> ''Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.''(Vermeer, 1988:20) <br /> <br /> Therefore, skopos theory believes that any translation action is determined by the purpose of the translation. That is to say, “The ends justify the means” (Reiss &amp;Vermeer, 1984:101) the purpose of translation determines the translation methods and strategies.<br /> <br /> Example: I wear nothing but a few drops of Channel No.5<br /> <br /> 无限芬芳的超脱，点滴即可创造。<br /> <br /> If using the literal translation, this sentence can be translated as “我什么都不穿，除了滴几滴香奈儿五号”. However, this kind of translation extremely lacks of beauty and there is no more elegance. Considering that the ultimate goal of advertisement is to induce consumers to buy the products and services it promotes. This advertisement adopts free translation and combines with Chinese traditional culture, which makes it like a ancient poem with quaint charm. It not only expresses the meaning of the advertisement, but also injects the characteristics of art, thus letting Channel No.s full of magic. It satisfies some people's pursuit high quality of life, and also makes consumers deeply impressed. So it can be called a successful translation.<br /> <br /> '''2.3.2 The coherence rule'''<br /> <br /> Coherence rule is also called intratextual coherence rule. It holds that the translated text must be coherent, readable and acceptable. In other words, the TT receivers can understand the TT according to their cultural and intellectual background. Any text is a provider of information and functions, but the information and functions are not always obvious from a linguistic point of view. The translator selects aspects and components that serve the purpose according to the skopos rule, and then translates the source text through language processing to make the translated text become a new information provider. In the language processing process, translators must be concerned that translation is readable and understandable in the translated language. Only the translation is meaningful in the communicative context of the TL receivers can the culture and information of the source text be effectively transmitted to the target language readers.<br /> <br /> Example: Enchanting medieval house with five acres of delightful gardens.<br /> <br /> 这里是迷人的中世纪住宅，外有五英亩的美丽花园。<br /> <br /> This is a part of the travel propaganda. In order to ensure that translation is smooth and coherent, the original prepositional phrase is changed into a complete sentence with a subject-predicate structure, which doesn’t make the relationship among sentences appear loose. <br /> <br /> '''2.3.3 The fidelity rule'''<br /> <br /> Fidelity rule is also called inter-textual coherence and states that there must be coherence between the ST and the TT. It is similar to the “faithfulness” of Yan Fu’s theory. Fidelity rule maintains the status of the original text and constrains translation actions of different translation purpose. However, the concept of Fidelity rule is relative. The form and degree of faithfulness is determined by the purpose of translation and the translators’ understanding of the original text.<br /> <br /> Example: Free entry into farm, Dogs on lead. <br /> <br /> OPEN DAILY: 1 March--30 November 10:00 am--5:00 pm<br /> <br /> 农场免费进入，宠物狗请带好狗绳。<br /> <br /> 开放时间：3月1日--11月30日 上午10点--下午五点<br /> <br /> The time, place and various precautions in the travel text are very important, because the error of this kind of information will bring unnecessary trouble to the tourists. Therefore, the translation, according to the fidelity rule, faithfully and effectively conveys the original information to the reader for the purpose of facilitating the tourists. <br /> <br /> There exists a hierarchical order of these rules. The skopos rule is the most important one and other two rules are subordinate to it. At the same time, the fidelity rule is also subordinate to the coherence rule.<br /> <br /> '''Ⅲ. Comparative study on Nida's functional equivalence theory and functionalist skopos theory'''<br /> <br /> This chapter will mainly discuss the differences and similarities between functional equivalence theory and skopos theory.<br /> <br /> '''3.1 The differences'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1.1 Different theoretical basis'''<br /> <br /> The early equivalence theory was directly influenced by American structuralist linguistics and human linguistics. Later, Nida combined translation studies with the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method and Chomsky's transformational-generative grammar that were popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, took structural analysis of language expressions and translation procedures, and injected fresh blood into translation studies (Chen Gang, 2011: 145). Using communication theory and cross-cultural content as the starting point, Nida revised Chomsky's deep transfermation grammar, paid attention to the psychology of information receivers, and stimulated the potential of information receivers as .much as possible.<br /> <br /> German skopos theory is an emerging school in the late 1970s. It criticizes that the translation theory based on linguistic school pays much attention to form, and is developed on the basis of communication theory, information theory, behavior theory, discourse linguistics, and text theory. Based on the behavior theory, Skopos theory proposes the concept of translation action, which extends translation to a new field. That is to say, translation is a kind of purposeful and conscious intercultural communication action of human. As the name suggests, Skopos theory regards translation activities as a kind of &quot;action&quot;, and any action has its goals or skopos. One of the representatives of the skopos theory, Hans J. Vermeer, summarizes the essence of skopos theory in a concise language: the ends justify the means, that is, the purpose of translation determines the translation process.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.2 Different translation principles and standards'''<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence refers to “the closest natural equivalence to the source language information”. “Natural” here means that the translation must conform to the language and culture of the target language, in line with the context and the requirements of the target receivers. &quot;Equivalence&quot; here, he clearly stated that it is not &quot;equivalence&quot; in mathematics, but &quot;approximation&quot;, that is, the approximation of functional equivalence from varying degrees. From the above Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory, the translator must conform to four criteria in order to achieve &quot;close and natural equivalence&quot;: (1) conveying meaning; (2) conveying the spirit and style of the original work; (3) fluent; (4) similar reader responses. In order to achieve these four standards, there will be contradictions between content and form from time to time. It is either the content giving way to form, or the form giving way to content. The two form a unified whole.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory advocates that translation should follow three rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule, of which the skopos rule is the highest principle. The main purpose is to make the translation achieve the expected function of the target language receivers in the target language environment. In addition to the highest principle, the translation must follow the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The former requires the translation to be &quot;coherent within the text,&quot; that is, the translation needs to meet the communication context and cultural background of the target language so that the target reader can understand. The latter requires the translation to be coherent between the ST and the TT. That is, the translation should try to imitate the original text, whether it is formal imitation or content imitation is permissible, which depends on the purpose of the translation. The latter two rules are subordinate to the highest rule-- the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> But this also makes the translation theorists produce questions. Is the translator free to do anything for the purpose? Then Nord put forward the theory of “function plus loyalty”. Nord believes that &quot;there is no translation without the original text&quot;, and free rewriting does not belong to translation; &quot;Translators should be responsible for both the original text and the translation environment, and be responsible for both the sender of the original information and the recipient of the translation.&quot; This responsibility of the translator is &quot;loyalty&quot;(Zhang Meifang, 2005:60-65). The principle of &quot;function plus loyalty&quot; avoids the skopos theory to go to extremes, and complements skopos theory, highlighting the responsibility of translators, and limiting the translator's freedom. Because the skopos theory believes that the success of the translation is judged by whether the expected purpose of the source text is realized or not, and the expectation also reflects the requirements of the target language reader. Since the target language readers reflect differently, so the translation standard of the skopos theory is also diversified.<br /> <br /> '''3.1.3 Different cultural directions'''<br /> <br /> Nida tried to overcome the cultural difference and eliminate the cultural atmosphere in the source text. His theory is mainly oriented to the original text. That is, the source language culture, emphasizing the consistency of cultural environment between the source language and the target language. At the same time, Nida is a support of language commonality. His theory reflects the translation thought of structuralist linguistics, that is, the &quot;mirror reflection&quot; of the objective world and the universality of language expression. The translators’ full imitation and the independence of express the value of their culture, especially the cultural consistency of the target language culture and the source language culture.<br /> <br /> Vermeer regards translation as a purposeful action, firstly in its outcome, that is, the target text. The target text is oriented towards the target culture, and the target culture determines the suitability of the target text. Therefore, Skopos theory believes that Translation is an irreversible transmission of information to the source language culture or language in the target culture. There is no intermediate position, it is intercultural communication action, and it is communicative and cultural. In addition, Skopos theory is oriented to the context of macro-postmodern culture, especially the habits, traditions and norms of the target language culture (Fan Derui, 2019:67).<br /> <br /> '''3.2 The Similarities'''<br /> <br /> '''3.2.1 Both are a combination of translation and language function'''<br /> <br /> The skopos theory represented by Hans J. Vermeer and Christane Nord, and the functional equivalence theory of Nida are put forward by different schools in different periods, but there are still many internal connections and intercommunity. There is no doubt that both have their rationality of existence and show progress in their translation activities of their respective periods. Whether it is &quot;skopos theory&quot; or &quot;functional equivalence theory&quot;, both their ultimate goals are to achieve smooth communication between different languages and reduce misunderstandings and conflicts arising from information exchange. In particular, both combine translation with language functions, focusing on the role of language functions in translation. Skopos theorists believe that translation is a purposeful communicative activity, and the translation process is determined by the expected function or purpose of the translation. This purpose is to a great extent influenced by the target receivers and the context and cultural background of the target receivers. Therefore, the translator should decide the choice of the original text information, the use of the translation strategy and the expression of the translation according to the requirements of the clients, combined with the purpose of the translation and the specific situation of the target receivers<br /> <br /> Nida also put forward the translation principle of functional equivalence from the perspective of language function, and also combines translation with language functions. He pointed out that due to the differences in language and culture, it is impossible for translation to obtain the formal equivalence between the source text and the target text, but only functional equivalence. Although the expressions of various languages are different, they have the same expressive power and have the same or similar language functions, that is, expressive, cognitive, interpersonal, informative, imperative, empathetic, sympathetic, empathy and aesthetic function. If the translation of these aspects is basically the same, then the functional equivalence of translation is achieved. According to this, he put forward that &quot;the preservation of the original content must change the form, the degree of change, and must depend on different languages in the distance between language and cultural.&quot; In order to produce efficacy, the adjustment of the translation from form to content is the specific application of functional ideas. However, Nida did not develop further in the direction of functionalism, but still focused on the concept of equivalence. Therefore, his theory is fundamentally different from the views of the German functional translation school.<br /> <br /> '''3.2.2 Both emphasize the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.'''<br /> <br /> Vermeer believes that the recipients of the translation, that is, the readers, as an important part of the translation requirements, is one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of translation; the target language receivers is the recipient or listener of the translated text with the knowledge, expectation and communication needs of his own specific culture world. Translation is the text in the environment of the target language produced for the purpose of the target language and the reader of the target language in the context of the target language. In addition, the coherence rule of skopos theory emphasizes that the translation must meet the criteria of &quot;coherence within the text&quot; that is, only the text is fully understood by the recipient can they make sense. It can be seen that the skopos theory emphasizes the role of the readers and the intelligibility of the translation.<br /> <br /> Nida's functional equivalence theory is also readers-oriented. Nida believes that the research object of translation is the reader; the recipient is not a passive target of language communication, but an active participant in communicative activities. The reader's response is the only criterion for judging the quality of the translation. Therefore, the translation must be fluent and understandable. In order to achieve the intelligibility of the translation, it is even possible to delete parts that the reader cannot understand, such as metaphors.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion''' <br /> <br /> By comparatively analyzing Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory and the German functionalist skopos theory, skopos theory critically inherited the rational factors of Nida's functional equivalence theory, and abandoned its irrational part. Skopos theory gets rid of the shackles of equivalence theory, breaking the traditional perspective of single translation studies, turning attention to the study of other relevant factors in translation activities other than language. Skopos theory broke through the framework of equivalence translation theory, and proposed a theoretical system of diversification of translation standards led by the skopos rule. The diversification of translation standards makes the function closer to reality. This is clearly more scientific, more operative and more versatile than Nida's theory that takes functional equivalence as the sole criterion. Moreover, compared with the traditional language translation theory that emphasizes the internal study of translation, Skopos theory denies that translation is a simple language conversion, and pays more attention to the external of translation. Compared with Nida, Skopos theory are more concerned with the humanity and sociality of translation activities. In addition, the Skopos theory shifts the focus of translation from the reproduction of the original text to the more challenging creation of target text, which enhances the active participation of the translator as the main body of the translation, overturning the center status of the original text, and establishing the central status of the target text and the translator. The functionalist skopos theory puts translation in a dynamic cultural context, emphasizing the translator's active intervention. Therefore, it solves some problems that the functional equivalence theory fails to solve, broadens the research perspective of traditional translation theory, is a major breakthrough and important supplement to the functional equivalence theory, and erects a distinctive flag in modern translation theory.<br /> <br /> '''Bibliography'''<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application''[M], London &amp; New York: Routledge, 2001:77.<br /> <br /> Nida, E.A. ''Language and Culture: Context in Translation'' [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:117. <br /> <br /> Reiss, Katharina &amp; Hans J. Vermeer. ''Groundwork For a General Theory of Translation''[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyet, 1984:101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Hans J. ''Didacitics of Translation''[A]. ''Routeledge Encycolopedia of Translation''[C]. London &amp; New York: Rutledge, 1998:20.<br /> <br /> 陈刚．《翻译学入门》[M]．杭州：浙江大学出版社,2011:145.<br /> <br /> 范德瑞.奈达功能对等理论与功能主义目的论比较研究[J].淮海工学院学报(人文社会科学版),2019,17(04):66-69.<br /> <br /> 李长栓.《非文学翻译理论与实践》[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司.2009:11<br /> <br /> 张春柏.影视翻译初探[J].中国翻译,1998(2):50-53.<br /> <br /> 张锦兰.目的论与翻译方法[J].《中国科技翻译》2004,17(01):1.<br /> <br /> 张美芳.功能加忠诚--介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论[J]．外国语,2005(1):60-65.<br /> <br /> =='''On the Comparison between &quot;Sublimation&quot; an &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; Theories'''==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> '''Key words''': sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida<br /> <br /> '''Introduction''':<br /> As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).<br /> <br /> Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 64). It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”'''<br /> <br /> The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”. What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9). <br /> <br /> '''1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”. On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida &amp; Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory. What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation. In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts. The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression. The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality. <br /> <br /> Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text. In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure. Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth &amp; Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, &quot;Check&quot; refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63). <br /> <br /> (2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition. From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them. “Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu: <br /> <br /> “Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101) <br /> <br /> In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work. Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture. <br /> <br /> From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.<br /> <br /> (3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境). It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original. In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text. In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:<br /> <br /> S: “white as snow”<br /> <br /> T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”<br /> <br /> From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what &quot;white as snow&quot; means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> <br /> '''2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> (1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”. These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).<br /> <br /> Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version. From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function. <br /> <br /> (2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154). The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8) <br /> <br /> On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible. As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.<br /> <br /> '''3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”'''<br /> <br /> '''3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?'''<br /> <br /> According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the &quot;servant&quot; of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer. From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant. His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator. Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.<br /> <br /> '''3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”''' <br /> <br /> The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field. <br /> As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects. If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means. This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers. In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries. <br /> <br /> '''4.Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''References'''<br /> <br /> [1]Chen Fukang. A History of Chinese Translation Theories in China [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.2000.<br /> <br /> [2]Gao Huali. A Short History of Translation And Interpretation in China And Other Countries [M].Hangzhou：Zhejiang University Press.2009. <br /> <br /> [3]Kao, Gorge. (trans.) Lin CH'in-nan Revisited [A]. By Qian Zhongshu. Renditions [J], autumn, 1975: 8-21<br /> <br /> [4]Luo Xinzhang.On Translation [M].Beijing：The Commercial Press.1984.<br /> <br /> [5]Mark, Shuttleworth, Moira Cowie. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]Munday, Jeremy. Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> [7]Nida, Eugene A. &amp; Charles R.Taber (1969/1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation, Leiden: E. J. Brill.<br /> <br /> [8]Qian Zhongshu.Pipe-awl Chapters [M].Beijing：Zhonghua Book Company.1986.<br /> <br /> [9]Qian Zhongshu.Seven Patches [M].Beijing：SDX Joint Publishing Company.2002.<br /> <br /> [10]Xu Jun.On Translation[M].Wuhan：Hubei Education Press.2003.<br /> <br /> [11]Yu Chengfa. Interpreting Sublimation [D].Central China Normal University,2003.<br /> <br /> =Theory and Practise=<br /> =='''Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior'''==<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' translator’s view; translation behavior; translation principles; responsibility<br /> <br /> '''译者翻译观对其翻译行为的影响'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''译者在翻译中处于核心位置。译者的翻译观指译者本身对于翻译的理解，其中包含了译者的翻译策略和价值取向。不同的译者受其社会与文化及个人经历和意识形态的影响，会有不同的翻译观。翻译观作为译者意识形态的一种，对翻译行为有着很大的影响。对于译者来说，翻译从来不是个人行为，而是一种对原作者、原作、读者及译入语文化的责任。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''译者；翻译观；翻译行为；翻译原则；责任<br /> <br /> A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18). The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”. According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?<br /> <br /> From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.<br /> <br /> '''I.Some Previous Studies''' <br /> <br /> A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem<br /> <br /> According to ''Introducing Translation Studies'':<br /> <br /> “Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165). <br /> <br /> In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself: <br /> <br /> (1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;<br /> <br /> (2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).<br /> <br /> Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.<br /> <br /> B.Bassett and Lefevere<br /> <br /> Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).<br /> <br /> C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation<br /> <br /> Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)’ . The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9). <br /> <br /> Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology. <br /> For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology.<br /> The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).<br /> <br /> Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader. <br /> “For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197). <br /> <br /> D.Venuti<br /> <br /> Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.<br /> <br /> “Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29). <br /> <br /> Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217). <br /> <br /> Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors. <br /> <br /> To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior. <br /> <br /> II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China<br /> <br /> A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility. <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.<br /> <br /> In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.<br /> <br /> Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: ''Madame Bovary'', ''Le Rouge et le Noir'', ''Jean Christophe'', etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: ''150 Tang Poems'', ''100 Tang and Song Poems'', ''300 Poems Chinois Classiques'', ''Selected Poems of Mao Zedong'', ''The Romance of Western Bower'', ''Earth-shaking Songs'' (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc. By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of ''Jean Christophe'' as an example:<br /> <br /> Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)<br /> <br /> From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)<br /> <br /> 江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)<br /> <br /> 江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.<br /> <br /> And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (''Art 20'')” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty. This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in ''Jean Christophe'': <br /> <br /> Il marchait sur le monde. (''Jean Christophe'')<br /> <br /> 他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）<br /> <br /> 他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）<br /> <br /> (qtd. “Re-creation” 222)<br /> <br /> Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?” He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.<br /> <br /> The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of ''Uprising Songs'' (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in ''Earth-shaking Songs'':<br /> <br /> 顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(''Uprising Songs'')<br /> <br /> Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise! <br /> <br /> Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)<br /> <br /> Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222). <br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.<br /> <br /> B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China. <br /> <br /> In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s ''Emma'' to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of ''Emma'' and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).<br /> <br /> Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', ''Confessions of an English Opium-Eater'', ''Emma'', ''Darwin'', etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English. <br /> <br /> In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original. Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (''Ten'' 122-123). <br /> <br /> Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (''Ten'' 122). <br /> <br /> Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (''Ten'' 2).<br /> <br /> So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.<br /> <br /> Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:<br /> <br /> 回乡偶书 <br /> 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。<br /> 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。<br /> (the original poem)<br /> <br /> Homecoming<br /> I left home quite young, and I come back very old.<br /> My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray.<br /> Kids don’t know me when one another we behold.<br /> “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say.<br /> (Liu Zhongde’s translation)<br /> <br /> This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).<br /> <br /> The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of ''Emma'':<br /> <br /> (1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)<br /> <br /> “神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.<br /> <br /> (2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)<br /> <br /> 还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde) <br /> <br /> (Jiang 278-279)<br /> <br /> The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style. <br /> <br /> For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. <br /> <br /> C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.<br /> <br /> As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 ''yuan''.<br /> <br /> The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated ''The Kite Runner'' (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.<br /> <br /> In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one. <br /> <br /> The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as ''Le Petit Prince'', ''The Old Man and the Sea'', ''Animal Farm'', ''The Great Gatsby'', ''Walden'', ''The Moon and Sixpence'', ''Pride and Prejudice'' and ''The Sound and Fury''. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market. <br /> <br /> To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, ''The Kite Runner'' written by Khaled Hosseini:<br /> <br /> (1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).<br /> <br /> 我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。<br /> <br /> In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary'' (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).” It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.<br /> <br /> (2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297). <br /> <br /> “你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。<br /> <br /> The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary'' is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.<br /> This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:<br /> <br /> (1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”<br /> <br /> “I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).” <br /> <br /> 你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”<br /> <br /> “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。” <br /> <br /> The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST. <br /> <br /> (2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).<br /> <br /> 因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。<br /> <br /> According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included. <br /> <br /> Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation. <br /> <br /> From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized. <br /> <br /> III.Conclusion<br /> <br /> This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.<br /> <br /> For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work. <br /> <br /> For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.<br /> <br /> Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.<br /> <br /> '''Work Cited'''<br /> <br /> 胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (''The Kite Runner''). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008. <br /> <br /> 蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(''Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others''). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.<br /> <br /> 李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 &lt;https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1&gt; <br /> <br /> 刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(''Ten Lectures on Literary Translation''). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.<br /> <br /> 毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (''The Moon an Sixpence'').李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print. <br /> <br /> 许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(''Translation Theory''). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> 许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(''Teaching Method Research''), no. 2 (1982): 39-47.<br /> ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (''Literature and Translation''). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.<br /> <br /> ---.《翻译的艺术》(''The Art of Translation''). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.<br /> <br /> 杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(''A Book and A World''). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print.<br /> 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(''A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism''). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.<br /> <br /> Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. ''Translation History and Culture''. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.<br /> <br /> Cockaigne. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 &lt;https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne &gt;<br /> <br /> Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. ''Papers in Historical Poetics''. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.<br /> <br /> Fart. ''The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary''. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print. <br /> <br /> Foster. C. Thomas. ''How to Read Literature Like a Professor''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print. <br /> <br /> Lefevere, A. ''Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame''. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.<br /> <br /> Maugham, William. ''The Moon an Sixpence''. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. ''Introducing Translation Studies''. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.<br /> <br /> Take sb. up on sth.” ''Phrasal Verbs Dictionary''. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.<br /> <br /> Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: ''Towards an Ethics of Difference''. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.<br /> <br /> =Contemporary Translation Studies=<br /> =='''An Analysis of the Book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'''''==<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则 <br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler’s ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and Jeremy Munday’s ''Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications'' are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation. After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' ''Edwin'' Gentzler; ''Contemporary Translation Theories''; Jeremy Munday; ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles<br /> <br /> '''Introduction:'''<br /> <br /> In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories. This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation. Secondly, it will give a short introduction of the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' and it will fix its attention on the translation principles of Tytler and then make a comparison of Yan Fu’s translation principle “Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. By deeper analyzing these two similar translation theories, we can find some commonness and difference in these two translation theories by taking the culture and thinking modes into consideration. At last, this paper intend to give a brief comparison between these two great books by taking the consideration of writing style and content arrangement. All in all, this paper intends to give the readers a better understanding of these two great books and provoke their reflection about these two books.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''I Analysis of the book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'''''<br /> <br /> Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111). He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42). This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation. <br /> <br /> “This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43). <br /> <br /> In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation. In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44). Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', ''Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text''(2001:48). <br /> <br /> In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will <br /> list the advantages of dynamic equivalence. <br /> <br /> “On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays. The dynamic equivalence provides us a <br /> detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.<br /> <br /> However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them. If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into &quot;ode to the east wind&quot;, because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language. Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting. <br /> <br /> Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content. “One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3). In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holly kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the ''old testament'' the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others. However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different. <br /> <br /> Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223). Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language. For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!” <br /> <br /> Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224). By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) . In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241). <br /> <br /> Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference <br /> between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''II Analysis of ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> As for the second book: ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54). It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research. I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies. <br /> <br /> Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.<br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18). For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the ''New Testament'' and later the ''Old Testament''. Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard. “His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules. “They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language. <br /> <br /> The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies. Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his &quot;picture&quot; the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original. <br /> <br /> Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286). Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu. Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay ''Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation'' that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethnic''.<br /> <br /> “Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).<br /> <br /> It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. <br /> <br /> Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). <br /> <br /> It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors. As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text. And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly. <br /> <br /> Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99). One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance. We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text. “If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73). As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style. The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode. “The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism. “He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42). <br /> <br /> <br /> '''III Comparison between the book of ''Contemporary Translation Theories'' and ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''''' <br /> <br /> '''1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content'''<br /> <br /> Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the ''contemporary translation studies'', the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).” In the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the ''Contemporary Translation Studies''. These added parts to the book ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices. <br /> <br /> '''2.From the content of the material'''<br /> <br /> Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the ''contemporary Translation Theories'', the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). While in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'', the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book. <br /> <br /> Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the ''Contemporary Translation Theories'', the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic. While this point of asking question in the ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches. <br /> <br /> '''Conclusion:'''<br /> <br /> All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books. After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation. And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text. <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> '''Works Cited'''<br /> <br /> Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. Vol. 21. Multilingual Matters, 2001.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge, 2013.<br /> <br /> Li Jiangchun. “The comment of the second edition of the Contemporary translation theories.” Foreign Language Education. 35.1(Jan. 2014): 111-114. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xu Dongping and Wang Dongfeng. “Giving comment about the Edwin’s Contemporary Translation theories.” Foreign Language and Their teaching.12(2000):42-44. CNKI. Web. 1 Nov. 2019 <br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene A. “Dynamic equivalence in translating.” An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English English-Chinese [C/Z]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press (1995): 223-30.<br /> <br /> Shakernia, Shabnam. “Study of Nida’s (formal and dynamic equivalence) and Newmark’s (semantic and communicative translation) translating theories on two short stories.” Merit Research Journal of Education and Review 2.1 (2013): 001-007.<br /> <br /> Liu Dayan. “Dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence in translation between Chinese and English.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2.12 (2012): 242-247.<br /> <br /> Panou, Despoina. “Equivalence in translation theories: A critical evaluation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 3.1 (2013): 1.<br /> <br /> Miao, Ju. “The limitations of ‘equivalent effect.” Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 8.3 (2000): 197-205. CNKI. Web. 3 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhou Wenmei. “Interpreting the linguistic idea in Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar construction.”Yinshan Academic Journal. 32.3(Jun 2019):5-10. CNKI. Web. 4 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Zhu Enlue. “A brief analysis of Chomsky’s generative-transformational grammar.” Overseas English. (2018):241-242. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Li Zhiwang. “An analysis of Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar and Nida’s ideas about translation.” Journal of Inner Mongolia Agricultural University. 3(2011):394-396. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Liu Fang and Deng Jie. “The comment of the new edition of Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications.” Contemporary Foreign Languages Studies. 4.(Apr 2010):54-58. CNKI. Web. 6 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Stolt Birgit “Luther’s Translation of the Bible.” Lutheran Quarterly 28.4 (2014): 373-74.<br /> <br /> Shi Chunrang, Zhao Wei. “Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation.” Foreign Language Research 5 (2005):96-100. CNKI. Web. 5 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Xi Yan. “ Faithfulness-Expressiveness-Elegance, Tytler's three principles and Dynamic Equivalence——New Analyses on the Differences and Similarities of the Standard of Translation and the Causes.” Journal of Cangzhou Teachers' College 3 (2009): 40-42. CNKI. Web. 8 Nov. 2019<br /> Bie Fangfang, and Huang Qin. “Dolet’s Translation Principles and Tytler’s Translation Principles: A Comparison.” Foreign Language Education 2007.0 (2007): 30. CNKI. Web. 9 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Firdaus, Sonia. “Evolution of translation theories and practice.” The Dialogue (2012):272-294<br /> <br /> Wang Chenjie. “A Systematic Comparison between Yan Fu's Theory of Faithfulness, Fluency, and Expressiveness and Tytler's Three General Rules of Translation.” Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education 1 (2008):70-73. CNKI. Web. 10 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> Chen Wen,. “On Yan Fu and the Influence of the “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.” Journal of Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences (Social Sciences Edition) 6 (2012): 125-129. CNKI. Web. 11 Nov. 2019<br /> <br /> ='''The Emergence of Translation and Interpretation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Eugene Nida’s Translation Theory on Chinese Translation Development==<br /> &lt;center&gt;蒋凤仪 Jiang Fengyi&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> '''Key words'''<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> 奈达作为一位翻译史上的重要人物，对于世界翻译进程影响重大。本文拟从其翻译思想在中国翻译界的接受和传播程度，及其翻译思想对中国翻译学者的影响，探究其翻译理论对中国翻译发展进程的影响。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> 奈达, ...<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> 1.Eugene Nida and His Translation theories<br /> <br /> 2.The Translation Theories of Eugene Nida in China<br /> <br /> 2.1 Studies on Nida in China<br /> <br /> 2.1.1 Numbers of Papers, Books and Seminars on the Translation of Nida<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 Focuses of the Studies on Nida's Translation Theories<br /> <br /> 2.2 The influence of Nida's translation Theories on Chinese Theorists<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 The attitudes Towards Nida's Translation Theories in China<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 The Transformations of Theorists in China <br /> <br /> 3. The influence of Nida's translation Theories on Chinese Translation development<br /> <br /> 3.1 The positive influences<br /> <br /> 3.2 The problems<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Acknowledgements===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the History of Interpretation and the Prospect of Interpretation in China 雷旷溪 Lei Kuangxi==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper combed the 40 years of reform and opening-up in China the development course of interpreting research, introduces its experienced four stages: in the late 1970 s to 80 s &quot;bud&quot;, &quot;initial development&quot; of the 1990 s, the first decade of the 21st century &quot;new period&quot;, the second decade of the 21st century in the &quot;&quot; development&quot;. Finally, the author makes a review and analysis of the achievements and main performances of Chinese interpretation studies and comments on the current development status and future prospects of Chinese interpretation studies.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Interpretation, historical development, interpretation studies, development trends<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 本文简要梳理改革开放40年来中国口译研究的发展历程，介绍其所经历的四个阶段：20世纪70年代末到80年代末的“萌芽期”、20世纪90年代的“初步发展期”、21世纪头十年的“新兴期”、21世纪第二个十年进行中的“多元发展期”。并回顾分析中国口译研究的成就和主要表现，最后就目前中国口译研究的发展现状和未来展望进行评析。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 口译，历史发展，口译研究，发展趋势<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.The development and overview of The study of Interpretation in China===<br /> <br /> 2.1 The four development stages of Chinese interpretation research<br /> <br /> 2.1.1<br /> <br /> 2.1.2<br /> <br /> 2.1.3<br /> <br /> 2.1.4<br /> <br /> 2.2 Representative achievements in The study of Interpretation in China<br /> <br /> ===3.Current situation of domestic interpretation research===<br /> <br /> ===4.The development trend, characteristics and prospect of Chinese interpretation research===<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Reflections on the Development of Chinese Cultural Self-confidence in Translation from the Perspective of Chinese Translation History 郑华君 Zheng Huajun==<br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Four translation climaxes in Chinese translation History'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''The expression and development of Chinese cultural self-confidence in the four translation climaxes'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''The characteristics of Chinese cultural self-confidence in Chinese translation History'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Discussion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:23, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Western Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Limits of Translatability from the Perspectives of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida's Translation Theories 文晓艺 Wen Xiaoyi==<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 陶冶 Tao Ye==<br /> <br /> ==On Lefevere's manipulating theory 孔亚楠 Kong Yanan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> In 1980s, the research object of translation studies changed from text itself to culture. Cultural factors were brought into translation studies. Andre Lefevere, as the founder of cultural transformation, puts forward the famous manipulation theory and its three elements-poetics, ideology and patron. He believes that translation is not a simple change between languages, and translators' translation activities are influenced and restricted by social factors such as ideology, poetics and patronage. He points out that translation is a form of rewriting the text, and it is &quot;manipulating&quot; the original text to make it compatible with the cultural background of the target text. The main body of the thesis is divided into three parts, which explore the rewriting phenomenon caused by poetics, ideology and sponsors in translation activities by displaying different versions.<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 20世纪80年代，翻译研究的研究对象从文本本身转向文化，将文化因素纳入翻译研究之中。安德烈勒弗菲尔作为文化转换的奠基人提出了著名的操纵理论及其三要素—诗学、意识形态和赞助人。他认为翻译不是一件简单的语言间的转换，译者的翻译活动受到意识形态、诗学和赞助人等社会因素的影响和制约。他指出翻译是改写文本的一种形式，是对原文的“操纵”，使其与目的语文本所在的文化背景相容。论文主体主要分为三部分，分别通过展示不同的译本，探究诗学、意识形态和赞助人在翻译活动中造成的改写现象。<br /> <br /> '''关键词:'''Poetics; Ideology; Patronage; Manipulate<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Before the 20th century, western translation theories mainly fell into the category of literature and art, which regarded translation as an art and emphasized the translator's creative reproduction of the original text. Until the mid-20th century, translation theorists introduced the theories and achievements of modern linguistics into translation studies, thus producing a linguistic school.Linguistic school regarded translation as a science of mutual transformation at the linguistic level, emphasizing the language equivalence between the original text and the target text. Compared with the literary school, the linguistic school has deepened translation studies and achieved fruitful results, which was beyond doubt. However, it only limited translation studies to the linguistic level, ignoring external linguistic factors such as discourse and context, which led to the fossilization of translation studies.Since the 1980s, under the influence of post-modernism and cross-cultural studies, translation studies have ushered in a &quot;cultural turn&quot;, which has gradually transformed translation studies from a linguistic perspective to a cultural perspective, and thus a cultural school of translation has emerged. The cultural school broke through the traditional text comparative study mode of literature and linguistics, and paid attention to many social factors that influenced translation under the broad cultural background, thus broadening the scope of translation studies and injecting new blood into translation studies. Manipulation school was one of the most influential schools of culture.<br /> The development of Manipulation School was based on comparative literature research, which mainly studied literary translation. The representative figures were Hermans and Lefevere. In 1978, Even Zohar put forward the theory of multiple systems which idicated that there was no primary or secondary system, but the importance was different at different stages and from different angles. Sometimes literature was in a dominant position, and sometimes it was in a secondary position.On this basis, the manipulation theory in the school of translation culture studies was formed. Hermans, a contemporary English translation theorist, published a paper entitled &quot;The Position of Translation Studies in the Multi-system of Literature&quot;, which highlighted the position of target literature, and shifted from focusing on the original text to focusing on the target text. He first applied &quot;manipulation&quot; to the study of translation theory, forming the embryonic stage of the manipulation school.In the book &quot;Manipulation of Literature: Studies of Literary Translation&quot;, Hermans gave the programmatic view of Manipulation School: Manipulation School thinks that literature is a complex dynamic system; Theoretical models and practical case studies should promote each other. The method of studying literary translation should be descriptive and systematic, and should pay attention to purpose and function; We should study the norms and limitations of the production and acceptance of translation, the relationship between translation and other text processing, the position and role of translation in a particular literary system, and the status and function in the interaction between different literatures. As Hermans said: &quot;From the perspective of the target text, all translations are manipulations of the original text for some purpose.&quot; (Hermans, 1985, 10-11)<br /> Andre Lefevere, a famous Belgian American comparative writer and translation theorist, pointed out that literary translation always came into being in a certain historical period and a certain cultural context. Because of using a different language from the original, facing a completely different readership and operating in different cultural categories, the translator, as the representative of the target culture, would be restricted by various target cultural conditions from the choice of the translation text at the beginning to the selection of translation strategies in the translation process until the acceptance of the final version. Moreover, the translator would have various considerations in translation. Therefore, it was impossible to reproduce the exactly identical translation of the original text. In this sense, translation was a rewriting of the original text and a form of creating the text. Lefevere further pointed out that literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, reader's guide and so on were all rewriting the text and creating another form of text image. In other words, translation created the original author, the original text and the literary and cultural images of the original text. All rewritings, regardless of its intention, reflected certain ideology and poetics under the influence of the patronage. He thought that translation was rewriting, and rewriting was manipulation. The rewriting in different historical periods should be controlled by the ideology and main stream poetics, which was finally related to power and became a means to serve them. He believed that translation cannot truly reflect the original appearance, which was mainly manipulated by these three factors: ideology, poetics and patronage.<br /> <br /> ===Three Elements of Lefevere's manipulation Theory===<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Ideology'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ideology refers to the concept system that reflects the interests and requirements of specific economic forms, specific classes or social groups, and its basic contents include people's political, legal, moral, philosophical, artistic and religious views, etc. Social ideology reflects a social group's cultural value orientation and conceptual belief system. Through observing its surroundings and its own existence, social, ideology can influence and control the activities of the whole society. In Lefevere's view, translation practice is a practice related to certain historical reality, a practice of reinterpreting the original text according to the interests of a certain social group in the new historical environment, and it is essentially a practice of culture and politics. (Fang Mengzhi, ) Manipulation school is most concerned about not how the translation should be translated, but why it is translated like this. Translations are not made in a vacuum. Translators function in a given culture at a given time. The way they understand themselves and their culture is one of the factors that may influence the way in which they translate. (14) Translation, as a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, is inevitably influenced by ideology. It includes the translator's personal ideology and the ideology imposed on the translator by the authority or sponsor. These personal, social or upper-level ideologies will limit the selection of the theme of translated works and the form of expressing the theme and affect the translator's basic translation strategies and the interpretation of the original language and culture. Therefore, under the control of ideology, the translator will arbitrarily add, delete or change the original text, so that the translated text serves his own political purpose. (Zhang Xiaojuan, 130)<br /> <br /> '''Poetics'''<br /> <br /> Poetics involves two parts: literary technique and translator's view of literary function. Literary technique mainly includes genre, symbol, theme, etc. Translator's view of literary function refers to the role or function of literature in the whole social system. Translators not infrequently use their translations to influence the evolution of the poetics of their time. The compromises translators find between the poetics of the original and the poetics of their culture provide fascinating insights into the process of acculturation and incontrovertible evidence of the extent of the power of a given poetics. (26)<br /> According to Lefevere, the translation method adopted by translators is carried out and developed under a certain system of factors of poetics, and the object of the study of poetics is as small as one word or as large as one sentence and the style of the whole chapter, translation strategies and other aspects of the rewriting of the poetics, which are the important components of the cultural system where the rewriting writers are engaged in their creation. In order to conform to the ideology and poetics which occupied the dominant position in the period where they live and to achieve the goal of making the rewritten works accepted by as many readers as possible, the original works will be adjusted in a fixed degree. (Zhang Xiaojuan, 131)<br /> <br /> '''Patronage'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, sponsors refer to individuals and groups that can promote or hinder the production and dissemination of literary works in a certain historical period, and institutions that regulate the dissemination of literature and literary thoughts. Patrons can encourage the publication of translations they consider acceptable and they can also quite effectively prevent the publication of translations they do not consider so. (19) Lefevere regarded various rewriting forms, such as literary translation, as one of the various systems of the society. This department of philology has double factors of operation and control. One is the internal factor of the department of philology, which is composed of various professionals including critics, critics, teachers and translators The other is the patron who plays a role in the external department of the department, &quot;The patron is usually more interested in the ideology of literature than in poetics of literature&quot;, &quot;that are all kinds of powers (people or mechanisms) that promote or stop reading, writing or rewriting , such as religious groups, orders, government departments, publishing agencies, mass media mechanisms, or individual power. (Zhang Yuanyuan)<br /> Sponsors can encourage works that they think are suitable, and can also effectively curb works that they think are inappropriate. Generally speaking, they play a vital role in the dynamic direction of translation, the development of translated literature, and the social meeting place where translators are located. (Zhang Xiaojuan, 131)<br /> <br /> ===Analysis of translations===<br /> <br /> 1:In the dialogue between Wang Lifa and Cui Jiufeng in the second act of Teahouse, Wang Lifa said, &quot;可是住在我这里, 天天念经&quot; Cui Jiufeng replied, &quot;我现在只能修持, 忏悔!&quot; As for &quot;念经&quot; in the sentence, Ying Ruocheng's translation of &quot;chanting Buddhist scriptures&quot; is rich in Christian color; Huo Hua's translation &quot;chanting sutras&quot; abandons the meaning of Buddhism. From this, it can be seen that in order to meet the requirements of mainstream ideology, translators will choose corresponding translation strategies and delete or euphemistically treat some of the original texts in the process of translation. From the perspective of manipulation theory, this is the manipulation of ideology on translation.<br /> There is such a scene in the third act of Teahouse. “美国针、美国线、美国牙膏、美国消炎片。还有口红、雪花膏、玻璃袜子细毛线。”<br /> Ying’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee thread; Toothpaste white and lipstick red. Patent potions, facial lotions; Nylons sheer, you’ll find here.<br /> Huo’s translation: Yankee needles, Yankee notions, Yankee toothpaste, Yankee potions. Lipsticks red, and cold cream white; Nylon stockings, sheer delight.<br /> By comparing these two translations, in order to better conform to the rhythm of English poetry and make the whole ditty read fluently, Ying Ruocheng splits the structural meaning of the original text and then reorganizes it. He adopts more alienation translation strategies in order to achieve the same rhythm as the original text. On the other hand, because of his love for Chinese culture and the influence of Chinese traditional literature, Huo Hua is more faithful to the original text in his translation, and translates the whole ditty in the order of the original text. From this, it can be seen that Huo Hua's translation is mostly based on domestication, so as to truly reproduce the cultural level in the source text.<br /> In the first act of Teahouse, Grandpa Four often complained to Wang Lifa, &quot;我也得罪了他?我今天出门没挑好日子! &quot; In this sentence, Ying Ruocheng translates &quot;没挑好日子&quot; into &quot;This is not my lucky day!&quot; The big reason is that his translation publishing house is China Foreign Publishing House, and Ying is more suitable for the traditions and habits of foreign readers, so as to facilitate the acceptance of foreign readers; On the other hand, Huo Hua translates it as &quot;I should've taken the Almanac's advice and stayed home today.&quot; Based on his understanding of Chinese traditional culture, Huo Hua knows that this is what Chinese people usually say orally that going out depends on the lunar calendar, so he translated it as &quot;Take the Almanac's advice and stayed home&quot;, which is more faithful to the connotation of Chinese traditional culture. (Huang Mingjuan, 144-145)<br /> 2:Facing globalization, the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation must be strongly supported by the prosperity of culture. Under the background of vigorously advocating the use of literature output to improve the soft power of Chinese culture, we should treat the translation of Chinese literature more rationally. China has been a collectivist country since ancient times and advocated unity and unity. For families, there is a saying that &quot;home is harmonious and everything is prosperous&quot;; For the neighborhood, there is the advocacy of &quot;good neighborliness and friendship&quot;. Therefore, when translating the report of the 19th National Congress into English, it is inevitable to be influenced by the feelings of home and country, which can be seen everywhere in the text.例1：原文：大会的主题是：不忘初心，牢记使命…… 译文：The theme of the Congress is: Remain true to our original aspiration and keep our mission firmly in mind... Analysis: There is no human appellation like &quot;we&quot; in the original text of the sentence, but it appears in the translation that “our original aspiration” and “our mission”. Thus, its text translation is manipulated by our country's ideology, which is intended to show the collectivism consciousness of the Chinese nation and show that all ethnic groups in our country are united and love each other dearly. <br /> The opening report of the 19 th National Congress contains a large number of words with Chinese characteristics, and its English translation is manipulated by the socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. For example：Translate“不忘初心，方得始终”into “Never forget why you started, and you can accomplish your mission” “行百里者半九十”into “As the Chinese saying goes, the last leg of a journey just marks the halfway point”. English translation of such words with Chinese characteristics must be carried out on the basis of fully understanding the connotation of Chinese culture, which also well reflects the translator's own literary accomplishment and mastery of poetic ability.<br /> The report in the opening ceremony of the 19th National Congress belongs to the official documents of the party and government organs, and its sponsors are obviously the Communist Party of China and its leaders. Therefore, the report represents the will of the party and the people, in which every word, phrase and sentence collocation must be carefully screened before being finalized and must conform to the will of the country and represent the interests of the party and the people. This also requires translators to keep a clear head and high political acumen at all times, and to represent and safeguard the national image at all times. (Jia Shanshan, 169)<br /> 3;Throughout Chongqing's literary translation activities during the Anti-Japanese War, the influence of ideological manipulation is everywhere. The translated works in this period fully reflect the high unity of mainstream ideology and individual ideology. Personal translation behavior serves the ideological needs of mainstream society, thus promoting the development of translation career. In Chongqing from 1937 to 1945, the Anti-Japanese War became the main theme, the national significance was constantly awakened, and the desire for national independence was extremely strong. People from all walks of life in society fight in various ways, and the literary world is engaged in a spiritual and cultural war of resistance with its unique and appealing style. Therefore, most of the translation subjects in this period are anti-war works.<br /> Mainstream poetics and ideology are often inseparable. Under the influence of the mainstream ideology of the Anti-Japanese War, realistic literary creation and translation become the mainstream poetics. During this period, Chongqing's translation activities show that literature and art should serve reality. Whether it is genre, theme, language or ideological content, it can quickly stimulate readers' anti-war enthusiasm and resonance. In this period, the theme of translated poetry is full of realistic feelings, and the translated language is simple, free in form, catchy, emotional and easy to tell. From theme to target language, mainstream poetics of target language is fully considered. The original texts are often deleted, combined with Chinese native characteristics and literary factors, and naturalized in China, all of which reflect the mainstream poetics.<br /> During the Anti-Japanese War in Chongqing, the sponsors of translation activities are mainly social organizations, newspapers, periodicals, literary intellectuals and so on. These sponsors make full use of their social appeal to organize and encourage Chongqing's literary translation activities. It can be said that these &quot;sponsors&quot; have a great influence on Chongqing's literary translation activities during the Anti-Japanese War, especially in promoting the exchange of Chinese and foreign anti-Japanese literature works, and achieve remarkable results. In this period, the sponsors of translation are united as never before, actively guiding the translation and introduction of anti-war literature works, providing a publishing platform for translated works, guiding the trend of public opinion, and fully integrating the mainstream ideology into translation practice. For example, Xinhua Daily, Sino-Soviet Culture and other newspapers and media as well as anti-Japanese literature and art circles have translated and introduced many famous Russian and Soviet writers and literary works. Some American literary groups and journalists have set up a series of publications, such as China Monthly and Far Eastern People, which translate and introduce anti-Japanese literature works of Mao Dun, Lao She, Yao Xueyin, Ai Qing and others to the United States, showing the influence of sponsors on translation activities. (Yu Jinyan, 98)<br /> 4:As an important media of cultural communication, American TV drama not only has an eye-catching story, but also contains a lot of foreign cultural factors, such as authentic American slang and spoken language, strange historical allusions, and novel network neologisms. As a bridge between Chinese and American cultures, subtitle translation of American TV drama is particularly important. First of all, when the social values of the translation and the source text conflict, ideology will manipulate the translator to rewrite the sensitive parts of the text to meet the social ideology requirements of the target language. In addition, American TV series contains a lot of local cultural factors, which is difficult to find the corresponding symbols in the process of translation and introduction, so the rewriting of culture in subtitles is inevitable. Example 1: English version: Hewlett and Packard<br /> Chinese version: 休利特和帕卡德<br /> (比尔·休利特和戴维·帕卡德是惠普(HP)公司创始人，两者均为男性。)<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Many Chinese audiences are familiar with HP brand, but know little about its founders. Therefore, in addition to translating the names of the two founders literally at the bottom of the screen, the subtitle group members also added their identities and remarks &quot;Both are male&quot; at the top of the screen. This not only preserves the characteristics of the source language culture, but also helps the audience enjoy the movie-watching activities smoothly, and also increases the comedy sense of the play<br /> From the perspective of mainstream poetics, Chinese and Western translation circles tend to combine &quot;domestication&quot; with &quot;foreignization&quot; in translation practice, which can not only solve the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, but also reproduce the characteristics of the source culture in the target language as much as possible.<br /> Example 2: English version: Look at that, the problem solved itself.<br /> Chinese version: 你瞧!不攻自破了。 <br /> English version: Preparation can only take you so far.<br /> Chinese version: 谋事在人，成事在天。<br /> -Quoted from the Big Bang Theory<br /> Influenced by mainstream poetics, translators rewrite the subtitles of American TV series by combining domestication and foreignization. If literal translation is adopted, the over-colloquial expression lacks poetic aesthetic feeling, while subtitle translators use “不攻自破” “谋事在人，成事在天”. These Chinese idioms with profound traditional culture not only accurately convey the meaning of the original sentence, but also cater to the audience's preference of the target language.<br /> In order to obtain social and economic resources and establish their own influence in the target language society, the sponsors will actively encourage the media system to produce as many film and television works as possible and meet the needs of the audience. In order to achieve this goal, they will introduce the mainstream social value orientation in the selection of film and television dramas, and also manipulate subtitle translators to adjust and change the subtitles of American TV dramas to some extent according to the target people's acceptance ability and expectation horizon. (Long juan &amp; Tang Bo, 63-65)<br /> 5:In 1930s, the western world knew very little about Chinese culture at that time, and most people thought that China was a savage and backward nation. The Chinese people in Westerners' minds were ignorant, superficial and vulgar. Facing the misunderstanding and discrimination of Westerners towards China, Lin Yutang tried to show the western world the true philosophy of life and attitude of Chinese people by translating “浮生六记” which told the story of a Chinese couple's quiet and simple life. He adopted the translation strategy of combining domestication and foreignization, which made the translated works not only retain the characteristics of Chinese culture, but also be easily understood and accepted by western readers.<br /> Original text: 彼非作《琵琶行》者耶?<br /> English translation: Isn’t he the one who wrote the poem on The Pi Pa Player?<br /> Here, Lin Yutang translated &quot;琵琶行&quot; into &quot;The Pi Pa Player&quot; rather than &quot;lute&quot; and other forms that were easy for western readers to understand. He adopted the translation strategy of alienation and retained Chinese cultural characteristics, with the aim of making Chinese culture go abroad and giving western readers a certain understanding of traditional Chinese culture.<br /> In order to make the target readers better understand and accept and spread the translated version smoothly, Lin Yutang adhered to the translation criteria of &quot;faithfulness, fluency and beauty&quot; and adjusted the original text to a certain extent. <br /> Original text: 桥南有莲心寺。寺中突起喇嘛白塔,金顶缨络,高矗云霄,殿角红墙,松柏掩映,钟磬时闻;此天下园亭所未有者。<br /> English translation: On the south of the bridge there was the Lotus-Seed Temple, with a Tibetan pagoda rising straight up from its midst and its golden dome rising into the clouds, with the terracotta walls and temple roofs nestling under the kind shade of pine-trees and cypresses and the sounds of temple bells and ch’ing [musical stone] coming to the traveler’s ears intermittently——all combining to achieve a unique effect that could not be duplicated in any other pleasure garden of the world.<br /> The original text described the beautiful scenery of Lianxin Temple in concise language. Lin Yutang combined the two sentences of the original text into a long sentence, forming a compact and clear structure, which vividly presented the scene of Lianxin Temple to western readers. This beautiful sight of China can bring unique aesthetic feeling to western readers, realize the function of literature, and conform to the mainstream poetics at that time.<br /> Sponsors not only have a profound influence on the publication of translated works, but also have an inseparable connection with translators' selection of translation materials. For Lin Yutang's translation of “浮生六记”, the monthly magazine Tianxia and the couple Pearl Buck are influential patrons. (Zhang Baiye &amp; Hu Yajie, 105-108)<br /> 6:In the Chinese translation of Peter Pan, Yang Jingyuan chooses the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplays the indecent language in the original text. The choice of this language translation strategy must be determined by his ideology. In the original text, the topic of &quot;mother&quot; appears in many occasions, such as storytelling and character dialogue, and Yang Jingyuan translates it into written language &quot;母亲&quot; in most occasions. &quot;Twins&quot; in the original text is translated by Yang as &quot;孪生子&quot; in written language. Yang Jingyuan tends to use the northern dialect to translate, which is reflected in her translation sequence: when it comes to children's pleasure in never having a hometown, &quot;他们不用上学读那些劳什子的书&quot; &quot;Sweater&quot; is translated as &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;frock&quot; is translated as &quot;罩褂&quot;. &quot;劳什子&quot;, &quot;线衣&quot; and &quot;罩褂&quot; are typical northern dialects.<br /> In the story, the fairy Ding Keling has a pet phrase &quot;You silly ass&quot;, which Yang translated as &quot;你这笨蛋&quot;. The severely abusive language in the original text is treated as generally critical language in the translated text. Yang Jingyuan was born into a scholarly family and received higher education. Therefore, when she translated words, she intentionally or unintentionally chose the combination of written language and spoken English in Beijing, and downplayed the indecent language in the original text. Therefore, the translator's ideology really controls her translation process.<br /> Yang Jingyuan definitely affirms Peter Pan's literary value and aesthetic value in the translation sequence. Under the control of this poetics, the translator builds a bridge of fantasy with exquisite and beautiful language in his translation, and poetry is perfectly reflected. The original story happened in Neverland, and Yang Jingyuan translated it as &quot;永无乡&quot;. This translation method accurately grasps the spirit of the original work-although this place is good, it is the other side that can never be reached in reality, and the depth of melancholy and helplessness are expressed incisively and vividly. The following examples more fully reflect the manipulation of the original text by the poetics of the target language<br /> Original text: when children died he went part of the way with them.<br /> Translated text: 孩子们死了, 在黄泉<br /> Original text: she used to say afterwards to her husband.<br /> Translated text: 她老是对丈夫说这些事后诸葛亮的话。<br /> The translator deliberately chooses the words &quot;黄泉&quot; and &quot;事后诸葛亮&quot; in a way of additional translation, which are unique in Chinese culture. The manipulation of the target text by the poetics of the target language culture can be seen. Yang Jingyuan was suffering from severe cataract at that time. It was difficult for her to read and write. In order to relieve her distress, her husband helped her translate the book. After reading Peter Pan, Fan Yong especially appreciated it and published it. It can be seen that Peter Pan was originally a spontaneous academic behavior of Yang Jingyuan. The initial sponsor was her lover, and later Fan Yong, general manager of Sanlian Bookstore, so the publishing house was also one of the sponsors. Together, they contributed to the publication of this book. (Xie Chengfeng, 179-181)<br /> 7:Zhu Shenghao translated King Lear in 1942. At that time, China was economically backward and politically turbulent. &quot;Saving the country and the people&quot; and &quot;national liberation in an all-round way&quot; became the mainstream ideology of the society at that time. When it was learned that Japanese translator laughed at the backwardness of Chinese culture, which was a barren place without Shakespeare's complete works, Zhu's patriotic enthusiasm was thoroughly aroused. In order to make the people with low education level understand this western classic better, he paid special attention to the harmony of phonology and the smoothness of the whole article in the process of translation. Meanwhile, he wanted to keep the verve of the original as far as possible. Therefore, he mainly adopts domestication.<br /> (Act II, Scene IV)<br /> Lear: No, rather I abjure all roofs, and choose<br /> To wage against the enmity o’the air;<br /> To be a comrade with the wolf and owl,<br /> Necessity’s sharp pinch! (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 不, 我宁愿什么屋子也不要住, 过着风餐露宿的生活, 和无情的大自然抗争, 和豺狼鸱鸮做伴侣, 忍受一切饥寒的痛苦! <br /> Zhu Shenghao is inspired by national honor and disgrace. His three parallelism sentences are full of momentum, like flowing water. Words such as &quot;风餐露宿&quot; and &quot;无情的大自然&quot; also pour out his inner anger and patriotic enthusiasm for the domestic status.<br /> With the rise of the New Culture Movement in China in the 1930s, foreign literature and ideas were constantly introduced by translation. The creation of vernacular Chinese was valued and welcomed. With the principle of letting the general public enjoy Shakespeare's plays, he adopted a more colloquial prose style as the main translation style.<br /> (Act I, Scene I)<br /> Cordelia: But yet, alas! stood I within his grace,<br /> I would prefer him to a better place.<br /> So farewell to you both. (Shakespeare, 1972)<br /> Zhu’s translation: 考狄利娅:可是, 唉!要是我没有失去他的欢心, 我一定不让他依赖你们的照顾。再会了, 两位姊姊。<br /> Zhu Shenghao abandoned the framework of the original text and translated its meaning directly in the form of easy-to-understand prose, reflecting his preference for more colloquial prose translation.<br /> Zhan Wenxu and Zhu Shenghao worked together in the World Publishing House for many years, and Zhan quite appreciated Zhu's literary talent and translation level. Later, Zhan was appointed editor-in-chief of the World Publishing House. He suggested that Zhu Shenghao translate Shakespeare's works, which coincided with Zhu's own ideas. So Zhu signed a contract with the World Publishing House in 1935 and started the process of translating Shakespeare. So Zhan helped Zhu a lot in the road of translation. (Zhou Ya, 176-178)<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> Lefevere's manipulation theory has a wide influence in the translation field, holding that translation is a creative process, and the translator will inevitably be influenced by the culture of the target language, and emphasizes three major elements: ideology, poetics and patron.<br /> Leffert emphasized the translator's position and role in literary translation, and pointed out that the translator's subjectivity is extremely complex, and its exertion is restricted by subjective and objective factors such as ideology and custom system. Ideology can be divided into mainstream social ideology and translator's personal ideology. Its influence on translation is everywhere, and the translator's thoughts, viewpoints, writing style and even his surroundings will be manipulated by invisible ideology. In the process of translation, the intended readers and clients in the translator's mind come from the target language system, and the translator himself is immersed in the culture of the target language system. Therefore, the mainstream poetic form of the target language system and the popular literary view at that time are largely used in the whole process of translation literature creation. Sponsors have a certain status and can provide remuneration and other help to translators. They can restrict the translation norms and decide the publication of translated works, and even decide the translator's translation goals and strategies and the acceptance of translated works.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Roger T.Bell’s Special Outlook on Translation Studies 陈江宁 Chen Jiangning==<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to the Translation Theories of Catford and Eugene Nida 杨晨婷 Yang Chenting==<br /> <br /> ==On the Differences of Nida's and Newmark's Theory==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;康灵凤 Kang Lingfeng&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是西方著名的翻译家和翻译理论家，经过多年的翻译实践，他们各自提出了一套自己的翻译理论系统。奈达提出了翻译功能对等理论。彼得·纽马克提出了语义翻译，交际翻译，文本类型理论以及后来的交际翻译法，弥补了奈达功能对等理论的一些缺陷。两人处于同一时代背景，他们的翻译理论不可避免的有相似之处，但是两人的翻译理论也有不同，本章节将对比两者的翻译理论，着重分析奈达和纽马克两人翻译理论的差别。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 功能对等；语义翻译；交际翻译；文本类型<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are notable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They each respectively proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward functional equivalence theory. Newmark presented semantic translation, communicative translation, the text type theory, and the correlative approach to translation, making up for the weaknesses of Nida’s theory. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they are under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida’s and Newmark’s translation theories. <br /> <br /> Eugene A. Nida and Peter Newmark are noteable translators and translation theorists in the western world. They respectively each proposed a translation theory system after many years of translation practice. Nida put forward the 'functional equivalence theory'. Their translation theories inevitably have some similarities in that they were created under the same social background. This chapter will compare their translation theories, and analyze the differences between Nida’s and Newmark’s translation theories.--[[User:Root|Root]] ([[User talk:Root|talk]]) 10:12, 23 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> '''Key Words'''<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence; semantic translation; communicative translation; text type<br /> <br /> ===Introduction of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida worked for translation department of American Bible Society and organized the translation of Bible, and drew some conclusions when translating Bible. According to these experiences, he published Toward a Science of Translating in 1964, The Theory and Practice of Translation in 1969, etc. His translation theory and the phrase-dynamic equivalence was first introduced in the former book with many examples about Bible. Peter Newmark and Eugene A. Nida were the same century and Newmark was two years younger than Nida. But Newmark’s translation theory appeared 20 years later than Nida’s. Since 1974, Newmark has begun to teach students translation theories in the university and tried to write passages about translation problems. It was said that Newmark’s ideas were from his classes. His first work-Approaches to Translation was published in 1981, which gained widespread praise immediately. Semantic translation and communicative translation were put forward in this book. Many translators regarded their translation theories as the guidelines when translating and used their translation theories to evaluate and compare others’ translations. There are a lot of theses about the comparative study of Nida’s functional equivalence theory and Newmark’s translation theory in China. Until now there has been people focusing on the similarities and differences of their theories. Plenty of differences are mentioned by scholars like Lin Kenan, Lao Long, Chen Lin, Wang Jing, Zhang Xu, Hu Dawei, Yin Kexiu, etc. As these scholars wrote, first, Nida embraced the idea that translations should be readers-centered. Translators should put the intelligibility of translations first. And Newmark considered that translators should be loyal to writers of source texts first, source language second, and readers third; second, Nida emphasized free translation and sought functional equivalence first and formal equivalence second while Newmark attained importance to literal translation; third, although their research methods are based on linguistics, Nida’s methods mainly originated from transformational generative linguistics and Newmark’s mainly stemmed from comparative linguistics; fourth, Nida and Newmark have different translation evaluation criteria. Nida evaluated translations according to readers’ response and Newmark believed that evaluation of translations were related to types of source texts and different texts had corresponding evaluation criteria. There are many other differences about their theories and this chapter will not explain more in detail. In addition, both Newmark and Nida supposed that every language could be translated into another language. The ability of translatability was confirmed. Some scholars hold extreme attitudes toward their theories. For instance, some scholars perceive that Nida opposed formal equivalence. Some inaccurate conclusions were drawn that Nida only focused on free translation and Newmark totally used literal translation and did not care about free translation. Some scholars reckon that some ideas of Nida’s theory are contrary to that of Newmark’s theory. The reasons why some scholars summarize such false conclusions are that first, they do not begin an intensive study and have a rush for quick results; second, Nida’s and Newmark’s were at the stage of development at that time and some scholars saw some imperfect ideas and put them into researches but it was likely that Nida and Newmark revised and added some ideas in the following texts. This chapter will illustrate their differences from five aspects, which are their kernel theories, the definition and nature, research methods, translation texts, and translation evaluation criteria. There are two parts about translation texts, which are the content and form in translation, degree of emphasis on the texts.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Nida's and Newmark's Kernel Theories===<br /> <br /> Nida and Newmark had different kernel theories and this part will respectively present their translation theories.<br /> <br /> ====1.1 Introduction of Nida's Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Introduction of Newmark’s Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 The Definition and Nature of Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Research Methods of Translation===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Translation of Texts===<br /> <br /> ====4.1 The Content and Form in Translation====<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Degree of Emphasis on the Texts====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 Translation Evaluation Criteria===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> ='''Chinese Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A breif introduction to Xu Yuanchong's translation theories 杨逸 Yang Yi==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Xu Yuanchong has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has published more than 120 translated works in Chinese, English or French at home and abroad, almost half of his works focus on the translation of ancient Chinese poems. He was honored as &quot;the best one who translate poems from Chinese to English and French &quot; and was presented with &quot;Aurora Borealis&quot; Outstanding Literary Translation Award. So this paper will be divided in three parts, based principally on his poetry translations, to introduce briefly Xu Yuanchong’s translation theories : his principle of three beauties, his principle of three transformations and his principle of three purposes.<br /> ===Key words===<br /> Xu Yuanchong ; principle of three beauties ; principle of three transformations ; principle of three purposes<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 许渊冲从事文学翻译工作超过六十年，已经在国内外出版中、英、法文著作一百二十多部。这其中中国古代诗词几乎占到了一半。他被誉为“诗译英法唯一人”，曾获“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖，是首位获此殊荣亚洲翻译家。因此本论文主要将分为三部分，结合他的诗歌译本来浅析他的翻译理论：“三美论”,“三化论”和“三之论”。<br /> ===关键词'''===<br /> 许渊冲；三美论；三化论；三之论<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 principle of three beauties===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 principle of three transformations===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 principle of three purposes===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Ji Xianlin’s view on translation 马淑雅 Ma Shuya==<br /> <br /> ==Translation Thoughts and Theories in China 雷方圆 Lei Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and western Translation 张佩闻 Zhang Peiwen==<br /> <br /> ==Reflections of Translation Theory Books 李丽琴 Li Liqin==<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Lu Xun's Translation Theories 张瑜 Zhang Yu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Lu Xun, as China’s renowned writer, thinker and one of founders of Chinese modern literature, has left a great amount of precious spiritual wealth. His representative works include Outcry, A Madman's Diary, Dawn Blossoms Plucked at Dusk, Wild Grass and so on, which are the bright pearls of Chinese literature. We have a general understanding of him when he served as a writer. In fact, as a translator, Lu Xun has also left profound translation works for generations including translations of literature and theory works. Even seeing from the time line, the records of his translation activities were far prior to his literary creation. His earliest novel, Nostalgia, was finished in 1911, while his earliest translation, Mournful World, as finished in 1903. In the process of translating different works, Lu Xun gradually formed his own translation theory. Therefore, learning more about his translation theory is conducive to comprehensively recognizing him. This paper mainly introduces Lu Xun's translation theory as well as its formation and development.The purpose is that make everyone have a more profound understanding to Lu Xun's theory.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Lu Xun, Translation Theory, Literal Translation, Hard Translation,<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> 鲁迅作为我国著名的文学家、思想家、中国现代文学的奠基人之一，给我们留下了一大批宝贵的精神财富，如他的代表作品《呐喊》、《狂人日记》、《朝花夕拾》、《野草》等，都是我国文学宝库中璀璨的明珠。而我们对他的了解可能始于他的作家身份，但事实上，作为翻译家的鲁迅也给后人留下了内容丰富的翻译作品，其中包括文学作品翻译和理论著作翻译。甚至从时间上来看，他从事翻译活动要远远早于文学创作活动，鲁迅最早的小说《怀旧》创作于1911年，而他最早的译文《哀尘》则完成于1903年。鲁迅在从事翻译活动的过程中，逐渐形成了自己的翻译思想，所以了解鲁迅的翻译思想有助于我们更加全面地了解鲁迅。本章回将主要介绍鲁迅的翻译思想及其形成与发展,以此让大家对鲁迅的翻译思想有一个更深刻的了解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 鲁迅，翻译思想，直译，硬译，宁信不顺<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> It is estimated that Lu Xun translated 144 pieces of works of 110 writers from 15 countries and regions in his whole lifetime (Xu Lan, 2017:447). Meanwhile, Lu Xun was engaged in translating foreign literary works from 1903 to 1936, which lasted a long period. Therefore, his identity serving as a translator cannot be neglected. In fact, in the process of undertaking translation, Lu Xun has made great contributions to the Chinese translation history, such as coming up with a series of translation theory. This paper intends to introduce Lu Xun’s translation theory, including his purpose of translation, literal translation and hard translation, the speech and syntax of translation, retranslation and translation criticism. Then it discusses the formation and development of Lu Xun’s translation theories, such as the translation methods developing from free translation to literal translation and even hard translation.<br /> <br /> ===2.Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> 2.1 Purpose of Translation<br /> <br /> From 1903 to 1936, the works and articles translated by Lu Xun can be divided in two categories. One includes scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works; another includes other articles and works different from the first one. However, the purposes that he translated the two categories of works are different. <br /> <br /> For the first category, he hoped that these translation works were able to service for the revolution and serve as the “guide of future revolutions”. In the Hard translation and Hierarchy of Literature published in 1930, Lu Xun responded that it worked for me, for some who claimed proletarian literary critics, and for some readers who were willing to learn more about the theory in spite of having difficulties. From the remarks of Lu Xun, we can see that these works translated by him aimed at not only improving and introspecting himself, but also helping those literature workers who stand with him. In his essays, he usually compared the importance of translation to the Greek mythology that the hero Prometheus stole fire from the gods and gave it to earthly mortals. In his point of view, he believed that these scientific literary theories and revolutionary literary works were able to bring “fire and light” for people. For example, the purpose of translating the Russian work, Destruction (written by A. Fadeyev, translated by Lu Xun) was to introduce steel-willed characters and struggles without fear of sacrifice, encourage Chinese people to engage themselves in revolutionizing the old society, and provide references for Chinese revolutionary writers to create more inspiring works.<br /> <br /> For the second category, Lu Xun hoped that these translation works were able to provide reference materials for people. In the preface of his translation, Ideology, Landscape, Figure, he mentioned that “my translation and introduction aim at making part of readers learn the existence of these things, persons, ideology and remarks…Therefore, if I believe that it’s useful and beneficial, I would attempt to translate it.” For example, he claimed that young people could read some books about imperialists to know more about the foreign countries. There is an old saying that “know the enemy and know yourself, and you can fight a hundred battles with no danger of defeat”. <br /> <br /> 2.2 Free Translation and Hard Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Speech and Syntax of Translation<br /> <br /> 2.4 Retranslation<br /> <br /> 2.5 Translation Criticism<br /> <br /> ===3.The Formation and Development of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> ===4.The Application of Lu Xun's Translation Theories===<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> *陈福康.中国译学理论史稿（修订本）[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000年.<br /> *顾钧.鲁迅翻译研究[M].福建：福建教育出版社，2009年.<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology Theory 刘怡瑜 Liu Yiyu==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> ==A study on a History of Translation Theory 李梦 Li Meng==<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Translation Theory between Bell and Liu Zhongde 林鑫 Lin Xin==<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Nida's Theory and Jin Di's Theory 罗维嘉 Luo Weijia==<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''key words'''===<br /> <br /> ===Jin Di's Translation Theory of Equivalent Effect===<br /> <br /> ===Nida's Translation Theory of Dynamic Equivalence===<br /> <br /> ===Difference Between Jin's Theory and Nida's Theory===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Translation , Translating and interpreting 漆凯 Qi Kai==<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Chinese Translation Theories Around the Turn of 20th Century==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;郭露 Guo Lu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 为了更加准确的理解中国二十世纪初期的翻译理论，本论文从时代背景下分析了翻译的发展，并通过案例分析对严复和林纾的翻译理论进行了简要概括和介绍，以加深我们对于该时期翻译理论的了解。<br /> <br /> === '''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> 翻译理论；中国翻译理论；严复；“信达雅”；林纾<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> As foreign culture was introduced into China in the late 19th century, Chinese intellectuals had also endeavored to achieve culture renaissance. During this period, translation acted as a bridge between China and the rest of the world. Therefore, this paper mainly discusses the translation theories of Yan Fu and Lin Shu who were of great significance at that time.<br /> <br /> To better understand Chinese translation theories around the turn of 20th century, this paper analyzes the development of translation at that time, and introduces the Yan Fu’s and Lin Shu’s translation theories through case analysis, so as to deepening our understanding towards translation theories in the beginning of 20th century.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Translation theory, Chinese translation theory, Yan Fu, Lin Shu<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Yan Fu'''===<br /> <br /> '''1. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu(1854-1921), courtesy name Ji Dao, was a scholar and translator in modern China, he towers over all translators after him, if not all those before him in modern China. He was famous for introducing Western thoughts, including Darwin’s idea of “natural selection” into China and was singled out among some few who contributed most to China’s knowledge of the West at that period. <br /> <br /> Yan Fu is especially famous for ''Tianyanlun'', the tendering of Thomas H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics''. The survival of the fittest in this book took wing in time in the fermenting air of nationwide struggle for survival. <br /> <br /> Besides that, Yan stated in the preface to his translation of ''Evolution and Ethics'' that &quot;there are three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot;. Although he did not set them as general standards for translation, since the publication of that work, the phrase &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance&quot; has been attributed to Yan Fu as a standard for any good translation, giving rise to numerous debates and has since been the catchword in Chinese translation theory.<br /> <br /> Yan Fu was also one of the most influential scholars of his generation as he worked to introduce Western social, economic and political ideas to China. During his lifetime, Yan Fu translated the following major works of Western liberal thought: ''Evolution and Ethics'' by Thomas Henry Huxley as ''Tianyan lun'', ''The Wealth of Nations'' by Adam Smith as ''Yuan fu'', and ''The Study of Sociology'' by Herbert Spencer as ''Qunxue yiyan'', most of them inspired later scholars to better learn about Western culture.<br /> <br /> '''2. Translation Theory'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s theory, which includes faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness(''da'') and elegance(''ya''), plays vital importance in Chinese translation theory. Another English version is fidelity, fluency, and elegance. Still another is fidelity, fluency and flair rendered by Brian Holton, using the alliterative &quot;f&quot; so helpful for memory. They are cited as follows:<br /> <br /> 1)Translation involves three requirements difficulted to fulfil: faithfulness(''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance(''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult enough to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance.<br /> <br /> 2)<br /> <br /> ==The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 张宇星 Zhang Yuxing==<br /> <br /> ='''Comparison of Translation Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Comparison Of Translation Theory Between Yan Fu And Tytler 陈涵 Chen Han==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Yan Fu and Tytler are outstanding translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. Tytler’s “Three Principles of Translation” and Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most important translation theories. It is believed that the two theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. Although they lived in different times, their theories were quite similar which aroused much controversy. This paper will expound “Three Principles of Translation” and “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and focus on the similarities and differences between these two theories in terms of content, theoretical basis and culture. It aims to figure out the relationship between the two theories, better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a dialectical perspective, thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Three Principles of Translation; Yan Fu; Tytler<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 严复与泰特勒分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。严复的“信达雅” 与泰特勒的“翻译三原则”分别是中西翻译史上最重要的翻译理论之一，对翻译理论与实践方面有着广泛深刻的影响。严复与泰特勒二人虽处于不同的时代，但他们的翻译理论却十分相似，从而引起许多争议。本文将系统阐述二人的翻译理论，从这两种理论的内涵、文化背景和理论基础等方面比较二者的相似点和不同点。这种做法有助于理清两个理论之间的关系，更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们辩证看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 信达雅；翻译三原则；严复；泰特勒<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> In the history of translation, many outstanding scholars and translators have emerged both in China and in the West. They have never stopped discussing translation, and most of them have systematically summarized translation standards. In ancient China, many translation thoughts and translation theories emerged, including Shi Daoan’s “Five Instances of Losing the Source and Three Instances of Difficulties” and Xuan Zang’s “Five Guidelines for Not-Translation a Term” (Zhang Peiyao, 2014). Later, Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory appeared successively. Prominent representatives of Western translation theory include five elements of translation put forward by a French linguist Etienne Dolet in the 16th century, seven rules of translation put forward by a German translation theorist Martin Luther, three principles of translation by a British translation theorist Tytler in the 18th century, semantic translation and communicative translation of Newmark in the 20th century, and the dynamic equivalence of Nida. <br /> <br /> In this process, Chinese and Western translation theories have been developing independently in a relatively isolated state. It was not until about the beginning of the 20th century that initial exchanges and dialogues began. Translation standards are the core issue of translation theory and practice. At the beginning of the exchange, the translators were concerned about it. At the end of the 18th century, Tytler proposed three basic principles for translation and evaluation of translation, which had a great impact on later translation theorists. More than 100 years later, Yan Fu’s translation standard of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” was put forward. This chapter will discuss two representative translation theories from China and the West—Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation, and analyze the two theories from the historical and cultural background and their theoretical basis of. Through comparison, we can grasp the similarities and differences between the two theories, so as to contribute to translation studies and guide future translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===An Overview of the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Yan Fu’s “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation have had a profound impact on the history of translation at home and abroad. If we compare and analyze the two theories, we must first correctly understand the connotation of each theory.<br /> <br /> '''1.Yan Fu’s Translation Principles of Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance'''<br /> <br /> Yan Fu was a Chinese scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas. His three translation principles—faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance first made its appearance in Yan’s preface to his own translation of T. H. Huxley’s ''Evolution and Ethics'' (1898): <br /> <br /> “Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness (''xin''), expressiveness (''da'') and elegance (''ya''). Faithfulness is difficult to attain but a translation that is faithful but not expressive, or fluent, is no translation at all. Expressiveness is therefore of prime importance. Since China’s opening to foreign trade by sea, there has been no lack of interpreters and translators. But if you assign them any book to translate and tell them to meet these two requirements, few can do so.” (Yan Fu, 2009: 202)<br /> <br /> In his words, the three principles indicate that the translator should be faithful in conveying the message of the original text, fluent in the expression in the target language and elegance in style. Faithfulness emphasizes the fidelity to the original. Yan believes that the translator cannot begin his work until he has mastered the connotation of the original text. Expressiveness stresses the fluency and acceptability of the translation. As for elegance, Yan holds that dictation without elegance cannot reach far. So far, elegance has led some discussions in the study of translation. <br /> <br /> Based on his understanding of ancient Buddhist Scriptures translation and his own translation practices, Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” which has become the fundamental tenets of 20th Chinese translation theory. <br /> <br /> '''2 Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation'''<br /> <br /> Alexander Fraser Tytler is an eminent British translation theorist. In 1790, he proposed three principles of good translation in his book, ''Essay on the Principles of Translation''. When it comes to a good translation, he described that the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler, 2007: 8-9) <br /> <br /> According to his description of good translation, it can be easily seen that Tytler has attached great importance to mastery of ideas in the original texts. Therefore, he put forward three principles on the basis of good translation: (1) That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; (2) That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original; (3) That the Translation should have all the ease of original. (Tytler, 2007: 9) From Tytler’s point of view, the order of these three principles is appropriate and natural, and it is arranged by importance. If translating a text, one cannot pursue the smoothness and elegance at the cost of ignoring the ideas in the source language.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Tytler’s Three Principles of Translation laid a good foundation for Western translation studies. And it created a research method of induction through theory.<br /> <br /> ===The Social and Theoretical Background of the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ===Similarities and Differences Between the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> == Comparison between Nida and Newmark 李丽丽 Li Lili==<br /> <br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> Eugene Nida and Peter Newmark are famous representative of the Western linguists. Their translation theories are based on linguistics. Nida put forward the famous &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory and &quot;functional equivalence&quot; theory, which has made outstanding contributions to the translation of the Bible. Newmark devoted himself to teaching, and put forward some famous theories such as semantic translation, communicative translation and relevance translation. Their translation theories have many similarities and differences. This paper will make a systematic comparison from the same and different points, and represent my own views on their advantages and disadvantages.<br /> <br /> Keywords: Nida; Newmark; similarities; difference<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> 尤金·奈达和彼得·纽马克是著名的语言学家。他们的翻译理论建立在语言学的基础上，奈达提出了著名了“动态对等”理论和“功能对等”理论，为翻译《圣经》做出了杰出贡献。纽马克一声致力于教学工作，由此提出了著名的“语义翻译”，“交际翻译”，“关联翻译”等理论。他们的翻译理论有诸多相同之处和不同之处。本论文将从相同以及不同之处来进行系统综合的比较，并就其优缺点提出自己的看法。<br /> 关键词：奈达；纽马克；相同；不同<br /> <br /> ==A study on the division of western translation theories 刘柳 Liu Liu==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of the translation theory of Eugene. A. Nida and J. C. Catford 陈莎 Chen Sha==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's Poetry Translation Principles 徐梦蝶Xu Mengdie ==<br /> &lt;center&gt;徐梦蝶 Xu Mengdie &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Ezra Pound is a representative poet and literary critic at the beginning of 20th Century in western literary world. Together with T.S. Eliot and other important literary figures, he started a new trend in poetry creation and study, and at the same period, China was also experiencing an essential transition from old style poetry to free verse written in vernacular language. Inevitably, associations were built between them. Wen Yiduo's poetic theory is thought to be heavily affected by Pound's but growing out of specific cultural and social background, Wen's theory still has his own features to be distinguished from Pound's.Therefore, it's necessary for us to distinguish these two theories so as to better comprehend both of them.<br /> This paper aims to analyse the differences and similarities between Ezra Pound's and Wen Yiduo's poetry translation theories from contrasts of their translation principles in rhyme, image and structure.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Poetry translation; Wen Yiduo; Ezra Pound<br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 20世纪初,在西方文学世界,埃兹拉·庞德是一位具有代表性的诗人和文学批评家。 他和艾略特以及其他重要的文坛人物一起开创了诗歌创作和研究的新潮流。在同一时期的中国，一场重要的文化运动也正在进行，即从旧诗向白话新诗的转变。这两场运动之间也难以避免地有所联系。人们认为闻一多的诗歌理论深受庞德的影响，但是考虑到闻一多诗歌理论诞生的文化和社会背景，该理论中许多观点和庞德的观点有类似之处和不同之处。因此，为了更好地理解两者，我们有必要进行对比研究。<br /> 本文通过对比分析闻一多和庞德在诗歌韵律，意象，结构三方面的翻译原则，来看两者观点的相同点和不同之处。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 诗歌翻译理论； 闻一多；埃兹拉·庞德<br /> ==='''I.Introduction'''===<br /> 1. Research Background<br /> <br /> With the quick development, China begins to play a much more important role in global stage and naturally the need of recommending Chinese culture to the world has been aroused. From traditional Chinese literary creation to today's modern culture, there is a movement worthy of our attention, that is the vernacular writing movement. At the beginning of 20th century, China is urgently in need to open up and to learn from the western world and some extreme ideas even caused the division between Chinese classical literary composition and modern composition but at the same time Chinese traditional culture was revived by western scholars like Ezra Pound， Amy Lowell，etc. Ezra Pound published ''Cathy''in 1915 and started imagist movement (1909-1917). Wen Yiduo is a representative of vernacular writing movement，whose first new poem composing might be ''A Rainy Night''(雨夜) and ''Moon and Men''(月亮和人) (闻黎明，2014) and he distinguished himself from the other representatives by his relative complete frame both in literary composition as well as in literary criticism. Besides, Wen Yiduo's personal painting learning experience and his contact with western poets at that time are materials also worthy of discussion.<br /> The reason why these two characters are chosen to be compared in this paper is because, first they lived at the same time period and were both involved in two important literary movements at that time; second, both of them interpreted and applied Chinese traditional poems into modern composition but in different ways. Therefore, comparisons on their understanding of poetic translation is a way to comprehend the role of Chinese traditional culture in modern times and to get to know these two poets and translators better.<br /> <br /> 2. Research Method<br /> <br /> Close reading: this paper has collected relative works of Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound and papers on them at first. By closing reading their works to understand their ways of poem composing and their principles of poetic translation. Works involved in this chapter are,''Complete Collections of Wen Yiduo''(闻一多全集), ''Biography of Wen Yiduo'', ''Cathy'' of Ezra Pound,etc.<br /> <br /> Comparison study: since there some common points between these two poets and translators, comparisons are made between them to better distinguish them from their roles relatively in vernacular writing movement and in imagist movement as well as their roles in inheriting the old and making the new, and lastly on their poem translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''II.Literature Review'''===<br /> Wen Yiduo is widely studied as a new poet composer, painter,classical poetry researcher, as well as a revolutionist. Papers on Wen Yiduo focuse more on his identity as a poem composer, than on his identity as a translator and this chapter mainly studies his translator identity with his poet identity as supplement.<br /> <br /> [[File:A.png]]<br /> <br /> Papers on Wen Yiduo have covered almost all subjects including his multiple identities as well as his further studies on traditional Chinese mythologies, classical poems etc.<br /> From 1970s to today, this chapter chose recent papers on Wen Yiduo as a translator, and we can see from this picture that study on Wen Yiduo continues to be a favor to scholars and in recent years even more papers were published on his translation principles. In 2005, a paper of Lv Jing is a watershed, for he announced a new age of modern metrical poem's coming. Wen Yiduo is a pioneer of metrical poem at the begging of 20th C but he's inevitably constrained by his time and with culture development, and now we are gradually entering a new era of modern metrical poetry(吕进，2005).<br /> Major works often cited by scholars and these two black dots are work of Qian Liqun's (钱理群等，1998) ''Chinese Literature in Recent 30 Years''(中国现代文学30年)and ''Collection on Translation Theories''(翻译论集：罗新璋等，1984)<br /> <br /> As for comparison between Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound,there are 18 essays published in recent years found within China.<br /> [[File:8.png]]<br /> <br /> There are 18 papers in total and phrases mentioned the most often are &quot;Chinese new poetry&quot;, &quot;poem translation&quot;, &quot;the beauty of painting&quot;. Most of these papers study Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound from the general comparison between two movements(vernacular writing movement and imagist movement) and there is only one paper directly compares them, which was written by Fu Jianan(傅建安) and Zhang Li（张立） in 2019. In this paper, the authors pointed out that Wen Yiduo was heavily influenced by Ezra Pound, which could be seen from his three principles of beauty: the beauty of music, the beauty of painting, and the beauty of architecture.Besides, they also believed that Wen Yiduo was affected by nationality and creativity of Ezra Pound.<br /> <br /> ===='''III.Discussion'''====<br /> Wen Yiduo is a representative poet and translator in China at the beginning of 20th Century. At that time, China was experiencing a social and cultural upheaval with collapse of the old and emerging of the new. Since Wen Yiduo was born in a family with avant-garde thoughts, he came to get revolutionary idea at an early age. Although Wen Yiduo didn't participate directly into May 4th movement, he demonstrated his firm support of students through a passionate patriotic poem. Clearly, Wen Yiduo's literary creation is indispensable from his social ideas. This could be revealed in his subjects of poems for instance, ''Songs of Seven Sons''(七子之歌), ''Song of the Sun''（太阳吟）, ''Silent Night''(静夜), and etc. As for his ideas in translation which are also closely associated with his understanding in poem composing, basing on his personal learning and experiences. <br /> Wen Yiduo had experienced several transition in his life in poem composing. He was first a poet of classical poems(1916-1925) and had works like, ''Ode on Horse''(马赋), ''Ode on Pine''（松赋), ''Spring Willow''（春柳),and etc. Later influenced by Hu Shi and vernacular writing movement, he devoted himself to new poem writing and criticized that classical poem shouldn't be composed and it should be totally abandoned (评本学年《周刊》里的新诗). After several tries in composing new poems, Wen Yiduo later arrived at America to continue his study on painting and literature. Here he had contact with Chicago poets and American Imagists and this was where his another transition occurred. He then again criticized Hu Shi's absolute abandonment of rhyme and rhythm and advocated to trace back to Chinese classical culture for nourishment and this was partly enlightened by his painting and classical poem study experiences in Chicago and after being back to China, he pioneered in creating metrical poems which associated western new poems' features together with image and structure of classical Chinese poems. He asked for beauty in music, beauty in image, and beauty in Architecture. His best work realized his principles could be seen in Dead Water(死水)(闻一多全集，1993).<br /> Ezra Pound had a same starting point of doing translation which is to find an answer to his epoch, to solve problems existing. He even leveled the importance of Confucianism to the height of Christianism which has unrivalled importance in Western culture. He believed that the &quot;order&quot; and &quot;benevolence&quot; mentioned by Confucius was exactly what was needed to conquer the social plight posed by industrialism, periodic economic crisis, isolation between human beings, and etc.(蒋洪新，2001) Ezra Pound denied that poem translation should be word-to-word translation but to maintain connotations behind it. He decided the name &quot;imagism&quot; for the writing movement in 1912 and later published ''Cathy''in 1915. He was delighted when he discovered Chinese character was full of beauty of images and classical poems like ''The Books of Songs''all could be a good source for imagist movement.<br /> In ''A Pact'', Pound compared Whitman as a father and himself was his son. Although he held some disagreements with his father,they two had to share the same root and sap.Whitman is like Hu Shi in China, who highlighted the importance of free expression, direct use of vernacular language, and relatively neglected the significance of structure, rhyme and rhythm. Wen Yiduo had also mentioned that he disagreed with Hu Shi's composition of absolute free verses in his ''Experiment''(尝试集). To Wen Yiduo, sound and music is what contained in words and only poem, this concise expression, can have more powerful emotions with their syllables. This is natural and artistic (《冬夜》评论).<br /> <br /> ====1. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in image translation==== <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo started painting when he was young and he continued his study of painting in Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. All these experience provided him a chance to paint poems and he had unique understanding of images basing on his study on both classical Chinese poems and new poems. At the beginning of his composing of new poems, poems on nature took a great part of them. Yet he later found that his direct use of a lot of common images in classical poems made his poem too direct and superficial. He therefore decided to use more uncommon images.When he came to America and knew Chicago poets like Carl Sandberg as well as imagists like Amy Lowell, he was affected by their ideas in poem composing.Chicago poets use direct language and free verse to paint out the world in a vivid way. Images are important to Chicago poets but they put rhythm and rhyme in a non-essential position (焦建平，2001). Wen Yiduo therefore, at the earlier period of his poem composing, he paid great attention to image use and also disregarded rhythm and rhyme. Here we have one short poem of his earlier composition:<br /> <br /> 太阳辛苦了一天，<br /> 赚得一个平安的黄昏，<br /> 喜得满面通红，<br /> 一气直往山洼里狂奔。<br /> <br /> This excerpt was from one of his earlier vernacular poem and it's very direct and daily, yet lacking beauty in music, image, and depth, and he soon gave up this style. He agreed with Hu Shi's idea in liberating human mind by literature revolution, but he still enhanced the importance of literary form (北塔，2011). Wen Yiduo therefore, criticize Hu Shi's writing for lack of beauty in music and in image.As a translator, his principles of poem translation are heavily impacted by his identity as a poet. He believed that translator of poem should be a poet himself and the process of translation could be viewed as a process of recreation. Wen Yiduo compared poem composing as traditional Chinese painting; colors blending with colors create new harmonious image and words should be like colors (闻一多，1926). Take Wen Yiduo's poem ''Red Candler''as an example, he used the image of red candler to praise the spirit of selfless sacrifice and affirmed his belief in brightness. From Wen Yiduo's own writing, we could see the transition of his using color image, which shifted from bright ones to dim ones as we can discover from ''Red Candler'' (红烛), ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum''(忆菊) and ''Color''(色彩) to ''Backwater''(死水). Images of colors in his poems are often studied by scholars. And it is taken as a clear combination of his idea of both painting and poetry composing. And as we've mentioned above that, Wen Yiduo's poetry contained his patriotic idea which is not only shown in subjects but also in his insistence on the form of poetry. As we can see in both ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum''(忆菊) and ''Backwater''(死水), Wen Yiduo pursued a visual presentation of described pictures. Although Wen Yiduo had studied painting in America, he had shown more free hand sketch in his poem rather then western fine brush work.(辛春生，2011) All his principles in poem composition were applied to his translation later. Wen Yiduo asked for concrete image rather than mystery one which also coincides with Pound's idea. <br /> <br /> ''&quot;这种空空疏疏模模糊糊的描写法使读者丝毫得不着一点具体的印象，当然是弱于幻想力底结果。&quot;（《冬夜》评论）<br /> <br /> &quot;Don’t use such an expression as &quot;dim lands of peace.&quot; It dulls the image. It mixes an abstraction with the concrete. It comes from the writer’s not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol.&quot;(A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste)''<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound can be taken as an orientalist for his love and study on eastern cultures. Before he came to know Chines, he was captured by the conciseness but rich connotation contained in Chinese traditional culture. His interests in Chinese traditional poems was started by ''A History of Chinese Literature ''(Herbert Giles) and later became addicted to it for Fenollosa's introduction of oriental art（郭为，1988). In the process of translating Chinese traditional poem he formed his poem composing principles. He believed that poem should not be written in superfluous words; abstraction should not be mixed with concrete natural symbols; and expressions should be polished with good ornaments.(Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste) Pound had many practices of image-using and he was known for his superimposition of images. <br /> <br /> “落叶依于重扃。（落叶哀蝉曲 刘彻）”&quot;A wet leaf that clings to the threshold.&quot; <br /> <br /> This sentence has well shown Pound's superimposition of images.Here &quot;wet leaf&quot; and &quot;threshold&quot; are two different images but the verb &quot;cling&quot; is used well to paint a picture of deep autumn and to arouse the feeling of departure. Even the leaf is hesitating of leaving, how about humans? Both &quot;fallen leaf&quot; and &quot;threshold&quot; are classical image used in Chinese poems. Pound chose concrete images to convey the abstract melancholy just as Chinese classical poem did. In ''Cathy'', ''The Beauiful Toilet'' has shown that Ezra Pound also had his own understanding of color image. &quot;Blue, blue is the grass about the river&quot;, &quot;White, white of face, hesitates, passing the door.&quot; There are 6 duplicated words in original poem but Pound only kept the duplicated form of color words &quot;青青&quot; and &quot;皎皎&quot;, which reflects his high attention to color image although he didn't mentioned that in his essay.<br /> <br /> Both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound drew nourishment from classical Chinese poems and attached great importance to image using. Yet, since Wen Yiduo had experiences as a painter, he was more sensitive to color images than Pound, though Pound also had his own preference to images. Therefore, we may assume that Wen Yiduo was affected by imagisma and by Ezra Pound but Wen Yiduo also had his personally preference and choice of image application basing on his understanding of classical Chinese poems and painting just as what was shown in ''Reminicence of Chrysanthemum''(忆菊). <br /> <br /> <br /> ====2. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principle in rhyme translation====<br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo composed poems in classical Chinese with traditional style at first, when he was at school. Later deeply affected by ideas of vernacular poem composing as highlighted by Hu Shi, he accepted that we should liberalize citizen's mind by freeing them from constraints of classical writing and shifted his composing from classical style to vernacular free verse.When Wen Yiduo started his new poem composing, he realized too direct an expression was would lose the hazy beauty. Different from Hu Shi, Wen Yiguo attached great importance to rhyme and rhythm of poems. This might have some association with his experience of Tang poem studies. He appreciated the beauty of classical poem and even believed that it's almost impossible for us to translate these poems into English, or it's a waste of classical poems. To translate Yuefu folksongs, free verse is thought to be the best choice to him, for their similarity in form and translator is given more space to think about rhyme (Wen Yiduo, 1926). As his comment on Shigeyoshi Obata's translation on Li Po's poems, Wen blamed the translator used free verse to translate Li Po's metrical poems.Because Wen himself is a big fan of Li Po, he denied that Li Po's grander style and imposing manner could be kept in free verses(黄焰结，2014). He then practiced his translation believes into his own writings. In the next year(1927), he translated a poem of John Masefield.<br /> <br /> Sea Fever<br /> by： John Masefield<br /> I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br /> And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,<br /> And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking,<br /> And a gray mist on the sea's face, and a gray dawn breaking.<br /> I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide<br /> Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied;<br /> And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying,<br /> And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying.<br /> I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life,<br /> To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife;<br /> And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover,<br /> And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over.<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，再回到荒凉的天涯海角，<br /> <br /> 我要求的是一只楼船，一颗星儿做她的向导，<br /> <br /> 还有龙骨破着浪，风声唱着歌，白帆在风里摇，<br /> <br /> 海面上一阵灰色的雾，一个灰色的破晓。<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，因为那一阵潮水的呼声<br /> <br /> 是狂暴的呼声，嘹亮的呼声，你没有法子否认<br /> <br /> 我要求的是一个刮风的天儿，还飞着些白云，<br /> <br /> 再加上海水翻着浪花儿，海鸥也在叫你。<br /> <br /> 我要回海上去，再过那漂泊的生涯才好！<br /> <br /> 走上海鸥的道，鲸鱼的道，那里的风像把快刀；<br /> <br /> 我要的是做完了的活，大伙儿谈着天儿说着笑，<br /> <br /> 临了，来一场甜蜜的梦，一宿安稳的觉。<br /> <br /> John Masefield's Sea Fever is a rhymed poetry and Wen chose end rhymed to echo the original version, in order to achieve the musical beauty in poem. Besides a lot alliterations &quot;a star to steer/ a clear call,and etc.&quot; are used in the original poem to form the enormous power and repetition is another figure of speech in this poem, &quot;I must go down to the seas again&quot;, which could emphasize the poet's emotion.To maintain the original feature, Wen Yiduo kept the original repetition and parallels in translation. Wen Yidou thought that art is what human decoration plus natural beauty and in his translation, to achieve the parallel structure and concise expression, he had chopped off unnecessary conjunctions and shift the order of words coordination. For example, &quot;I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,<br /> And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,&quot; &quot;again&quot; this world was shifted into the latter part of the translation and &quot;lonely sea and the sky &quot; was translated as a Chinese four-character idiom &quot;天涯海角&quot;. &quot;To steer&quot; this infinitive was translated as a verb-object structure-&quot;做她的向导&quot; to ensure the balance of translation. Compared with the original version, we can discover the translated version even more concise and has clear beat to form the music. To form parallel structure and clear rhythm, Wen Yiduo had added some decorative elements or eliminate some unimportant elements to achieve his ideal music. “龙骨”，“风声”，“白帆”are words chosen by translator basing on original expression, in order to match both requirements of images and readability. “还”，“临了”，“天儿”， these are words added by transaltor which are rich in Chinese culture and are tainted by vernacular feature , which can help to achieve an effect of balance between loose and tense within poem. Wen Yiduo believes that poems should have multiple rhythms serving for one theme and this can help to catch reader's attention and arouse emotions. It's more natural and in this poem, it well conforms to the rhythm of waves(诗歌节奏的研究).<br /> Different from Wen Yiduo's insistence on the rhyme and rhythm of poems, Ezra Pound believed that &quot;It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music, but if it does rely on its music that music must be such as will delight the expert.&quot; (Ezra Pound, A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste) Take ''The River-Merchant's Wife: a Letter''as an example, Pound translated Chinese poem more into a prose than a rhymed poem, and to this extent his emphasize is more on the other sides as what was said by himself that he agreed that music was important but he didn't take it as a priority. He believed that poems could be divided into three kinds, and poems of sounds is one of the three. Poems of sounds could be appreciated without translation for its musicality and it, to some extent is untranslatable. But he regarded images are conveyable and was devoted to it. <br /> Thus we can see, Rhyme and rhythm are as important as images to Wen Yiduo, for he thought these were also necessary ways to convey emotion and to arouse feeling. Wen Yiduo asked for not only beauty in image but also beauty in music and he showed no preference between these two, yet, to Pound, as what was said in ''A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste'', &quot;It is not necessary that a poem should rely on its music&quot;. Wen Yiduo attached so much importance to music, so that he once said some five-character quatrains of Li Po could not be translated into another language. For he believed that Li Po's five-character quatrains were ancient soul in modern cover with decorations. The beat and syllables form the imposing manner of his poem so once these verses were transplanted into another container, the favor might be lost. (英译李太白诗，1926)<br /> <br /> ====3. Contrast of Wen Yiduo's and Pound's principles in translation of architecture====<br /> <br /> Pound studied both Chinese poems and Japanese poems. Therefore the structure of his translations can often be traced back into parallelism of Chinese poem as well as the Japanese Haiku. <br /> <br /> In a Station of the Metro<br /> The Apparition of these faces in the crowd;<br /> Petals on a wet, black bough.<br /> <br /> This is one of Pound's most famous poems and Pound took it as his proud work of imitation of Japanese Haiku. However, some scholars hold a different view, like Wu Di, he thought this poem is more close to imitation of Chinese parallel sentence. He listed reasons as: First, there are parallel compositions like time and space and color contrasts of bough and petals. Second, Wu thought that metrical unit of this poem is &quot;word&quot;, which is distinct from &quot;syllable&quot; in English poems and Japanese Haiku. Haiku highlighted more artistic conception than metrical harmony.Besides, this poem paid more attentions to the notional words than functional words. (吴笛，2007)<br /> Pound's translation of poems are influenced by forms of folk songs, sonnets, Greek-style lyric poems, and elegy, etc. and it can be traced back to Provence love song, Japanese Haiku and Chinese traditional poetry.(王贵明，刘佳，2006) <br /> <br /> Wen Yiduo is the pioneer of new metrical poems in China and asked poets to learn from western metrics and combined it with Chinese traditional poems. He advocated that the highest form of art should be &quot;pure form&quot;. So he appealed to &quot;beauty of architecture&quot; and in Chinese architecture, balance is taken as beauty in tidy form which is also asked for in poem by him(陈历明，2016). Wen Yiduo once said that in Chinese aesthetic appreciation, balance was very essential, we could see it in both architectures and poems. Pattern, syntax, diction and coordination are elements required in a well composed poem. <br /> <br /> Thursday<br /> ——Edna St. Vincent Millay<br /> <br /> And if I loved you Wednesday, <br /> Well, what is that to you?<br /> I do not love you Thursday— <br /> So much is true. <br /> And why you come complaining <br /> Is more than I can see.<br /> I loved you Wednesday,<br /> —yes—but what Is that to me?<br /> <br /> 礼拜四<br /> 即使我礼拜三爱你，<br /> 你管它做什么？<br /> 礼拜四我并不爱你，<br /> 却一点也不错。<br /> 我真不懂，你何为还<br /> 找着我来纠缠。<br /> 礼拜三我爱你—对—<br /> 可是那与我又何干？<br /> <br /> This is a poem translated by Wen Yiduo which reflects his ideas in poem translation, especially in achieving beauty in architecture. First this poem consists of two stanzas and in each stanza, the second and the fourth lines are shorter than the first and the third lines. We can see that the translator maintained the original form of the poem into the translation but did a little alternation to achieve a better presentation. In this sentence, &quot;—yes—but what/Is that to me?&quot;, to balance the length of sentences, the translator shift the word &quot;—yes—&quot; into the verse before the last one, &quot;礼拜三我爱你—对—&quot; to match the number of words. Another instance in this poem is this sentence -&quot;And why you come complaining/Is more than I can see&quot;. To ensure the balance of two stanzas, the translator broke the sentence, &quot;你何为还找着我来纠缠&quot; into two verses,&quot;你何为还/找着我来纠缠&quot;. Besides, there is a semantic symmetry designed by the translator. There is no obvious transitional word before the last line of the first stanza but has a dash to indicate it, therefore the author added &quot;却&quot; to echo &quot;可是&quot; in the last line of the last stanza and replace the dash to achieve the balance in form as well as in meaning. All these efforts of the translator are devoted to achieve the aesthetic sense in architecture.<br /> In one word, both Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound ask for beauty in form but they draw their nourishment from different places and have different focus, for example, Ezra Pound learned and composed Provence love poems and Japanese Haiku. In ''Cathy'', we can see that many classical Chinese poems were translated into prose which are more loose but in Wen Yiduo's translation, he highlighted the balance of structure and was stick to Chinese traditional sense of beauty in architecture. <br /> <br /> ====4.Conclusion====<br /> To sum up, Ezra Pound as a imagist had absorbed elements in Chinese traditional culture and reinterpreted Chinese images in his translation. What should be emphasized is that his understanding of Chinese poems and images come from Fenollosa's writing which is rewriting of Fenollosa's writing. In translation, Ezra Pound asked for artistic conception through image superimposition. And as for his form of translation, it's more loose than Wen Yiduo's for Ezra Pound though required order in literary works, he didn't take &quot;order&quot; as &quot;balance&quot;. His order may exist in his position of images but it does not have to be balance in number of words or pattern of expressions. Being a fan of Li Po, Wen Yiduo even though influenced by vernacular writing movements, Chicago poets and imagist movements, he advocated the importance of form and highlighted artistic feature of poems, the metric, which was a combination of the old and the new. <br /> Basing on comparisons of Ezra Pound and Wen Yiduo in these three aspects, we come to know that Wen Yiduo was influenced by imagist movement and he did pay high attention to image-using later in his works but Wen Yiduo's literary understanding should also be attributed to his personal growing background, China's social environment at that time and his life experience. Before his identity as a poet, he is a patriotic citizen. Wen Yiduo's literary works have a solid patriotic foundation and that's why he always tried to maintain Chinese traditional culture and spread Chinese culture through literary creations. This explains elements of Chinese traditional painting and Chinese aesthetic sense of architecture in his poems as well as specific Chinese images contained in his poems like chrysanthemum, candler, red bean, etc. We shall better say that Wen Yiduo and Ezra Pound are two poets and translators born in a similar social environment rather than saying one is totally the other's imitator. Since they two have their unique culture background and are both passionate lover of Chinese poems, they naturally share some common features in literary presentations but there are also distinctions reflecting their own culture identity like we can discover in both their compositions and translations.<br /> <br /> ==='''V.Reference '''===<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound. Cathy. London: Elkin Mathews, Cork Street Mcmxv.<br /> <br /> 北塔.略论闻一多诗歌之英文翻译[J].中国现代文学研究丛刊,2011(12):97-108.<br /> <br /> 陈历明.闻一多的诗歌翻译与格律诗学的生成[J].文艺理论研究,2016,36(01):64-75.<br /> <br /> 郭为.埃兹拉·庞德的中国汤[J].读书,1988(10):104-110.<br /> <br /> 蒋洪新.庞德的翻译理论研究[J].外国语(上海外国语大学学报),2001(04):77-80.<br /> <br /> 焦建平.卡尔·桑德堡与“意象主义”[J].西北大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2001(04):134-137.<br /> <br /> 黄丽娜. 闻一多诗歌翻译研究[D].湖南师范大学,2013.<br /> <br /> 黄焰结.英译李太白——闻一多与小畑薰良译诗对话的文化考量[J].外语教学与研究,2014,46(04):605-615+641.<br /> <br /> 吕进.三大重建:新诗,二次革命与再次复兴[J].西南师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2005(01):130-135.<br /> <br /> 孙党伯 袁春正，闻一多全集. 武汉：湖北人民出版社 1993.12<br /> <br /> 吴笛.论庞德“在地铁车站”中的汉诗特性[J].外国文学研究,2007(05):53-57.<br /> <br /> 王贵明,刘佳.今韵古风——论埃兹拉·庞德诗歌翻译和创作中的仿古倾向[J].北京理工大学学报(社会科学版),2006(06):79-85.<br /> <br /> 闻黎明，闻一多年谱. 北京：群言出版社 2014.11<br /> <br /> 辛春生.闻一多《忆菊》诗的绘画美新探[J].名作欣赏,2011(35):28-29.<br /> <br /> ='''Theories'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and CE translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong==<br /> ===1.Concepts of Passive in Chinese and English===<br /> <br /> ==On metaphors 游雨婷 You Yuting==<br /> <br /> ==The Brief Introduction of Linguistic School and its Representatives 王源 Wang Yuan==<br /> <br /> ==Polysystem and Cultural Turn 吴琪 WuQi==<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Aesthetics'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's ''Niao Ming Jian'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin==<br /> &lt;center&gt;凌子瑾 Ling Zijin &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. ''Niao Ming Jian'' is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of ''Niao Ming Jian'' to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation.<br /> Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. ''Niao Ming Jian'' is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br /> Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made great contributions to translation studies. The two translators are recognized for their translation skills, but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes ''Niao Ming Jian'' and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.<br /> ===2.Translation Aesthetics===<br /> In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that &quot;it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations&quot;. Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot;, &quot;spirit likeness&quot; ,&quot;delivering&quot; and “principle of three beauties” . In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).<br /> The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, he combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, &quot;the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art&quot;. In addition, he also stressed that &quot;theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.<br /> Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text. The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually &quot;intuitive and sensible&quot; and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually &quot;uncounted&quot;, which is called &quot;non-quantitative factor&quot;. The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.<br /> The &quot;representation&quot; of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text (SL) into an explicit and intuitive form (TL), that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Appreciation of ''Niao Ming Jian''===<br /> The original text of ''Niao Ming Jian''<br /> <br /> 人闲桂花落，<br /> <br /> 夜静春山空。<br /> <br /> 月出惊山鸟，<br /> <br /> 时鸣春涧中。<br /> <br /> The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 (The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in Yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfu Yue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wu Yun Stream (or Ruo Ye Stream), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.<br /> &quot;人闲桂花落，夜静春山空&quot; is the depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and &quot;人闲&quot; together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the &quot;夜静&quot; and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a &quot;fragrant forest and flower rain&quot; scenery. The &quot;春山&quot; here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is &quot;春山&quot;, we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on. When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, &quot;空&quot; not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the &quot;蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽&quot; of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise. The so-called &quot;月明星稀，乌鹊南飞&quot; (from ''Duan Ge Xing'' of Cao cao) is available for readers to associate. But Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty, which was different from the chaos of war in the Jian 'an Period in which even birds and animals could not help feeling nervous. The background of Wang Wei's &quot;月出惊山鸟&quot; is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means the kind of shock like &quot;绕树三匝，无枝可依&quot;. They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. &quot;时鸣春涧中&quot;, they are not so much &quot;startled&quot; as feel fresh to the moon. Therefore, if we compare ''Niao Ming Jian'' to Cao cao's ''Duan Ge Xing'', in Wang Wei's poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the relatively more peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br /> In his landscape poems, Wang Wei inclines to create a quiet atmosphere, which is also true of this poem. But what this poem is about is the falling of flowers, the rising of the moon and the singing of birds. These moving scenes not only make the poem full of vitality but also highlight the tranquility of the spring stream by dynamic scenes. Moving scenes, on the contrary, have a static effect, because the two sides of an object in conflict are always interdependent. Under certain conditions, the reason why movement can occur, or can be noticed by people, is based on the premise of static environment. &quot;鸟鸣山更幽&quot;can be seen as an entity containing dialectics of art.<br /> <br /> ===4.Appreciation of Two English Versions of ''Niao Ming Jian''===<br /> (1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br /> <br /> Yang Xianyi<br /> <br /> Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br /> <br /> Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br /> <br /> The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br /> <br /> Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully. <br /> <br /> (2)The Dale of Singing Birds<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong<br /> <br /> I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br /> <br /> When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br /> <br /> The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br /> <br /> Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring．<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Formal System====<br /> The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, most translators advocate translating poetry into poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.<br /> =====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br /> Zhu Guangqian thinks that &quot;poetry is a pure literary form with melody&quot;. In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the &quot;phonetic beauty&quot; of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows:<br /> <br /> /--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br /> <br /> -/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br /> <br /> In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br /> <br /> -/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br /> <br /> -/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br /> <br /> The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br /> The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lü shi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier. In translation 1, the translator uses many assonances in his lines, such as &quot;silent&quot;, &quot;night&quot; in the second line; &quot;Fitfully&quot; and &quot;gully&quot; in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as &quot;idly&quot;, &quot;I&quot; in the first line; &quot;moon&quot;, &quot;mountain&quot; in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent. As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.<br /> <br /> =====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br /> Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called &quot;The elegance of Beauty&quot;, which is unique to Chinese. Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.<br /> The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter. In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7 and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem; In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Non-formal System====<br /> The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called &quot;不著一字，尽得风流&quot;. In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.<br /> =====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br /> Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that &quot;the translation must be very faithful to the original one&quot;. He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text, neither exaggerating nor carrying anything else with it. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form. Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br /> The title of the original poem is &quot;鸟鸣涧&quot;, which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, &quot;鸟鸣&quot; modifies &quot;涧&quot;. This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun &quot;涧&quot;. Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases &quot;The Gully of Twittering Birds&quot; and &quot;The Dale of Singing Birds&quot; , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns &quot;The Gully&quot; and &quot;The Dale&quot; are modified by &quot;of Twittering Birds&quot; and &quot;of Singing Birds&quot;, highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used. The translation 1 translates &quot;涧&quot; as &quot;gully&quot;, which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as &quot;the dictionary&quot;) interprets as: &quot;a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain&quot;. &quot;涧&quot; in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates &quot;涧&quot; into &quot;dale&quot;, which is defined as &quot;Valley, ESP, in Northern England&quot; in the dictionary. But &quot;涧&quot; in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of &quot;鸟鸣&quot;, defined in the dictionary as &quot;when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds&quot;; Translation 2 translates &quot;鸟鸣&quot; as &quot;singing&quot;. Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception. It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br /> Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of &quot;人&quot;, both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject &quot;I&quot; to translate &quot;人&quot; into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of &quot;闲&quot;, translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word &quot;idly&quot; indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts &quot;unenjoyed&quot; at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of &quot;桂花&quot;, two translation appear difference. In translation 1, &quot;桂花&quot; is translated into &quot;cassia petals&quot;. The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into &quot;osmanthus blooms&quot; , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. As for the &quot;桂花&quot; in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of &quot;桂花&quot;, such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called ''Yuan An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate &quot;桂花&quot; to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of &quot;桂花&quot; are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses &quot;watch&quot; to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word &quot;hear&quot; is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.<br /> Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, &quot;夜静&quot; and &quot;山空&quot; are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br /> In the translation of the third line, the translation of &quot;惊&quot; is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into &quot;startles&quot;, which means&quot;cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm&quot; in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. &quot;Startles&quot; here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into &quot;arouses&quot;, which is defined as &quot;evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.<br /> The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the &quot;月出&quot; and &quot;鸟鸣&quot; as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of &quot;painting in poetry, poetry in painting&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===5.Conclusion===<br /> <br /> By analyzing the above two translations, the author finds that Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning in poetry translation. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal system, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br /> Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Reference '''===<br /> <br /> [1]陈洁.王维山水诗的意境美[J].宁波教育学院学报, 2015(4):52.<br /> <br /> [2]方梦之.译 学 词 典[M].上 海:上海外语教育出版社, 2004: 296.<br /> <br /> [3]黄婧，李仕俊. 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文[J]. 外语, 2010(31): 130.<br /> <br /> [4]劳琴姚，罗正婷.翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例[J]. 安徽文学, 2017(9):49-51.<br /> <br /> [5]刘宓庆.翻译美学导论[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2005. <br /> <br /> [6]陶迎年.从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本[J]. 语言应用研究, 2017(8):143-145.<br /> <br /> [7]王力.诗词格律[M].北京：中华书局, 2000:133. <br /> <br /> [8]吴桐，李淑华.从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译[J]. 2018(16): 151.<br /> <br /> [9]王洁.杨宪益文学翻译思想探析[J]. 西安文理学院学报,2020(23): 111.<br /> <br /> [10]谢文利.诗歌美学[M]. 北京: 中国青年出版社, 1989．<br /> <br /> [11]余恕诚等. 唐诗鉴赏辞典[M]. 上海：上海辞书出版社, 1983:183-185.<br /> <br /> [12]朱光潜.诗论[M].北京：生活读书新知三联书店出版, 1998.<br /> <br /> ==An Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay''- From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Beauty in Sense&quot; 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including &quot;Separation on the River Kiang&quot;, &quot;Taking Leave of a Friend&quot;, &quot;Leave-taking near Shoku&quot; and &quot;The City of Choan&quot;. Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Beauty in Sense&quot; principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> Ezra Pound, Cathay, Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his Cathay, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. Cathay was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War and most of literary men were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair. While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.  <br />    The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including &quot;Separation on the River Kiang&quot; (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), &quot;Taking Leave of a Friend&quot; (《送友人》), &quot;Leave-taking near Shoku&quot; (《送友人入蜀》) and &quot;The City of Choan&quot; (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's &quot;Beauty in Sense&quot; Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br /> <br /> ==='''The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle'''===<br /> <br /> Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes firist in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander (乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤).”<br /> In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear�marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them (天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me(天地与我并生，而万物与我为一),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br /> <br /> ==='''The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure&quot;'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''The Sense Beauty in &quot;Separation on the River Kiang&quot;'''====<br /> ===='''The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”'''====<br /> ===='''The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”'''====<br /> ===='''The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”'''====<br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> ==='''Refenrences'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> ==='''Textual Level'''===<br /> ==='''Referential Level'''===<br /> ==='''Cohesive Level'''===<br /> ==='''The Level Of Naturalness'''===<br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br /> <br /> ===18.4.1 Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===18.4.2 Key Words===<br /> <br /> ===18.4.3 Contents===<br /> <br /> ===18.4.4 Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies 姚诚 Yao Cheng==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br /> ===Key words===<br /> poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.<br /> Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language. However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===The untranslatability of poetry===<br /> ====The nature of untranslatability====<br /> Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture. But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br /> Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation. For example <br /> “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br /> The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br /> “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br /> A maiden maybe made a house maid”<br /> Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.<br /> However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of pome translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br /> “流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br /> Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:<br /> <br /> (1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br /> As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br /> <br /> (2)“The river flows –<br /> The blossoms fall –<br /> Spring going – gone<br /> in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br /> <br /> (3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br /> never to return<br /> One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br /> Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br /> <br /> (4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br /> Spring’s gone away<br /> So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z)<br /> <br /> Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.<br /> When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree” since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”<br /> <br /> ====The untranslatability of imagery====<br /> Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br /> At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）. Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery.<br /> On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br /> “朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br /> At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br /> Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br /> And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br /> The screams of monkeys on either bank <br /> Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br /> When my skiff had left behind it <br /> Ten thousand ranges of hills<br /> “彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking. Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.<br /> <br /> ====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br /> The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects. For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br /> 千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br /> 孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br /> River Snow<br /> A hundred mountains and no bird,<br /> A thousand paths without a footprint;<br /> A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br /> An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）<br /> <br /> At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen. The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br /> “枯藤老树昏鸦，<br /> 小桥流水人家，<br /> 古道西风瘦马。<br /> 夕阳西下，<br /> 断肠人在天涯。”<br /> It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.<br /> <br /> ====The untranslatability of allusion====<br /> As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate. If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist. For example:<br /> 古别离<br /> 孟郊<br /> 欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br /> 不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br /> You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br /> Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br /> Your late returning does not anger me,<br /> But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)<br /> Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women. Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br /> 锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br /> 庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br /> 沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br /> 此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br /> “Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br /> Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br /> Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br /> Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br /> In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br /> From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br /> Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br /> It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br /> Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.<br /> <br /> ====The untranslatability of sound====<br /> Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English. For example,<br /> 海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br /> 浮云长长长长长长长消。<br /> Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br /> Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)<br /> Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.<br /> Here is the other example；<br /> “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br /> “Seek, seek, search, search,”<br /> Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br /> Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br /> Now warm, then like an autumn<br /> Cold again<br /> How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)<br /> There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.<br /> <br /> ====The untranslatability of from====<br /> Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.<br /> Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.<br /> 凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br /> 一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br /> <br /> This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br /> None but admires her talents and her skill,<br /> First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br /> Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi &amp; Gladys)<br /> <br /> This phoenix in a bad time came,<br /> All praised her great ability.<br /> “Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br /> Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)<br /> <br /> The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”<br /> <br /> ===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br /> Much as a poem can’t not be fully translated in all aspects, some strategies can be adopted to make the translation as lose to the original poetry as possible:<br /> ====Addition of word====<br /> Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,<br /> “十年生死两茫茫”<br /> “Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br /> “For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br /> In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br /> Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference. For example,<br /> “纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br /> “Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br /> Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，<br /> An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.<br /> <br /> ====Deletion of word====<br /> Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.<br /> <br /> ====Conversion of word class====<br /> English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. For example，<br /> “明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br /> “How long will the full moon appear?<br /> Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br /> “How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br /> With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)<br /> If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem<br /> <br /> There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> [1]辜正坤. 中西诗比较鉴赏与翻译理论 [M]北京:清华大学出版社,2003.<br /> <br /> [2]许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈[J].中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br /> <br /> [3]李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[J].兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br /> <br /> [4]隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[J].英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br /> <br /> [5]饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[J].安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br /> <br /> [6]杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[J].南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br /> <br /> [7]马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[J].天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br /> <br /> [8]王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[J].河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br /> <br /> [9]何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[J].成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br /> <br /> [10]孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[J].三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br /> <br /> [11]李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English[J].内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br /> <br /> [12]赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[J].安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br /> <br /> ==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Study on translations of ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract:===<br /> <br /> This chapter aims to discuss function losses and poetic values in translations of ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions and poetic effects of originals unconsciously. This chapter chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss the advantages and disadvantages in their translations and compare them to the original text. And the author will analyze their function losses and poetic values in aspect of literariness in the excerpts from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation.<br /> <br /> ===摘要：===<br /> <br /> 本章节旨在从诗学角度探讨《名利场》不同译本中的功能损失和诗学价值。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能和诗学效果。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者翻译的优缺点，以及与原文进行比对，来探讨这两个译本选段翻译中存在的功能损失以及他们在文学性方面的诗学价值。<br /> <br /> ===Key words:===<br /> <br /> Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';Poetics theory;Departure;Literariness<br /> <br /> ===关键词：===<br /> <br /> 文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；偏离；文学性<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of a same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in early nineteenth century. About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of ''Vanity Fair''. After Yang Bi’s translation, a lot of people re-translated this book. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. Besides, their different choices of translation strategies are worthy of discussion. To explore these, this chapter will discuss some discourses excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. And how literariness in original text can be retained in their translation will also be involved. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze their poetic values and function losses in translation in perspective of poetics.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br /> <br /> Before discussing the comparison between Yang Bi’s version and Peng Changjiang’s translation, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction on relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds the functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will discuss internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function.<br /> <br /> ====2.1Poetics theory====<br /> <br /> Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is art of language(1987: 69). According to Jakobson(1987: 63), the main question that poetics studies is what transforms verbal message into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research(Jakobson, 1973: 62). As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce(Pilkington, 2000:161 -169). The unfamiliar expression is a skill of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention in poetic perspective(Shklovsky, 1998: 16). And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages(Jakobson, 1987:67, 85). Therefore, choices of words and structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.2Functions of language====<br /> <br /> At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin, 2006:19-34). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message(Jakobson, 1987: 69). How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is always the focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication(Roman Jakobson, 1981a: 19). In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on(Jakobson, 1987: 85). Therefore, form of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, form of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.<br /> <br /> ====2.3Poetics theory and poetic function====<br /> <br /> In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studying art of literature is actually studying language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics(1958: 63). Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake. Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization(Wand Dongfeng, 2010: 8). The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings(Shklovsky, 1998: 16). In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is a indispensable method to appreciate literature in perspective of poetics.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of ''Vanity Fair''===<br /> <br /> ====3.1Lexicon====<br /> <br /> ====3.2Sentence structure====<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 5 References===<br /> <br /> ==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br /> <br /> ==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br /> <br /> ='''Culture Loaded Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Foreignizing Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture 全美欣 Quan Meixin==<br /> &lt;center&gt;全美欣 Quan Meixin<br /> 湖南师范大学 外国语学院，湖南 长沙&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> === '''Abstract ''' ===<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture, as an important part of Chinese traditional culture, is rich in ethnic characteristics. Some words related to Chinese food culture are also abundant in cultural information. By adopting the foreignizing translation, Chinese language and cultural information can be preserved to the greatest extent. This paper will be divided into four parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of culture-loaded words and foreignizing translation. The second part will explore culture-loaded words in Chinese food culture from the strategy of foreignizing translation in three categories: words of historical allusions, words of local customs and words of food aesthetics. The third part will put forward that we should use comprehensive translation techniques to achieve foreignizing translation, which is beneficial to retain the characteristics of Chinese food culture, reflect the value of national culture, and promote Chinese food culture to go out. The fourth part will draw a concise conclusion about this paper.<br /> <br /> === '''Key Words''' ===<br /> food culture; culture-loaded words; foreignizing translation; cultural communication; translation skills<br /> <br /> === '''摘要''' ===<br /> 中国“食”文化是中国传统文化一个重要组成部分，极具民族特征，与“食”文化有关的词语也富含中华民族文化信息。采用异化翻译能最大限度保留中华民族的语言和文化信息。本文分为四部分：第一部分简单介绍文化负载词和异化翻译；第二部分对“食”文化负载词中历史典故词、民俗习惯词和饮食审美词三个类别的异化翻译策略进行探讨；第三部分提出运用综合的翻译技巧实现异化翻译，保留中国饮食文化的特色，体现民族文化的价值，推动中国“食”文化走出去；第四部分对本文进行一个简短的总结。<br /> <br /> === '''关键词''' ===<br /> “食”文化；文化负载词；异化翻译；文化传播；翻译技巧<br /> <br /> === '''1.Introduction''' ===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Culture-loaded words '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Foreignizing Translation'''====<br /> <br /> === '''2.Categories of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Food Culture''' ===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Words of Historical Allusions '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Words of Local Customs '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 Words of Food Aesthetics '''====<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Cultural words Based on Interpretive Theory 何长琦 He Changqi==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the translation of culture-loaded words from the view of cultural self-confidence. 刘博 Liu Bo==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Today, China's growing international influence is inseparable from cultural development. Without a high degree of cultural self-confidence, no country or nation can flourish. Language is an important carrier of cultural inheritance, development and prosperity, so in the context of cultural self-confidence, the translation of culture- loaded words is of great significance to the spread of Chinese traditional culture.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> culture-loaded words, cultural self-confidence, translation strategy<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 如今中国的国际影响力日益提升，离不开文化的发展。没有高度的文化自信，便没有一个国家和民族的兴盛。而语言又是文化传承、发展、繁荣的重要载体,因此在文化自信的语境下，文化负载词的翻译对中国传统文化的传播具有重要的意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文化负载词，文化自信，翻译策略<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> China is a major cultural nation, and its long cultural history gives it reason to be confident in its own culture. As Xi Jinping said, &quot;In today's world, if any political party, country or nation can be confident, the Communist Party of China, the People's Republic of China and the Chinese nation have the best reason to be so. With the courage to 'live a life of 200 years with confidence, we will be able to face all difficulties and challenges without fear, and we will be able to open up new horizons and create new miracles with unswerving determination. However, in the course of China's development, we have also absorbed Western culture while neglecting the development of Chinese culture. This phenomenon is still going on today. As China's economic development has entered a new stage, and reform has also entered a critical period, social values have become complex and diverse. The mainstream and the non-mainstream co-exist, and the advanced and the backward are intertwined, presenting a pluralistic and changeable character. Therefore, China needs a force to unite the complex and diverse social consciousness, and the importance of traditional Chinese culture is once again highlighted. Therefore, the Communist Party of China (CPC) has proposed the concept of &quot;firm cultural confidence&quot;, which has been widely accepted by the Chinese people. Against this backdrop, English language learners should take on the task of communicating the cultural loaded words of Chinese culture to the world, so that the world can learn more about Chinese culture through language, and thus increase China's international influence.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu Jinxingqi==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Mao Zedong's Poems from the Cognitive View of Translation—A Case Study of Xu Yuanchong's Version 曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;曾芳缘 Zeng Fangyuan&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Works Cited===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of the translation of Buddhist scriptures of China and Bible translation 肖婷 Xiao Ting==<br /> <br /> == Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Vanity Fair''常慧月 Chang Huiyue==<br /> <br /> ='''Skopos and Functional Equivalence'''=<br /> <br /> ==On the Relationship among Translation Theories, Strategies and Techniques ——From the Perspective of Skopos Theory==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;谌孙福 Chen Sunfu&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> One fact known to be existent in the learning of translation is students' ignorance of the discrepancy between translation studies and translation practice. Bluntly speaking, central to translation studies are diverse translation theories. However, some strategies, methods and skills accordingly applied are at the core of translation practice during the process of translation. Given the fact that translation theories, strategies, methods and skills are always misunderstood as concepts in the same level, this paper aims to expound the relationship among them on the basis of Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory as well as the exhaustive analysis of examples of pragmatic translation. With the citation of several examples of pragmatic translation, including those of tourism translation, literary translation and business translation, this paper elucidates the principal points vividly.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> translation theories; translation strategies; translation techniques; Skopos Theory; pragmatic translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 学生翻译学习过程中普遍存在的一个现象是混淆翻译学研究和翻译实践的区别。简言之，翻译学研究的核心是形形色色的翻译理论。相比之下，翻译实践关注的重点则是翻译过程中运用的翻译策略、方法和技巧。鉴于翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧常被误认为是同一层面的概念，基于汉斯•弗米尔的功能目的论和对实用文本译例的详尽分析，本论文旨在阐明翻译理论、策略、方法和技巧之间的关系。文中出现的实用文本译例清楚展现了论文要点，如旅游文本、文学类文本以及商务文本的翻译等。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 翻译理论；翻译策略；翻译技巧；目的论；实用类文本翻译<br /> <br /> ==='''I.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1Skopos Theory '''====<br /> Skopos Theory, one of the most profound contributions made by German Functionalist School, is basically put forward by Hans Vermeer as a new way to deal with translation, especially the relationship between ST (the source text) and TT (the target text). Here, the original German word &quot;Skopos&quot; refers to &quot;purpose&quot; in English, indicating that Skopos Theory can be also interpreted as &quot;the principle of purposes&quot;. According to Vermeer, there are mainly three rules to be abided by, namely skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, among which the skopos rule is of overriding importance. Now an exhaustive explanation will be given in the following text with regard to those rules.<br /> <br /> The first one to be illustrated is the overwhelmingly significant skopos rule. In the eyes of Hans Vermeer, &quot;each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follow: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.&quot; (Nord, 2001:29). Seeing from his remarks, what matters most in the process of translation is not so much the equivalence between ST and TT as the manifold purposes. These purposes encompass those of the translator and the text, the latter one of which is greatly highlighted. That is to say, the translator need not obstinately stick to the form and style of ST but rather give top priority to what the TT actually wants to convey and transfer to TT readers. Hence, the adoption of pertinent translation strategies and techniques is by no means haphazard but in accordance to the skopos rule. Moreover, Skopos Theory also provides translators an efficacious way to free themselves from the restraint of ST. Their obligation lies in tailoring TT rendered by them to the ultimate goals of the translation activity, such as informing TT readers about something new, persuading them or so.<br /> <br /> Then, here comes the second rule, coherence rule, also called the intra-lingual rule. It has been widely held that this rule lays much emphasis on the readability and acceptability of TT for TT readers. Imaging there are two translation version of a text, one of which is transparent and intelligible whereas another one of which is rigid and eccentric for people to understand, then which one will be the ideal version for TT readers? The answer is definitely the latter one. The case is that readers are more prone to read TT which conforms to their expressive habits and conventions. This is why the translation strategy, domestication has been frequently adopted when translating some exotic or foreign texts, with a view to catering to TT readers' knowledge.<br /> <br /> The last but not least one rule to be demonstrated is the fidelity rule, or the well-known inter-lingual rule. Here, the loyalty of TT to ST cannot be overstated any more. Bearing a resemblance to Yan Fu's &quot;faithfulness&quot; or Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, TT must be rendered in conformity with ST. Quite different from Yan Fu's and Nida's standpoints, such a kind of fidelity, however, is determined or constrained by the purposes of TT and the translator's comprehension of ST to a great extent.<br /> <br /> To conclude, in spite of the respective roles played by the above-mentioned three rules in translation practice, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule are outshined by the skopos rule for purposes of TT and translators are the most crucial elements to be considered when we view translation practice from the unique perspective of Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> ===='''1.2Translation theories,strategies and techniques '''====<br /> Translation theories are the fruitful outcomes yielded thanks to our predecessors'assiduous and relentless work in terms of translation studies. Broadly speaking, translation theories are some guidelines and benchmarks used to facilitate translation practice. They are quite abstract notions but informative and enlightening knowledge to be relied on. With the elapse of time, translation theories also take on historical characteristics, each one of which can be attributed to a certain school, such as the literary school, the linguistic school, the translation studies school and the deconstructionism school. In our modern translation studies, the linguistic school has been deeply rooted in students'minds, including Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory, Vermeer's Skopos Theory, Catford's Translation shift theory, New Mark's semantic translation and communicative translation. Given the limited space in this paper, other prominent translation theories will not be delineated here.<br /> <br /> The interpretation of the word &quot;strategy&quot; by Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's Dictionary reads as &quot;a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a long period of time.&quot; Applying this word to translation studies, the definition of translation strategies can be defined as a series of principles and plans used to address difficult problems emerging in the process of translation practice. They are subordinate to and influenced by certain translation theories. In translation studies, some prominent dichotomies of translation strategies can be found if viewing from various angles, like the contrast between literal translation and free translation, the juxtaposition of domestication and foreignzation, as well as the comparison between semantic translation and communicative translation. One thing to be underscored here is how to make a rational decision when it comes to the selection of various translation strategies. The aforementioned sentences remind us of the fact that translation theories will exert more or less impacts on our preferences toward some translation strategies. In order to clarify this point, the translation theories of the linguistic school are taken as an example to corroborate the effect of theories on translation strategies. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory and Vermeer's Skopos Theory are none other than two epoch-making monuments in the translation theories of the linguistic school. In spite of their belongings to the same school, their core concepts and values are distinct from each other to a large extent, thereby offering translators different channels to select translation strategies. Since Functional Equivalence Theory attaches great importance to the natural and exquisite equivalence between TT and ST, the translation strategies of free translation and domestication are often the optimal choice to evade clumsiness and opacity of TT when the literal translation or the word-for-word translation does not work out. Another thing to note is how Vermeer's Skopos Theory helps to elaborate translation theories' function on translation strategies. The purposes of TT and translators are integral factors to decide which translation strategies will be chosen. For example, the translation strategies of foreignization will be considered if the TT aims to promulgate exotic and overseas culture.<br /> <br /> An authoritative concept of the word &quot;technique&quot; given by Collins describes it as &quot;a particular method of doing an activity, usually a method that involves practical skills.&quot; Therefore, translation techniques are quite a few concrete methods and skills helping facilitate and polish the process of translation practice. A list of translation techniques includes amplification, omission, conversion, division, combination, negation and so on. For the reason that English and Chinese are different from each other in terms of lexicon, syntax and culture, the emergence of translation techniques is exceedingly necessary to transfer information from ST to TT by means of translation. Specifically speaking, English and Chinese are unique in their dictions in that English allows more freedom for the usage of nouns while Chinese is a verb-oriented language. This accounts for the plausibility of applying the translation technique of conversion. Besides, the discrepancy between English and Chinese also lies in their respective thinking modes and expressive conventions, thus making the technique of negation come into being.<br /> <br /> ===='''1.3The relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques '''====<br /> Now that clear and vivid definitions of translation theories, strategies and techniques are provided in the preceding paragraphs, it is high time that the relationship among them should be manifested. Here, the relations among them will be unveiled from two respects. One is the mutually restraint relation among translation theories, strategies and techniques while another is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope.<br /> <br /> On the one hand, the intricate relationships among those three entities can be said to mutually restrain and complement each other. Translation theories are the most inclusive and macroscopical because of their guiding effects on the application of translation strategies and techniques. They are the overriding important benchmarks around which many other translation strategies and techniques should revolve. It is imperative to note that diversified translation theories beget diversified strategies and techniques. Examples proving this point are innumerable. The theories of deconstructionism promote the use and spread of foreignization. Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory justified the necessity of adopting pertinent translation strategies and techniques to achieve the most natural equivalence between ST and TT, like domestication, literal translation and so on. Translation strategies and techniques are none other than the extension and embodiment of translation theories. For example, the translation strategy of domestication can be only realized with diversified translation techniques. While translating culture-loaded words, the translator can resort to translation techniques of transliteration, amplification to put the domestication into practice. To sum up, translation theories are guidelines for translation strategies and techniques, and those strategies and techniques are in turn the true reflection of theories. It is likely that translators are not aware of this fact for all those theories and strategies have been deeply etched into their mind. Imaging such a situation that a translator is totally fatuous about translation theories, how could he render high-quality translation? What he will do is to translate a text word for word from beginning to end, ultimately producing crude translation. Without exaggeration, it is the collaboration and complementation among translation theories, strategies and techniques that help translators perfectly fulfill their missions.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, another noteworthy relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be regarded as the dichotomy between the macroscope and the microscope. Translation theories are the most high-leveled concept, just like a notion occurring in English linguistics, the superordinate. Thus, certain strategies and techniques are derivations and products of translation theories. Almost for every translator, their translation practice, including the selection of translation strategies and techniques, is always reliant on translation theories. Translation strategies, a concept lying between the two extremes of translation theories and translation techniques, are contained by theories but pave the way for using extraordinary translation techniques. Just like the above-mentioned contents, the most commonly found translation strategies of domestication and foreignization must be guided and restrained by translation theories, like Skopos Theory or Functional Equivalence Theory. But the selection of translation techniques is more or less limited by translation strategies. A good example of that is the application of transliteration to consolidate the effect of foreignization. Ultimately, translation techniques seem to be the most low-leveled concept lying beneath translation theories and strategies. But it is the existence of those techniques that offered translators and scholars a definite direction to conduct translation studies.<br /> <br /> ==='''II.Case Analysis'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1The translation of tourism texts '''====<br /> Tourism texts are one of the most typical genres of pragmatic texts, which are characterized by meticulous depiction of the certain scenery, brilliant dictions and sentence patterns as well as attractive or compelling informative messages for potential tourists. They consist of several pervasive types in people's daily life, such as the introduction to scenic spots, commentaries of tourist guides, tourist pamphlets, tourist contracts, monographs and thesis concerning tourist investigations. Viewing from a much more professional and functional perspective, all those enumerated above can be included into three types: tourist reception, tourist administration and tourist investigations. Accordingly, the translation of tourism texts also revolves around those three kinds. Albeit the diverse classification of texts, central to people's commonplace life are doubtlessly some tourists brochures, also known as a branch of tourist promotional materials (TPMs). &quot;TPMs are described as the collection of media, such as brochures, leaflets, posters, flyers, postcards and websites, used to support the sales of tourism products.&quot; (M. Zain Sulaiman &amp; Rita Wilson, 2019, p.17) Since this paper manages to unfold the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of Skopos Theory, the case analysis of tourism translation in the following words is not an exception. Considering that tourism texts, particularly TPMs, are destined to captivate tourists and accomplish lucrative goals, sensible decisions must be made so as to cater to tourists' tastes. Therefore, sometimes considerable superfluous information should be deleted and sometimes other complementary information that is conducive to customers' comprehension should be added. This calls for consideration of Vermeer's Skopos Theory for its overemphasis on functions and purposes of TT. Furthermore, the translation theory just decided will influence and constrain the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Usually, whether to use amplification or omission will be pondered over by the translator to achieve goals of TT. Apart from the restraint on translation strategies and techniques imposed by translation theories, the former is also an authentic and lengthy reflection and extension of the latter. To say more simply, translation strategies and techniques are selected according to translation theories but also conversely embody or represent notions and connotations of translation theories. Several representative examples are shown here to illustrate the relationship among those concepts pertaining to translation.<br /> <br /> Example 1<br /> <br /> ST:这里三千座奇峰拔地而起，形态各异，有的似玉柱神鞭，立地顶天；有的像铜墙铁壁，巍然屹立；有的如晃板累卵，摇摇欲坠；有的如盆景古董，玲珑剔透……神奇而真实，迷离又实在，令人叹为观止。——《武陵源风景》画册<br /> <br /> TT 1: 3000 crags rise in various shapes. They are like whips or pillars propping up the sky; or huge walls, solid and sound; or immense eggs piled on an unsteady border; or miniature rocky or curious… Fantastic but actual, dreamy but real! One cannot help marveling at the acme of perfection of Nature's creation.<br /> <br /> TT 2: 3000 crags rise in all shapes——pillars, columns, walls, shaky egg stacks and potted landscapes——conjuring up fantastic and unforgettable images.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The ST in example 1 is abridged from a tourism brochure informing tourists of the spectacular, imposing and captivating landscapes of Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Area. Adjectives and images abound in here to intensify the mystery and solemnity of this renowned scenic spot. There is no doubt that Chinese readers of the ST will take it for granted that the usage of all those idiomatic expressions added more melodious and semantic beauty to the ST. On the contrary, the TT, if rendered by translating the ST word for word, is bound to baffling a great majority of TT readers whose native languages are not as abstract as Chinese. Compared with TT 1's awkward literal translation, TT 2, instead of retaining all sentences of the ST, boldly obliterated adjectives and figures of speech, including &quot;立地顶天&quot;, &quot;摇摇欲坠&quot;, &quot;玲珑剔透&quot; and etc. Only some essential elements can be found there to indicate principal messages of that tourist attraction, which not only reduced TT readers' burden of comprehension but also achieved the goal of the TT. For the purpose of satisfying TT readers' requirements, the translation theory, here represented by Skopos Theory, played a leading role in selecting relevant translation strategies and techniques to eliminate the clumsiness and rigidity of version 1. The translation technique of omission is also an extension and reflection of Skopos theory. The relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques are overt.<br /> <br /> Example 2<br /> <br /> ST:被誉为“童话世界”的九寨沟位于中国四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州境内的九寨沟县中南部，是长江水系嘉陵江中上游白水河源头的一条支流，因景区内有荷叶、书正、则查洼等九个藏族村寨而得名。<br /> ——《九寨沟风景名胜区简介》<br /> <br /> TT: Jiuzhaigou, known as the &quot;Fabled World&quot;, is located in the mid-south of Jiuzhaigou County of Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. A Jialing tributary of Yangtze River, Jiuzhaigou is named for the nine Tibetan settlements in the mountain valley.<br /> <br /> Analysis: Similar to Example 1, this ST is also a tourism text whose aim is to spread enough information of the resort to approaching tourists. Taking tourists' stances, a brief introduction of major scenic spots in Jiuzhaigou enjoys more popularity than its geographical location. Here, the translator, in dealing with TT, should distinguish the basic from the secondary, which is the reason why the names of villages like &quot;荷叶&quot;, &quot;书正&quot; and &quot;则查洼&quot; in the ST disappeared in the TT. Apart from the emphasis on the most important message, other factors also account for the deletion of the redundant words, such as the limited space of tourist brochures, the succinct and simple writing style of travel guides and so on. Actually speaking, it is all those functions and demands of tourism brochure that regard Skopos Theory as the ideal translation theory to be taken into consideration. Under the guidance of the Skopos Theory, the translation technique of omission makes it possible to underscore more key information about Jiuzhaigou rather than some background information serving no function in helping tourists. The complementary relations among translation theories, strategies and theories are also suggested.<br /> <br /> Example 3<br /> <br /> ST:刘备章武三年病死于白帝城永安宫，五月运回成都，八月葬于惠陵。——《成都武侯祠》折叠式导游图<br /> <br /> TT: Liu Bei died of illness at 233 at present day Fengjie County, Sichuan Province, and was buried here in the same year.<br /> <br /> Analysis: Despite the fact that this ST is also part of a tourist brochure, there are some nuances among it and the above two examples for this is a pamphlet about historic sites whereas the other two are concerned with natural sites. Given this difference, some words and phrases suggestive of cultural elements peculiar to China resulted in the selection of appropriate translation strategies. Here in example 3, &quot;章武三年&quot;, &quot;白帝城永安宫&quot; and &quot;惠陵&quot; are all closely associated with ancient Chinese culture. If translated literally as &quot;the third year of Zhangwu&quot;, &quot;Yongan Palace in Baidi City&quot; and &quot;Hui Mausoleum&quot;, these phrases will leave TT readers an obscuring impression because of foreign readers' loopholes in learning about Chinese culture. Under this circumstance, the translation strategy of domestication applied increased the lucidity, intelligibility and simplicity of the TT. &quot;章武三年&quot; is translated into &quot;233&quot; which is applicable and comprehensible to TT readers from all countries. &quot;白帝城永安宫&quot; is flexibly treated as &quot;Fengjie County, Sichuan Province&quot;, a present place known to reduce TT readers' strangeness towards it. After all, one cannot deny the fact that the adoption of domestication is due to the influence of Skopos Theory whose ultimate aim is to live up to the expectations of TT readers. This is also in line with the main point of this paper that translation theories are standards and guidelines of translation strategies and techniques, and translation strategies or techniques are authentic reflection of translation theories.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2The translation of literary texts '''====<br /> Literary texts are materials having to do with literature. Genres like poems, novels and dramas can be all classified into this category. Unlike applied translation whose principal subject is characterized by austere, transparent and common dictions, literary texts, represented mainly by prose, are always hard to explore their implicit connotations, let alone translating them in an ideal way. This is because literary works are often a medley of rhetorical devices, beautiful words and phrases as well as some abstract sentences without too much logic. It is this exceedingly difficult trait that requires the translator to rationally inspect translation theories. In the case of translating literary texts, two translation theories will come to translators' minds, which are Skopos Theory and Functional Equivalence Theory. Making a detailed comparison between them, one will attach great importance to Skopos Theory rather than its counterpart. After all, Functional Equivalence Theory pays more attention to dynamic or functional equivalence between ST and TT, which is a little bit unrealistic to be materialized for the translator sometimes cannot find perfect substitutes to replace the opaque ST. Nevertheless, Skopos Theory can be a plausible translation theory to better balance ST and TT by means of omitting some unrelated information provided that the purposes of the TT can be ensured. This is also indicative of the point that translation theories play a significant part in restraining the adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Then translation strategies and techniques are in the same way a reflection or a microcosm of translation theories. For example, the appearance of omission during the process of translating literary texts must be the outcome of Skopos Theory since only that theory will take the bold action to omit lots of sentences in an article, which is impossible when the translator complies with the credence of Functional Equivalence Theory.<br /> <br /> Example 4<br /> <br /> ST: One of the parties, however, when critically examined, didn't seem, strictly speaking, to come under the species. He was a short, thick-set man, with coarse, commonplace features, and that swaggering air of pretension which marks a low man who is trying to elbow his way upward in the world. He was much over-dressed, in a gaudy vest of many colors, a blue neckerchief, bedropped gaily with yellow spots, and arranged with a flaunting glass tie, quite in keeping with the general air of the man. His hands, large and coarse, were plentifully bedeckeded with rings; and he wore a heavy gold watch-chain, with a bundle of seals of portentous size, and a great variety of colors, attached to it--, which in the ardor of conversation, he was in the habit of flourishing and jingling with evident satisfaction. His conversation was in free and easy defiance of Murray's Grammar, and was garnished at convenient intervals with various profane expressions, which not even the desire to be graphic in our account shall induce us to transcribe.——''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' <br /> <br /> TT:其一人狞丑，名曰海留，衣服华好，御金戒指一，镶以精钻，又配一金表。状似素封，而谈吐鄙秽，近于伧慌。（林纾译）<br /> <br /> Analysis: The TT is rendered by one of the most distinguished translators in Late Qing Dynasty, Lin Shu, whose major contribution is his translation of voluminous foreign novels, such as ''Ivanhoe'', ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' and so on. Against the backdrop of the depraved and backward Qing Dynasty, What Lin Shu emergently wanted to do is to learn from foreign literature and culture, thus arousing people's awareness of national rejuvenation. For this reason, Lin Shu's translation seems to be infidel to the ST for his deletion of a plethora of dictions but can be rational if viewed from the perspective of Skopos Theory. With the consciousness that Linshu's translation aims to transferring the most outstanding information conveyed in the ST, one will not consider it eccentric to translate in that way although the translator omitted so many elements in that short paragraph, including the typical portray of the environment, the descriptive sentences about the outfit and accessories of the protagonist together with some other summary expressions. In a word, the aim of the TT justified Skopos Theory and then, decided the translation technique of omission to take the essence and discard the dross of the ST. And the translation technique of omission is in turn an embodiment and representation of Skopos Theory.<br /> <br /> Example 5<br /> <br /> ST: 宝玉忽想起来辞黛玉，因又忙至黛玉房中来作辞。彼时黛玉才在窗下对镜理妆，听宝玉说上学去，因笑道：“好，这一去，可定是要‘蟾宫折桂’去了。我不能送你了。”——《红楼梦》<br /> <br /> TT1: Pao-yu, remembering that he had not say good-bye to Tai-yu, hurried to her room. She was sitting before her mirror by the window and smiled when he told her that he was off to school. &quot;Good,&quot; she said, &quot;So you are going to 'pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon.' I am sorry I can't see you off.&quot; (Yang Xianyi)<br /> <br /> TT2: Bao-yu suddenly remembered that he had not yet seen Dai-yu and hurried to her room to say good-bye. He found her by the window making herself up at the mirror. Her answer to his announcement that he was off to begin school was smiling but perfunctory: 'Good. I wish you every success. I'm sorry I can't see you off.'(Hawkes)<br /> <br /> Analysis: The ST is a small part excerpted from ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' written by an extremely eminent novel writer named after Cao Xueqin in Qing Dynasty. This abridgement delineated the scene that Jia Baoyu went to say goodbye to Lin Daiyu for he was to off to school. Accordingly, there are two deceivingly similar but actually different versions of the TT rendered respectively by Yang Xianxi, a renowned Chinese translator and David Hawkes, a world-famous sinologist specializing in translating Chinese classics. At the core of this case analysis must be the translators' rendition of the specific Chinese phrase &quot;蟾宫折桂&quot;. Yang translated it literally and directly as &quot;pluck fragrant osmanthus in the palace of the moon&quot;, maintaining the exclusive Chinese images &quot;osmanthus&quot;. In contrast, Hawkes transformed the ST into &quot;I wish you every success&quot;, exquisitely circumventing words which may be difficult to understand for foreign TT readers. Frankly speaking, the superiority and inferiority of the two versions cannot be arbitrarily dealt with. Now that Skopos Theory states that &quot;aim justifies end&quot;, the TT can be produced to tailor the purpose and need of TT readers. In the first version, the translation strategy of foreignization retained the exotic Chinese plant name and increased strangeness of TT readers. This strategy is an advisable one to disseminate some certain cultures to foreigners. Nonetheless, Hawkes's translation is easier to be accepted by foreign TT receptors for he applied the translation strategy of domestication to make the translator get accustomed to TT readers' reading habits and multiple cultures. Now the phenomenon that translation theories serve as a guide for translation strategies and techniques is corroborated once again. Similarly, translation strategies and techniques are the best representation of translation theories, just like domestication and foreignization are the representation and extension of Skopos Theory in this example.<br /> <br /> Example 6<br /> <br /> ST: 她像是受了炮烙似的缩手，脸色同时变作灰黑，也不再去取烛台，只是失身的站着。——《边城》<br /> <br /> TT: She withdrew her hand as if scorched, her face turned ashen-grey, and instead of fetching the candlesticks she just stood there dazed.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The ST is abstracted from ''Remote City'' written by Shen Congwen. This long novel takes country life in West Hunan as the writing material to display the seemingly mediocre but specifically meaningful human nature. It is known to all that the novel ''Remote City'' is brimmed with cultural-loaded words in order to deeply extract hidden mysterious things of the human nature. Of course, this source text is not an exception. In example 6, the Chinese word &quot;炮烙&quot; is a ruthless penal created by King Zhou of Shang Dynasty to fasten people on a large pillar heated by strong fire so that people will be scalded gradually until to their death. But if the translator translates this word literally, foreign TT readers will at a loss especially when they are not familiar with the history of Shang Dynasty. Consequently, the translator here just converted &quot;炮烙&quot; into “scorched” by adopting the translation strategy of domestication, assuaging TT readers' fatuity and strangeness towards the ST. This translation strategy is also impacted by Skopos Theory but in turn validates and broadens the usage of the translation theory. Seeing from this, the entangled relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques cannot be overemphasized.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3The translation of business texts '''====<br /> Business English, an increasingly inevitable term for people to encounter in today's world, has permeated into almost every corner of people's daily life. As for its definition, scholars of different eras vied with each other to illustrate it. For example, Wang Xingsun defined business English as &quot;English used in the business context&quot;. &quot;It is also English for Special Purposes (ESP).&quot; (王兴孙,1997:24) Nowadays, researches about business English have been formalizing and standardizing the definition and application of business English. A relatively precise and comprehensive concept of business English reads as &quot;Business English refers to a certain type of English emerging along with the advancement of economic globalization. It is used in various fields, ranging from economic to public and societal affairs.&quot; (陈准民,王立非,2009) Then business texts must be carriers of business English, with their type encompassing business logos, business advertisements, business contracts, business letters and the brief introduction of corporations. A subtle but unavoidable thing to note is that business English is by no means the simple combination of &quot;business&quot; and &quot;English&quot;. Instead, it brought out a multitude of new features to showcase its complexities, including its utility in professional domains and its highly functional usages. So the most tenable translation theory is more apt to be Skopos Theory in consideration of the functional characteristics of business texts. Subsequently, the restraining and guiding translation theory will work out to match proper translation strategies and techniques to the translation practice to meet the requirements of both TT readers and the TT itself. What is more, the reflective translation strategies and techniques appearing during the process of translation help people better understand Skopos Theory. On account of that, there is no denying that the interplay among translation theories, strategies and techniques is further proved.<br /> <br /> Example 7<br /> <br /> ST: Fresh food and fresh air. The perfect recipe for a healthy life. I've chosen. It's Candy.——Candy冰箱广告词<br /> <br /> TT1:新鲜食物和新鲜空气。健康生活的最佳处方。我已经做出选择，它就是Candy冰箱。<br /> <br /> TT2:新鲜食物+新鲜空气。健康生活的绝妙处方。我选定了Candy冰箱。<br /> <br /> Analysis: This is a task of translating an English business advertisement into Chinese. Notwithstanding this short sentence, a satisfying and applicable translation is hard to be rendered for so many limitations imposed by business advertisements. Business advertisements, known for their adherence to the &quot;economic principle&quot; of expressing the most detailed information with the least words and sentences, are doomed to pose several challenges for translators. To translate those advertisements near perfectly, translators must recourse to Skopos Theory to transfer the information conveyed by the ST to the TT readers in a succinct way. Here come to those two translation versions. TT 1 is doubtlessly the outcome of literal translation, which not only increased the cost of issuing that advertisement for many words of it but also left TT readers an impression of redundancy. Compared with TT1, TT 2 dexterously omitted &quot;我已经做出选择&quot; and superseded the Chinese word &quot;和&quot; with the punctuation of &quot;+&quot;, taking on the creativity and agility of the translator. At this time, the relationship among translation theories, strategies and techniques can be reaffirmed. The former offered a reasonable direction to the latter two concepts, and the latter two also reinforced the existing functions of the former.<br /> <br /> Example 8<br /> <br /> ST: Next is Now. ——三星S6系列手机广告词<br /> <br /> TT1:未来即现在。<br /> <br /> TT2:让未来，现在就来！<br /> <br /> Analysis: The ST in example 8 is also a business advertisement attentive to the selling of Samsung cellphones. This one justly accorded with all the remarkable traits of business advertisements, namely the conciseness, lucidity and catchiness. Generally speaking, both the two versions of translation are acceptable. But to delve into more details, version 2 is overwhelming greater than version 1 because of the fact that it can better cater to the future developing trend of Samsung cellphones. Through this advertisement, the advertisers actually want to do is to give top priority to the future. The translation version of &quot;未来即现在&quot; will easily lead people to be engrossed in the present while the version of &quot;让未来现在就来&quot; paid more attention to the future of Samsung cellphones. Also, TT 2 sketched a scene of early approaching of the future, suggesting the fact that the cellphones invented now can anticipate some of high-ended functions of future electronic products. Without doubt, Skopos Theory is the main driver of this translation practice. The translation technique of adaptation can be found here by changing the sentence pattern of the TT, thus achieving some unimaginable effects. Here, it is Skopos Theory that decided and guided the selection of the translation technique of adaptation. Also, that technique will exert counter-effects on Skopos Theory to expose the functions and purposes of the TT.<br /> <br /> Example 9<br /> <br /> ST:三元产品设计工作室虽然身处竞争激烈、你死我活的商业环境之中，但是我们对完美、创新设计的追求却一如既往、不折不扣。我们的作品风格总是别具一格、独一无二。——《三元产品设计工作室简介》<br /> <br /> TT: 3 Elements Product Design Studio works in a highly competitive market. Our pursuit of perfection and innovation is as ever. Our design is always unique.<br /> <br /> Analysis: The ST in example 9 is excerpted from the introduction of a corporate named after 3 Elements Product Design Studio. The key point in the TT is the translation of Chinese four-character phrases into single English words. On the one hand, such an action is in line with J.C. Catford's translation shift theory, especially the unit shift theory. On the other hand, it is also Hans Vermeer's Skopos Theory that underlies that transformation. Idiomatic expressions, like proverbs, four-character expressions, are known to abound in Chinese, which bewildered countless western Chinese learners. What translators are obligated to do is to change the complex into the simple. Then several four-character expressions in the ST, including &quot;一如既往&quot;, &quot;不折不扣&quot;, &quot;别具一格&quot; and &quot;独一无二&quot; have been translated into &quot; as ever&quot; and &quot;unique&quot;. More specifically, the translation techniques of adaptation and division are also adopted here just like that in example 8. As for the translation technique of adaptation, the phrase structures of the TT have turned into word structures. About the translation technique of division, the 2 sentences in the ST have been divided into 3 sentences in the TT with a view to underlining topic of each sentence. This opened up a new world for TT readers that the same translation technique can be guided and constrained by different translation theories. Hence, translators have to be sensitive and acute enough to perceive differences among translation theories, strategies and techniques so that the translation practice can yield fruitful outcomes. To conclude, translation theories still guide translation strategies and techniques. Those strategies and techniques still complement translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''III.Summary and conclusion'''===<br /> This paper is persistently talking about the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques, aiming to solve more puzzles haunting translators when they are engaged in relentless translation practice. With so many spaces left to the elaboration of such a complicated issue, this paper thus arrived at the conclusion that the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques lie in two respects. One is the relationship between the macroscope and the microscope, translation theories being the most inclusive and translation techniques being the most subordinate, with the translation strategies lying between those two extremes. Another is the relationship of guiding and complementing. To be honest, translation theories bear a resemblance to the lighthouses, which are always offering clues for the selection and adoption of translation strategies and techniques. Of course, translation strategies and techniques are also indispensable to translation theories for they can put translation theories into practice. Lacking those strategies and techniques, the connotation, significance and function are just the illusion.<br /> <br /> This paper starts with the introduction of Vermeer's Skopos Theory, the definition of translation theories, strategies and techniques, and the interpretation of the relationships among those three concepts. After all those preparatory steps, the case analysis part analyzed the relationships among translation theories, strategies and techniques from the perspective of three different kinds of texts, embracing tourism texts, literary texts and business texts. Almost all the translation of those texts are on the basis of Skopos Theory, with many other translation strategies and techniques applied, such as domestication, foreignization, omission, adaptation and so on. Finally, here comes the concluding and summary part of this paper, in which the rough structure and the motif of this paper have been clarified again.<br /> <br /> ==='''IV.References'''===<br /> [1]杨先一.林纾及其翻译——以《黑奴吁天录》为例[D]青岛:山东大学,2009.<br /> <br /> [2]Cao Xueqin. ''The Story of the Stone'' [M].London: Penguin,2004.<br /> <br /> [3]董晓波,翻译概论[M].北京:对外经贸大学出版社,2012.<br /> <br /> [4]郭晓燕,商务英语翻译[M].北京:对外经贸大学出版社,2017.<br /> <br /> [5]杰里米•芒迪，翻译学导论——理论与实践[M].北京:商务印书馆,2007.<br /> <br /> [6]Wilson Rita &amp; Sulaiman, M, Z. ''Translation and Tourism: Strategies for Effective Cross-cultural Promotion'' [M].Singapore: Springer,2019.<br /> <br /> [7]Tsao Hsuen-Chin &amp; Kao Hgo. ''A Dream of Red Mansions'' [M].Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1994.<br /> <br /> [8]熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆——以“翻译方法”、“翻译策略”和“翻译技巧”为例[J].中国翻译,2014(3):82-88.<br /> <br /> [9]董川, 陈玲.武术翻译的策略、方法和技巧研究[J].体育世界（学术版）,2020(1):55-56.<br /> <br /> [10]焦炭,张辉.旅游景点解说词翻译方法与策略——以亳州市旅游景点解说词英译为例[J].中国民航飞行学院学报,2019(3):42-46.<br /> <br /> [11]韩婷婷.目的论视角下的茶文化文本的翻译策略探究[J].福建茶叶,2020(9):298-299.<br /> <br /> [12]宋玉露.目的论视域下葛浩文《丰乳肥臀》译本研究[J].青年文学家,2020(32):31-32.<br /> <br /> [13]莫红利.目的论视角下企业简介的英译原则与策略[J].考试周刊,2014(6):79-81.<br /> <br /> [14]王兴孙.对国际商务英语学科发展的探讨[J].国际商务研究:1997(1):24-28.<br /> <br /> [15]陈准民,王立非.解读《高等学校商务英语本科专业教学要求》（试行）[J].2009(4):4-11.<br /> <br /> ==Contemporary Study on Nida's Functional Equivalence and Skopos Theory 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==<br /> <br /> ==On the concept of equivalence in translation 彭娟 Peng Juan==<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Functional Equivalence to Translation of Rhetorical Devices in The Nightingale and the Rose 彭小玲 Peng Xiaoling==<br /> <br /> ==On the Translation of English Film Title from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue==<br /> <br /> ==On the Translation of Resume from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 肖双玲 Xiao Shuangling==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> With the rapid development of China’s economy and the deepening of reform and opening up, more and more foreign-funded enterprises are coming to China to invest and set up factories, and more and more Chinese are going to work in foreign companies or abroad. For foreign job seekers, English resumes are often more important than Chinese ones. Many job seekers think that the English resume is verbatim translation into English, however, the result not only fails to reflect their own English level, but also brings obstacles to the job search, leading to the opposite effect. By analyzing the differences between Chinese and English resumes, this paper attempts to solve the problems in the translation of Chinese resumes based on Skopos theory, so as to improve the quality of the translation and make the job-seeking process more successful. Skopos theory is the basic principle of translation activities. Based on the differences of the object, role and emphasis between Chinese and English resumes, analysis of the differences and the problems that arise in the translation process are necessary. This essay tries to find out effective methods for C-E translation of resumes under Skopos theory approach and thus makes job-hunting easier for applicants.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory; resume; translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要:===<br /> <br /> 中国经济的快速发展和改革开放的深入，越来越多的外资企业来中国投资建厂，越来越多的中国人去外企或国外工作。对于外国求职者来说，英文简历往往比中文简历更重要。很多求职者认为英文简历就是自己的中文简历逐字翻译成英文，然而，这样的结果不仅不能反映自己的英语水平，还给求职带来了障碍，导致了相反的效果。本文通过分析中英文简历的差异,试图从目的论的角度来解决中文简历翻译中存在的问题，从而提高翻译质量，使求职过程更加顺利。目的论是翻译活动的基本原则。基于中英文简历的对象，作用和重点的差异，分析翻译过程中出现的差异和问题是必要的。本文试图找到在目的论理论方法下简历英译的有效方法，从而使求职者更容易找工作。<br /> <br /> ===关键词:===<br /> <br /> 目的论；简历；翻译<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> For job seekers, when applying for foreign-funded enterprises, a standardized English resume is essential, which not only reflects the applicant's personal information, ability and qualifications, but also reflects the applicant’s English level and awareness of cross-cultural communication to a certain extent. This paper focuses on the English translation of Chinese resumes and the characteristics and norms of English resumes, and puts forward solutions to the above problems. This paper suggests that the translation of resumes should be oriented towards the communicative purpose. By studying the characteristics and functions of resumes, the author discusses the C-E translation of resumes from three aspects: words, sentences and texts. The study has found that simplicity and clarity are the two criteria for resume translation. In addition, when translating resumes, translators should give priority to free translation with literal translation as a supplement. This paper can be divided into three parts. Chapter one is an overview to resumes, including linguistic features and qualities of translators. Then in the second chapter, the development and basic principles of Skopostheory will be discussed. In the last chapter, the application of Skopostheory on the translation of resumes will be explored at lexical, syntactic and stylistic levels.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Resume===<br /> <br /> A resume is a written communication document that shows a prospective employer that you have the skills, attitude, qualifications, and confidence to meet specific job requirements. In order to attract employer’s attention and interest, a qualified resume is definitely indispensable. In this part, definition and features of resume and differences between Chinese and English resume are going to be explored.<br /> <br /> ===1.1 Definition of Resume===<br /> <br /> According to the explanation from the noted and authoritative encyclopedia—Wikipedia, a résumé or resume is a document used by a person to present their backgrounds and skills. Resume can be used for a variety of reasons, but most often it is used to secure new employment.<br /> A typical resume contains a “summary” of relevant job experience and education. The resume is usually one of the first items, along with a cover letter and sometimes an application for employment, which is typically used to screen applicants, often followed by an interview.<br /> <br /> ===1.2 Features of Resume===<br /> <br /> Resume needs to be optimized but the connotation is more important. Before the resume is submitted, it must have a clear career direction. This is the key to the success of the application. However, many people do not know their job search direction before writing a short calendar. Most people are confused about their job search direction, so it is not advisable to write a job search intention or write too much on the resume. Just as you can see a wide variety of advertisements every day, hiring managers also face a variety of resumes every day. How can a resume stand out? How do you let the recruiter notice you at a glance? How do you let the recruiter believe that you are the “talent” they are looking for and generate ideas for further interviews? In fact, as long as you follow the features when you create your resume, you will get an interview.<br /> <br /> ===1.2.1 Conciseness===<br /> <br /> When you’ve done with your resume, weigh it and see whether you can read all the things that you think are important in ten seconds or not. Generally speaking, the length of a resume should be limited to 1 page of A4 paper. The longer a resume is, the less likely it is to be read carefully. High-end talents can sometimes prepare resumes of more than 2 pages, but they also need to have a brief and clear overview of the qualifications at the beginning of the resume, so that readers can grasp the basic situation in a short period of time and have the desire to read further.<br /> <br /> ===1.2.2 Clarity===<br /> <br /> The purpose of clarity is to make it easy to read. Just like making a print ad, the layout of the resume needs to take into account factors such as font size, line and segment spacing, and highlighting of key content.<br /> <br /> ===1.2.4 Pertinence===<br /> <br /> If you submit the same resume for different industries, different companies and different positions, then what is deficient in such a resume is pertinence.<br /> If Company A requires you to have relevant industry experience and good sales performance, you clearly stated the relevant experiences and facts in your resume and put them in a prominent position. This is targeted; if Company B requires you to have good oral English ability, you described your experience in amateur foreign-related business translation in your resume, which is targeted; if Company C explicitly requires candidates to have Shanghai hukou, you indicate in your resume that you are a resident of Shanghai Pudong District, this is targeted. It is not only a resume, but also a very important principle when writing job letters, follow-up letters, and thank-you letters.<br /> <br /> ===1.2.5 Objectivity===<br /> <br /> I am a person who is rigorous and responsible, and I have a very good job performance in my past work. Similar sentences can often be seen in many people's resumes. Perhaps it is true, but the wise human resources director will never believe in such subjective confession. Therefore, the resume should provide objective proof or facts and data supporting your qualifications and abilities. For example, in 2008, I was awarded by the company for ranking the first in sales performance or I was praised by the manager for my good coordination and organization ability in an exhibition activity. The latter is obviously less objective than the former. Also, to be as objective as possible, first-person “I” should be avoided in your resume.<br /> <br /> ===1.3 Differences between Chinese and English Resumes===<br /> <br /> Although resumes in both Chinese and English are basically the same in form and content, the English resume is not a hard copy of the Chinese resume. Recognizing the difference between the two is the first problem to be faced in the translation work. HRs pointed out that the Chinese and English resumes have the following differences.<br /> <br /> ===1.3.1 Role of Resume===<br /> <br /> If you apply for domestic enterprises and institutions, the submission of a Chinese resume is the first step of the job, English resume plays a supplementary role to the Chinese resume; But for the foreign capital enterprise and the multinational corporation's candidate, the English curriculum vita is a stepping stone for job hunting, and will reflect the candidate’s ability and the quality, which is the key to obtain the interview opportunity.<br /> <br /> ===1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume===<br /> <br /> According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”① Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.<br /> <br /> ===1.3.2 Reading Target of Resume===<br /> <br /> According to the different reading objects, the Chinese resume should conform to the Chinese reading habits, and the English resume should meet the reading habits of English-speaking people. An introduction to job hunting at the Harvard Career Center said: “The US resume does not include information on age, gender, weight, height, nationality, health, marital status, number of children, etc. Employers are prohibited by law from referring to this information when evaluating whether a candidate meets the job requirements.”① Chinese enterprises, especially state-owned enterprises, will require applicants to attach personal information, while English resumes without special needs generally do not involve gender, age, marital status and race and other relevant personal privacy content. Companies that are accused of hiring in violation of the law involving appearance, gender, age or race pay huge compensation. Many foreigners believe that whether a job applicant meets the requirements of a certain position mainly depends on the individual's professional experience and skills, and has nothing to do with personal information.<br /> <br /> ===1.3.3 Focus of Resume===<br /> <br /> In order to attract attention in the fierce competition, the design and packaging of some resumes of Chinese job seekers are extremely beautiful and long, more than 2 pages or even 3 pages, all of which are not obvious, and some are accompanied by art photos and various certificates. Pieces make the resume as thick as a magazine. English resumes are often only one page long, concise, relevant, personal, and focused on key words and action words. The keywords describe the practical experience and professional skills necessary for doing a good job. Today, when the computer screening resume system is widely used, the specific keywords appear in the resume is the only rule for job seekers to successfully obtain interviews with foreign companies. Behavioral verbs are mostly transitive verbs, indicating a specific action required to complete a task. Behavioral verbs play a behavior-oriented role in resumes. The so-called behavior-oriented meaning is to use facts to speak, not just to present results. Here are examples:<br /> <br /> ①expressing personal accomplishments:accomplish, achieve , improve, promote, etc.; <br /> ②indicating administrative capabilities: arrange, administer, execute, decide, etc; <br /> ③representing interpersonal communication skills:negotiate, persuade, present, etc; <br /> ④expressing innovation:create, develop, design, launch, etc. <br /> <br /> The use of behavioral verbs is essential for job seekers to demonstrate the core competencies and personal talents that companies require. For example, manage a group of 20 employees and motivate the whole sales team are more attractive than in charge of 20 employees, responsible for the whole sales team, giving a kind of action-like impression and enabling candidates to quickly get the attention of HR and stand out from the crowd.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Theoretical Framework===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory, unveiled by German functionalist scholar Vermeer and Christiane Nord, is a theory that applies Skopos concept to translation. Its core concept is that the main factor of translation process is the purpose of overall translation behavior. In this context, the translator should adopt strategies or methods appropriate to the translation purpose. This theory represents an innovation compared with the existing translation theories and defines translation as a creative activity. In this chapter, the author of the dissertation focuses on the introduction of Skopos, which involves the background information and principles of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 Overview of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> In the 1970s, functionalist translation theory emerged in Germany. Its development has gone through the following stages.<br /> <br /> The first stage: Katharina Reiss introduced functional categories into translation criticism for the first time, connected language functions, discourse types and translation strategies, developed a translation criticism model based on the functional relationship between source text and target text, and thus proposed the rudiments of functionalism. Reiss thought that the ideal translation should be a comprehensive communicative translation, that is, the translation should be equivalent to the original in terms of conceptual content, language form and communicative function, but the functional features of the translation should be given priority in practice.<br /> <br /> The second stage: Hans Vermeer put forward Skopos theory, which freed translation studies from the bondage of original source-centered theory. This theory holds that translation is a purposeful and resultful behavior based on the original text. Translation must follow a series of rules, among which the law of purpose takes a leading role. In other words, the translation is dependent on the purpose of the translation. In addition, translation should follow the “law of intra-linguistic coherence” and “law of inter-linguistic coherence”. The former implies that the translation must be internally coherent, which is understandable in the eyes of the recipient, while the latter means that there should be coherence between the translation and the original. After these three principles are put forward, the criterion for judging translation is no longer “equivalence”, but the adequacy of the translation to achieve the desired goal. Vermeer also put forward the concept of translation commission, that is, the translator should decide whether, when and how to complete the translation task. That is to say, translators should adopt corresponding translation strategies according to different translation purposes, and have the right to decide what content of the original text can be retained and what needs to be adjusted or modified according to the translation purpose.<br /> <br /> According to Vermeer, the supreme law in translation should be the law of purpose. That is to say, different translation purposes, translation strategies, methods are also different. In other words, the purpose of translation determines the strategies and methods of translation. “Skopos theory” has given a good explanation of the disputes between domestication and foreignization in the history of translation between China and the west, as well as the widely discussed formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation field in the past 20 or 30 years. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. Since functional translation theory takes “the principle of purpose” as the highest criterion and any translation activity is a purposeful act, the ultimate goal and main function of film title translation is to help people understand the main content of the film and stimulate the audience's desire to watch. Therefore, we need to have a brief understanding of functional translation theory, especially Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> The third stage: Justa Holz Manttaridrew on the theory of communication and behavior, proposed the theory of translation behavior, and further developed the functionalist translation theory, which regarded translation as the interaction between people driven by purpose and oriented by translation results. This theory and teleology have a lot in common, and Vermeer later merged the two.<br /> <br /> The fourth stage: Christiane Nord comprehensively summarized and improved the functionalist theory. For the first time, Christiane Nord systematically elaborated the internal and external factors to be considered in text analysis in translation, as well as how to formulate translation strategies suitable for the purpose of translation based on the functions of the original text. Christiane Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.2 Principles of Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> Skopos rule, coherence rule, fidelity rule and loyalty rule are four principles of Skopos theory, among which there exists inter-relationships. In the following part, Skopos theory will be explained in a detailed way.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.1 Skopos Rule===<br /> <br /> From the perspective of Skopos theory, the primary principle to be followed in all translation activities is the “purpose principle”, that is, translation should be able to function in the context and culture of the target language in the way expected by the recipient of the target language. The purpose of the translation behavior determines the process of the entire translation behavior, that is, the method of decision-making. However, translation activities can have multiple purposes, which can be further divided into three categories :(1) the basic purpose of the translator (such as making a living); (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (such as enlightening the readers); (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a particular means of translation (such as literal translation according to the structure of a language in order to illustrate the special features of the grammatical structure). However, in general, “purpose” refers to the communicative purpose of the target text, that is, “the communicative function of the target text in the socio-cultural context of the target language for the target language reader”. Therefore, the translator should make clear his specific purpose in a given translation context, and decide which translation method to adopt-- literal translation, free translation or something in between.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.2 Coherence Rule===<br /> <br /> Coherence rule, also known as intra-textual coherence rule, holds that the target text should meet the criteria of textual coherence. In other words, the translator should understand the reader’s cultural background and social environment when translating the text. Under the guidance of coherence rules, the comprehensibility of the target text is prior to the authority of the original. That is to say, the recipient’s feelings must be taken into account.<br /> <br /> When the translator applies the coherence principle, the target language must be coherent enough to make the recipient understand the whole text. In other words, the translator should follow the principle of coherence and properly adjust the syntactic structure or words in the target language, so as to maintain the coherence of the original text.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===2.2.3 Fidelity Rule===<br /> <br /> According to the fidelity rule, the relationship between source text and target text can be regarded as the fidelity of source text to target text. However, the degree of fidelity depends on the translator, because it is important for him or her to translate and understand the purpose of the original text. At the same time, the translator should be faithful to both the original author and the intention of the author. Therefore, faithful teleology attaches great importance to and tries to determine the relationship among the translator, the author and the receiver.<br /> <br /> ===2.2.4 Loyalty Rule===<br /> <br /> This was put forward by Nord. She found two major defects in Skopos theory. First, people from different cultural backgrounds have different views on a good translation due to the differences in cultural models. In addition, if the communicative purpose of the translation required by the principle of purpose is just opposite to the intention of the original author, then we will abide by the principle of purpose and violate the principle of fidelity. Therefore, Nord proposed the loyalty principle to solve the cultural differences and the relationship between the participants in translation. According to Nord, translators have a moral responsibility to the recipients of the translated text and must explain to them what they have done and why. This is one aspect of the loyalty principle. Another aspect of this principle is that the translator should be loyal to the original author. The translator should respect the original author and coordinate the target language of the translation with the intention of the author. Therefore, the principle of loyalty mainly focuses on the relationship between the translator and the original author, the client, the recipient of the translation and other participants in the translation process. Nord proposed that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”, thus improving the theory.<br /> <br /> In a word, these four principles constitute the basic principles of Skopos theory of translation, but the principle of coherence, the principle of loyalty and the principle of loyalty must be subordinated to the principle of purpose, which is the primary principle of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3Application of Skopos Theory in C-E Translation of Resume===<br /> <br /> From the above, the author has studied some basic knowledge of resume and Skopos theory. In this chapter, the applied of Skopos theory on C-E translation of resume will be discussed, especially, we are going to analyze the translation from lexical, syntactic and textual respectively, which is the most crucial part in the dissertation.<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Application of Skopos Theory in Lexical Translation===<br /> <br /> The selection of English words plays an important role in the translation of resumes. On the one hand, the choice of a good English word can help shorten long sentences and make the resume more convenient and comfortable to read; on the other hand, due to the ambiguity of English words, correct choice of words can solve the ambiguity problem. In order to solve the above problems, using a large number of action verbs, terms and abbreviations are recommended. Next, the above content will be introduced separately.<br /> <br /> ===3.1.1 Action verbs===<br /> <br /> A resume shows the author’s education and work experience. There are lots of action verbs used in resume translation. And most of the sentences that describe job duties and self-evaluation begin with action verbs, such as负责、开发、管理、提出.<br /> <br /> Example 1:<br /> 1.提出新的流程，在减少工作压力的同时，提高了员工的生产能力，成功的向潜在的购买者解释并演示了技术产品的相关科技<br /> 2.开发了销售和市场项目，使购物中心的利润提高了33个百分点<br /> 3.负责华东地区的23家商店的销售和损益<br /> 4.为新华出版社管理23家生产厂家的代表公司的国际和国内销售力量<br /> Translation:<br /> 1. Proposed a new process to reduce the work pressure, improved the production capacity of employees, and successfully explained and demonstrated the technology related to technical products to potential buyers.<br /> 2. Developed sales and marketing programs that increased shopping center profit by 33 percent.<br /> 3. Took charge of sales and profit and loss of 23 stores in East China<br /> 4. Managed the international and domestic sales force of representative companies of 23 manufacturers for Xinhua Publishing House<br /> <br /> These examples are selected from job hunters’ resumes. For those who want to apply for a job on sales, it is common to see the action verbs like “propose”, “develop”, “take charge of” and “manage” in their resume. Through those action verbs, it is conspicuous for readers to know the achievement the job seekers have done during their previous job experiences. When translating, in order to make each sentence start with an action verb, the job hunter adjusts the words order. In this way, it not only gives HR a kind of visual beauty, but also shortens the sentence of translated resume. In addition, frequently using action words shows a more effective, organized and positive job hunters. Obviously, Skopos rule works here since the main purpose of the job hunters is that readers can grasp the core information in a few second so as to add the opportunity of getting an interview among thousands of them. <br /> <br /> Recombination and omission are the vital translation skills here. And the above selection parts employed omission translation skill so as to delete a lot of qualifiers which may cause disturbance for reader to get useful information. However, such a kind of English resume is simple and clear which is convenient for readers to grasp the significant parts. In addition, it is in accordance with the conciseness feature of resume as well.<br /> <br /> ===3.1.2 Terminology and Abbreviation===<br /> <br /> Different fields have different terminologies, which is the product of the advancement of science and culture. With the emergence of the concept of the new things, people adopt a variety of approaches to make appropriate words in their language to label them which can be easily understood by employers. Thus it can be seen that terminology has great impact on resume translation.<br /> <br /> Example 2:<br /> 负责宝马5系，5系混动，1系认证：协调试验工程师，环保申报工程师完成工作，确保认证按节点完成②<br /> Translation:<br /> Take lead of BMW 1 series, 5 series and 5 PHEV models homologation process; coordinate the cooperation of test engineer and EPA specialist to achieve the target on time<br /> <br /> From the example above, we can see that abbreviations in some resumes are sometimes frequently employed, such as PHEV(Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), BMW(Bavarian Motor Works) and EPA(Environmental Protector Agency). Abbreviations will make the translated resumes look more concise and clear and will not hinder employers to understand what job seekers try to convey.<br /> <br /> Under the Skopos theory, the purpose of a resume is to provide HR with key information about whether a candidate is suitable for the target position, so as to get an interview. Therefore, long and complex sentences should be avoided. Terms and abbreviations are necessary. In this way, the author also proves the use of action verbs, which makes the translated resume more attractive because the reader can immediately get the main information.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Application of Skopos Theory in Syntactical Translation===<br /> <br /> It usually takes about 30 seconds for an HR to read a resume in English, so neither long sentences nor compound sentences are frequently used in a resume, as this may pose a barrier for HR to attain the key information. Similarly, English resumes should be concise. In order to achieve this goal, non-subject sentences and unified sentences are generally used. Through analysis, the author found that declarative sentence is the most commonly used question, negative sentence. In addition, present and past tense are generally used to introduce personal information and work experience.<br /> <br /> ===3.2.1 Non-subjective Sentence===<br /> <br /> Example 3:<br /> 担任加油站项目开发经理，负责加油站项目的实地调研、车辆分析、投资回报分析及项目可行性报告的完成；对外与政府进行沟通协调、各类准建文件和营业证照的申办等；对内督促工程部门推进站体建设、质量、安全管理等工作。<br /> Translation 1:<br /> As the project development manager of the gas station, I was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and the completion of the project feasibility report of the gas station project. Externally, I communicated and coordinated with the government on the application of various kinds of construction documents and business licenses, and internally urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station.<br /> Translation 2:<br /> 1. Served as the gas station project development manage<br /> 2. Was responsible for the field research, vehicle analysis, investment return analysis and project feasibility report of the gas station project<br /> 3. Communicated and coordinated with the government to apply for all kinds of construction documents and business licenses<br /> 4. Urged the engineering department to promote the construction, quality and safety management of the station<br /> <br /> In translation 1, since the language of the resume is complimentary, the use of “I” gives people a sense of pride. In addition, it does not conform to western culture, because westerners are used to simple and direct description. By contrast, translation 2 is much simpler and clearer by omitting the subject “I”. Usually, a non-subject sentence is an elliptical sentence that omits the subject, while the omitting subject is usually the applicant himself. <br /> In conclusion, the non-subjective sentences conform to the Skopos theory, and the translated resumes are shorter, which increases the chances of the interviewee getting the interview. Therefore, ellipsis plays an important role in resume translation. By omitting the first person I, the sentence becomes more concise and to the point. Therefore, it doesn’t take much time for the reader to grasp the key information.<br /> <br /> ===3.2.2 Syntactic Unity===<br /> <br /> When translating resumes, we pay attention to the unified sentence structure to reflect the professional qualities of job seekers, and also meet the requirements of reading fluency. In order to achieve this, translation transformation will be used. For example, verbs in the original text can be converted into adjectives or nouns instead of adjectives. By complementing this sentence structure, the translated resume looks more standardized and attractive because it stimulates HR’s desire to read.<br /> <br /> Example 4:<br /> 1.能熟练操作财务软件，能很好的与人交往，同时学校的生活使我锻炼了团队合作精神<br /> 2.责任心强，工作效率高，认真仔细，具有创新意识，善于分析和解决问题<br /> 3.熟练掌握MATLAB， MS office software。 计算机二级VB，三级数据库。<br /> Translation:<br /> 1. Proficient in operating financial software, good at communicating with others, stronger in teamwork spirit in school life<br /> 2. Strong sense of responsibility, high efficiency, careful, innovative and good at analyzing and solving problems<br /> 3. Skilled at MS office software and MATLAB. Passed National Computer Rank Examination Grade 3(database) and Grade 2(VB)<br /> <br /> Through the translation of examples selected above, each sentence is begun with a phrase led by an adjective or the past participle of a verb which is consistent with the principle of syntactic unity. Considering the background of western culture, as well as the convenience for readers, such an approach seems practical in resume translation. Syntactic unity not only makes the translated resume more attractive, but will also let our resumes stand out among thousands of competitors. Because for one thing, it provides readers with a sense of visual beauty, and for another, more information will be attained.<br /> Under Skopos theory, the unification of non-subjective sentences and syntax is an effective means of Chinese-English translation. Moreover, the author also found that English resumes use declarative sentences because of their narrative usage. Sentences such as questions and negatives are rarely used. In addition, the present and past tenses in English resumes are widely used for their objectivity. Generally, a job seeker will present his or her personal information and experience objectively, which is why the above tense is used.<br /> <br /> ===3.3 Application of Skopos Theory in Textual Translation===<br /> <br /> In previous parts, the author of the essay has studied application of Skopos theory in lexical translation and syntactical translation. And in the following part, application of Skopos theory in textual translation will be further analyzed, which includes translation of personal information and concise style.<br /> <br /> ===3.3.1 Translation of Personal Information===<br /> <br /> There is a big difference between the English resume, because the use of the English resume for the international environment, such as multinational companies, so the Chinese resume English translation should follow the principle of alienation, and the English resume should be easy to be accepted by the reader. Here is an example.<br /> <br /> Example 5:<br /> <br /> 姓名：张三<br /> <br /> 性别：男<br /> <br /> 年龄：25<br /> <br /> 身高：185<br /> <br /> 政治面貌：团员<br /> <br /> 婚否：已婚<br /> <br /> 地址：湖南省长沙市岳麓区<br /> <br /> 电话：1337658xxxx<br /> <br /> 电子邮件：Zhangsan2008@163.com<br /> <br /> Translation:<br /> <br /> Zhang San<br /> <br /> Yuelu District, Changsha, Hunan Province<br /> <br /> Tel:1337658xxxx<br /> <br /> Email:Zhangsan2008@163.com<br /> <br /> By comparing the above resumes in both Chinese and English, we can clearly see that English resumes are much simpler than Chinese resumes, and a lot of private information has been deleted, such as date of birth, political status, marital status, height and photos, etc. The purpose is to avoid discrimination. In addition, the writing of addresses in Chinese and English resumes is also very different, so the author adopted a translation method of word order adjustment.<br /> <br /> ===3.3.2 Concise Style===<br /> <br /> As we know, simple and concise are two core principle of resume translation, because it achieves the purpose of high efficiency. Therefore, job seekers do not have to repeatedly emphasize the various scholarships or grades they have achieved between school or work. This not only makes people feel that job seekers have limited work experience, but also seem boring. Next, the author will give an example of the above.<br /> <br /> Example 6:<br /> <br /> 2016.9湖南师范大学2015~2016年度“校三等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生干部”<br /> <br /> 2017.9湖南师范大学2016~2017年度“国家励志奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀共青团员” <br /> <br /> 2018.9湖南师范大学2017~2018年度“校二等奖学金”、“校三好学生”及“优秀学生会干部”<br /> <br /> Translation 1:<br /> <br /> 2016.9 Third-class Scholarship、 Excellent Student and Fine Student Leader in Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> 2017.9 National Scholarship for Higher Motivation、Excellent Student and Outstanding League Members in Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> 2018.9 Second-class Scholarship、Excellent Student and Fine Student Union Leader in Hunan Normal University<br /> <br /> Translation 2:<br /> <br /> Third-class and Second-class Scholarship<br /> <br /> National Scholarship for Higher Motivation <br /> <br /> Excellent Student(2 Times)<br /> <br /> Fine Student Leader and Fine Student Union Leader<br /> <br /> Outstanding League Members<br /> <br /> The above example is taken from the resume of an undergraduate student. The first version was translated by the applicant himself, and the second version was modified. By comparing the two versions above, we can know that the second version is more concise and clear compared with the first one. It uses ellipsis and combination of translation skills to describe the academic achievements and honors of the applicants, without repeating the name and time of the school as the first one did. It's easier to stand out.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> When translating Chinese resumes into English, Chinese people often copy and ignore the habits of English resumes in terms of format, language and cultural traditions. Therefore, in the process of translating Chinese resumes into English, we must pay attention to the format characteristics of English resumes and the key points of language writing, as well as the cultural differences between China and the West, and the awareness of cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> A resume is an indispensable application style for job application. It is a written introduction showing the image, expertise and experience of the job seeker. No matter what kind of briefing, the purpose is to seek job interviews for job seekers and get the job opportunities. Therefore, in order to reduce the obstacles encountered in job hunting and achieve a smooth job search, in the process of translating Chinese resumes, it is necessary to use the translation teleology as a guide, and according to the reading habits of English readers, the necessary arrangement and reorganization can be used to maximize the role of resumes.<br /> <br /> Although this paper can provide some inspiration for job seekers, there are still limitations in the paper. The biggest limitation is that there are too few samples of resumes cited in the article, so the cases may be less than typical and comprehensive. Taking into account the limitations of the paper, the author believes that in the future research, the cases should be involved in a wider range and more numbers, so as to make a more comprehensive and convincing analysis.<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> <br /> ① 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[D]. 天津: 天津商业大学, 2015: 10.<br /> <br /> ② 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历的英译[D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学, 2018: 22.<br />  <br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> [1] Baker, Mona. Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2] Bhatia, K. Analysis Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings[M]. London: Longman, 1993.<br /> <br /> [3] Nida, E.A. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [4] Nord, Christiane. Skopos, Loyalty, and Translation Conventions[J]. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1991(4).<br /> <br /> [5] Nord, Christiane. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [6] Peter, Newmark. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [7] Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans J. Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation[M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> [8] Swales, M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br /> <br /> [9] 楚天舒. 求职简历不容忽视的九大细节[J]. 中国大学生就业, 2008,(8).<br /> <br /> [10] 胡婷婷. 目的论指导下的简历英译[D]. 吉林: 吉林财经大学, 2018.<br /> <br /> [11] 连淑能. 英汉对比研究[M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社, 2010.<br /> <br /> [12] 高琳. 跨文化视角下中英文简历的语类分析[D]. 天津: 天津商业大学, 2015.<br /> <br /> [13] 张培基等. 英汉翻译教程[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1980.<br /> <br /> [14] 朱理萍. 求职简历汉英小译[D]. 上海: 上海外国语大学, 2008.<br /> <br /> [15] 庄绎传. 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> <br /> === The Translation of English Film Title—Under the Perspective of Skopos Theory 杨悦 Yang Yue==<br /> <br /> ='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> == On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br /> <br /> ==='''key words'''===<br /> <br /> functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键字'''===<br /> 功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===Functional Equivalence===<br /> In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.<br /> <br /> Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br /> <br /> To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br /> Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br /> <br /> ===Formal equivalence===<br /> <br /> ===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br /> <br /> ===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br /> <br /> ====Lexical equivalence====<br /> <br /> ====Syntax equivalence====<br /> <br /> ====Texual equivalence====<br /> <br /> ====Stylistic equivalence====<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> == My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br /> <br /> == Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Hao Jingfang’s science fiction ''Folding Beijing'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu’s rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida’s functional equivalence to “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors”. The theory of Nida’s functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu’s application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing ; meaning; style; culture<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br /> This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers’ understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br /> <br /> '''1.Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence'''<br /> <br /> Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers’ response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers’ response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br /> Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader’s response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader’s response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader’s response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader’s responses. If the target language reader’s understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> == On Translation of EST into Chinese-- From the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br /> <br /> ='''Applicaton of Translation Theories'''=<br /> ==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Escort Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen==<br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''I.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ='''Theory and Practise'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br /> <br /> === Abstract ===<br /> <br /> ==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 安德烈·勒菲弗尔，《翻译，历史与文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》<br /> <br /> ==='''I.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'''''===<br /> <br /> ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday, 2016) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as a good proof of “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explained that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (lefevere, 2003) With reference to these concepts, Lefevere aimed to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force.In preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevere, 2003) Such idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book Translation, History and Culture is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I hear John Dryden’s complaints about translator’s inferiority, and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek” (lefevere, 2003) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our own understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br /> <br /> ==='''III. Analysis of ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'''''===<br /> <br /> ==='''IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'''''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br /> <br /> ==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br /> <br /> ==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> ==摘要==<br /> <br /> ==关键词==<br /> <br /> ='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br /> <br /> ==Translation, History and Culture and Introducing Interpreting Studies 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br /> <br /> ==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br /> <br /> ==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan's works 邹鑫雨 Zou Xinyu==<br /> <br /> ==Yan Fu from descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br /> <br /> == An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Thoughts'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on Creative Treason of Literature Translation李玉 Li Yu==<br /> <br /> ==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br /> <br /> ==Lexical Gap between English and Chinese and its translation strategies 孟莹 Meng Ying==<br /> <br /> ==On Form and Spirit in Translation 文偲荇 Wen Sixing==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> translation methods，form，sprit<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 翻译方法，翻译的形与神<br /> <br /> ===The form of translation===<br /> <br /> ===The sprit of translation===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Nida's and Newmark's Translation Theories——Taking &quot;2017 APEC Speech&quot; as sample 周诗卿 Zhou Shiqing==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Strategies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Study on the Translation Strategies, Translation Methods and Translation Techniques in Seeking Happiness for People: 70 Years 朱素瑶 Zhu Suyao==<br /> <br /> ==Translator's invisibility vs. Translation Studies 胡百辉 Hu Baihui==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Business Contracts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 胡瑾 Hu Jin==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> business contract and translation<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> business contract; Functional Equivalence Theory; contract translation<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==The translator's invisibility 张毓婕 Zhang Yujie==<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and foreignization in Cross-cultural Translation 顾东方 Gu Dongfang==<br /> <br /> ==The Translation Strategies of Chinese Political Terms under the Standard of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; 高明珠 Gao Mingzhu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the development of globalization, the political communication among countries is more and more frequent, and the translation of political terms has gradually become one of the heated topics in the translation field. Political terms translation is challenging, because not only does it concern the relationship between countries, national status, political attitude and other important issues, but also it is developmental. Political neologisms will keep emerging, and some political terms will contain new connotations with the advancement of the times. In addition to the above characteristics, Chinese political vocabulary has many affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases, metaphors.In 2008, Yang Mingxing and other scholars put forward the &quot;Political Equivalence&quot; based on Eugene Nida's &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; theory for the translation of Chinese political terms, which pointed out that the translation of political words should follow the three principles of &quot;political&quot;, &quot;dynamic&quot; and &quot;balanced&quot;. On the basis of some related papers, this chapter will sum up the specific strategies such as supplement, omission, keeping or converting analogical body, adding explanation and narration for translating Chinese political terms with characteristics of having lots of affixes, abbreviations, four-character phrases and metaphors following the guidance of &quot;Political Equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> political equivalence Chinese political terms translation strategies<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着全球化的发展，各国间的政治交流愈加频繁，政治词汇的翻译也逐渐成为翻译界讨论热点之一。政治词汇的翻译是具有挑战性的，不仅是因为它关系到国与国之间的关系、国家地位、政治态度等重要问题，而且因为政治词汇是发展性的，政治词汇中会不断有新的词汇涌进，且某些政治词汇会随着时代的发展而增加新的内涵。而中国政治词汇除了具有以上特点，它还有多词缀、缩写、四字短语[1]，多用隐喻等修辞手法的特点。2008年，杨明星等学者针对中国政治词汇的翻译，基于尤金·奈达的“功能对等”理论提出了“政治等效”翻译标准，该标准指出政治词汇的翻译要遵循“政治性”、“动态性”、“平衡性”三大原则。本文基于相关文献，总结出在该标准下，对中国政治词汇在具有多词缀、缩写、四字短语及多采用隐喻这几个特点下的翻译可采用的具体的翻译策略，如增补法、省略法[1]、喻体保留法（完全保留、部分保留）、喻体转换法、喻底补充法、喻义直叙法[2]等。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 政治等效 中国政治词汇 翻译策略<br /> <br /> ===1. The Significance of Translating Political Terms===<br /> ===2. The Difficulties in Translating Political Terms===<br /> ===3. The Proposal and Connotations of Political Equivalence===<br /> ===4. The Three Principles of Political Equivalence ===<br /> ===5. Translation Straties under The Standard of Political Equivalence===<br /> ===(1)The Characteristics of Chinese Political Terms=== <br /> ===(2)Translation Strategy---Supplement===<br /> ===(3)Translation Strategy---Omission===<br /> ===(4)Translation Strategy---Keeping or Converting Analogical Body===<br /> ===(5)Translation Strategy---Adding Explanation and Narration===<br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> ===7. References===<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Appreciation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Study of Xu Chi’s Translation of ''Walden'' from the Stylistic Perspective 袁诗琦 Yuan Shiqi==<br /> <br /> ===27.1.1 Abstract===<br /> ===27.1.2 Key words===<br /> ===27.1.3 摘要===<br /> ===27.1.4 关键词===<br /> ===27.1.5 Introduction===<br /> ===27.1.5.1 Introduction to ''Walden''===<br /> ===27.1.5.2 Introduction to Xu Chi's translation of ''Walden''===<br /> ===27.1.6 Stylistic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ===27.1.6.1 Lexical Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ===27.1.6.2 Syntactic Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ===27.1.6.3 Rhetorical Features of ''Walden''===<br /> ===27.1.7 Conclusion===<br /> ===27.1.8 References===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparison Beteewn the Translation Systems Proposed by Tan Zai and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation. 王美玲 Wang Meiling==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;王美玲 Wang Meiling&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> The Renaissance is the fourth peak in the history of Western translation and a great development in the history of Western literature. During the 16th century and the period following the Renaissance in Europe, translation reached an unprecedented climax in the fields of thought, politics, philosophy, literature and religion. At that time, the German translation of the Bible by the Martin Luther is the most well-known one in the whole translation circle, and its influence is unique and long-standing in Germany as well as in the whole Europe continent. Since the Reform and Opening-up, China has gradually stepped into the center of the world arena, and its literary works bearing the quintessence of Chinese culture has become a crucial bridge connecting the rest of the world with China. Despite the rise of machine translation, it can never replace the overwhelming role of human translation in the literary translation. Luther’s translation thoughts have exerted an important influence on the development of Western translation theories, so what sparks can be drawn between his translation principles and Chinese modern culture and literary works? This paper makes a brief comment on the main translation activities of renaissance, then compares the translation thoughts of Luther and Lu Xun, and applies Luther’s detailed translation rules to the actual translation practice,finally analyzes the influence of Luther’s translation thoughts and principles on modern translation practice and their significance for reference.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Renaissance; Luther; literary works; translation principles; influence;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴运动是西方翻译史的第四次高潮，也是西方文学史上的一次大发展。文艺复兴在欧洲普遍开展的16世纪以及随后一个时期，翻译活动达到了前所未有的高峰，深入思想、政治、哲学、文学宗教等各个领域。在整个翻译界，德国马丁·路德的《圣经》德译本是该时期最负盛名的译本，其影响不论是在德国乃至整个欧洲都是独一无二且源远流长的。改革开放以来，中国日益走进世界舞台中央，承载着中华文化精髓的文学作品成为了重要桥梁。纵然机器翻译兴起，但绝不能替代人工翻译在文学翻译领域的绝对性地位。路德的翻译思想对西方翻译理论的发展产生了重要影响，那么其翻译思想和理论原则与中国当代文化及文学作品又能擦出什么样的火花呢？本文将通过对文艺复兴时期的主要翻译活动进行简评，再对比路德与鲁迅的翻译思想，接着将路德的翻译细则运用到实际的翻译实践中，分析路德的翻译思想及理论原则对于当代翻译实践的影响以及借鉴意义。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 文艺复兴；路德；文学作品；翻译原则；影响；<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> The Protestant Reformation Movement in Germany in the 16th century ushered in a new era of translation and dissemination of Bible.Under the protection of Protestantism, Martin Luther devoted himself to the German translation of the Bible. By the time of 1544 Luther’s death, 430 versions of his Bible translation had been published. In order to make common people more directly understand the meaning of the Bible, Martin Luther translated it in national language. He insisted on his translation thought and fought against the church power and his opponents. He made unremitting efforts in the great project of the Bible translation, which promoted the unification of German language and created a graceful literary language.His translation thoughts are still of great significance to the current translation theory and practice.&quot;First of all, from a historical point of view, translation has two main functions in promoting the birth and development of national culture and the transformation of national culture into world culture: one is to promote cultural exchange; the other is to disseminate ideas.&quot;<br /> <br /> Since the beginning of reform and opening-up, China has gradually stepped onto the world arena. China persists in its cultural development geared to the needs of the world and actively promotes cultural development to the world. Literary works bear the essence of Chinese culture, whose export is an crucial way to spread Chinese culture to the world. Over the years, despite the rise of machine translation, which has a certain practical role, it can not replace the overwhelming role of manual translation in literary translation. So what significance does Luther’s translation thought and theory born in the reform era have in guiding modern translation theory and practice, especially in the field of literary translation?<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Brief comments on translation thoughts in the period of Renaissance===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.2 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.3 '''<br /> <br /> '''1.4 '''<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Comparison of translation thoughts between Luther and Lu Xun===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 ===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 ===<br /> <br /> ==Study on Interpreter's Memory and Translation Memory in Interpreting 康浩宇 Kang Haoyu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br /> <br /> '''1.1 Background'''<br /> <br /> Memory plays an important role in interpreting and it is a kind of interpreting competence. The information processing in interpreting is complicated. When the information is input, interpreter first recognize and keep the information, which will then be analyzed, encoded, stored and retrieved. And the interpreter finally decode the information into target language(Wang Jianhua, 2019).Because of the fast input of information and limited time for pausing, great memory is required for interpreters. Whether a good or poor memory has a direct effect on the quality of interpreting. <br /> With the development of science and technology, machine translation and computer aided translation, which is also called CAT, was invented as two effective and efficient ways for translation. In CAT, there is a concept called translation memory. Different from human beings’ memory, translation memory is more likely a database. Nowadays, translation memory of CAT has been put into wide use in translation. And in recent years, translation memory has also been applied as a tool in interpreting. As the technology is not yet mature, there are still some limitation and weakness.<br /> <br /> '''1.2 Significance of the Study'''<br /> <br /> There are some studies on the memory of interpreters. But most of them focus on its practical aspects such as how to improve interpreters’ memory or how to make the best of memory in interpreting, instead of substantial facts. The nature of memory and mechanism of memory is also worthy to be studied, so readers can have better understanding and cognition of what is memory and how it works. Therefore, readers can better address our problems in memory of interpreting. The study will fully analyze memory from the aspect of psychology and science. And then it will study on memory of interpreting in details including systems, mechanism, coding and theories. <br /> Translation memory is quite a novel topic as it belongs to a sort of science and technology. As the world stepped into information era, digital era and even Artificial Intelligence era, translation memory has been used more widely than ever before. It really facilitates the translators as it both saves a lot of time and greatly improved the translation efficiency. However, there are few studies on the translation memory application in interpreting field. Actually, in many situations, interpreters also uses this kind of technology to help their interpreting. They study will research on the fact of translation memory in interpreting.<br /> <br /> '''1.3 Structure of the Study'''<br /> <br /> This thesis will be developed in five chapters. <br /> Chapter 1, the introduction part, is initiated by introducing the background, research problems, and significance of the study.<br /> Chapter 2 is functioned to define and categorize the memory.<br /> Chapter 3 will present the memory mechanism and related theories in interpreting.<br /> Chapter 4 will mainly focus on the translation memory technology at present and its application in interpreting.<br /> The concluding chapter generalizes the content of the study and put forward the limitations.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Study on Memory===<br /> <br /> '''2.1 The definition of the Memory'''<br /> <br /> Memory has different definitions in different fields. Generally speaking, human memory is a reflection of what the brain has experienced. From the perspective of psychology, memory is the recognition, maintenance, reappearance of experienced things by the human brain, and it is the basis of advanced psychological activities such as thinking and imagination. It is the retention and extraction of past experience by human brain. It is a psychological process in which individual experience is accumulated and preserved in the mind. All things that have been perceived can be kept in people's minds, and can be reproduced when necessary. This refers to the process in which the human brain encodes, stores and extracts meaningful information input from the outside world(Peng Danlin，1991). From the perspective of neurology, human memory is closely related to the changes of chemical composition in hippocampus and brain. All memory that exists in the brain depends on various nerve cells of the brain, which are called neurons. According to information processing theory, memory process is the process of encoding, storing and extracting input information. Only coded information can be remembered. Coding is the process of processing and transforming the input information, and coding is the key stage of the whole memory process.<br /> <br /> '''2.2. Memory Systems'''<br /> <br /> Based on the structure, memory can be categorized into three systems. There are sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. The later two systems are also often referred as STM and LTM. The three memory systems are different from each other but closely related.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.1 Sensory Memory'''<br /> <br /> As the shortest memory system, sensory memory is the first channel for human brain to get the information. It has some capacity. According the research in Cognitive Psychology(Wang Su, Wang Ansheng, 1992), People’s visual sensory capacity is more than 9 chunk while their auditory sensory memory capacity has less capacity, which is about chunk. chunk here are memory units, and the size of chunk varies with people's knowledge and experience. A chunk can be a word, a number, a phrase, a sentence, a word list, etc. Sensory memory works as temporary storage for sensory information. It depends on the physical nature of external stimulus to code the information and it is the real copy and transcription of the external stimulus. Most sensory memory can stay for one to two seconds and then disappear. Only with more attention and focus can the sensory memory be processed and then become short term memory(Bao Gang, 2005). People’s visual sensory memory can just keep for less than one second while their auditory sensory memory can keep for 4 seconds. It is inevitable that information will lose with the disappearance of sensory memory. <br /> <br /> '''2.2.2 Short Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Short term memory is the second memory system. Short term memory is based on the neuron network in hippocampus. It keeps the information that has been selected in the hippocampus of human brain. In some cases, part of information will move from the short memory in hippocampus to long term memory in cerebral cortex. In psychology, short term memory can keep for about one minute with the capacity of about 7 chunks. That means that people can memorize seven unrelated numbers or phonemes for about one minute with their short term memory. However, the capacity of short term memory is not decided by the amount of stimulus but by the modes of chunk and coding. Chunks can effectively expand the capacity of short-term memory. When processing information, people can use the knowledge and experience stored in long-term memory to combine several single stimuli into larger information units, which can effectively expand and increase short-term memory span and improve memory efficiency. Moreover, the coding of short-term memory is mainly auditory coding, and there are also visual coding and semantic coding. Instead of chunk and information unit, people can also use retelling to transfer short term memory to long term memory. Retelling refers to the psychological operation process of repeating the materials just memorized by language to consolidate memory. In the case of retelling, the learning materials kept in short-term memory will transfer to long-term memory. The content of short-term memory can be transformed into long-term memory by retelling. <br /> <br /> There is a special type of short term memory, working memory. The concept working memory was first proposed by Baddeley and Hitch. It is used to describe the process of a person temporarily memorizing the fact and thoughts when addressing problems or working(Baddeley, 2006). In spite of limited resources and storage time, working memory is still different from short term memory in temporary storage of information(Hitch, 2012). Compared with short term memory which store information passively, the working memory process is more dynamic. Generally speaking, there are three differences. First, working memory emphasizes storing and processing information at the same time, while short-term memory only focuses on information storage. Secondly, working memory is a multi-factor system, while short-term memory is a single system. Third, working memory is more important than short-term memory for many advanced brain functions and even almost all human cognitive work(Wang Jianhua, 2019). The disappear of short term memory is often due to the interruption.<br /> <br /> '''2.2.3 Long Term Memory'''<br /> <br /> Different from short term memory, long term memory is stored in human’s cerebral cortex where there is more room for storage. Long term memory is very important in keeping information for long time. It can keep information for more than one minute and even for a whole life. Its capacity is unlimited. All the information kept by long term memory has been selected and filtered.According to Tulving, long term memory is stored mainly as two types(Tulving, 1974). They are episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory is about one’s experience of some specific situations. Semantic memory refers to knowledge such as words, concepts, rules and other abstract things.<br /> <br /> == Appreciation of Translation from the Stylistic Perspective - Use Walden as a Case Study 王轩 Wang Xuan==<br /> <br /> ='''Machine Translation'''=<br /> ==On the C-E Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Instructions from the Perspective of Adaptation Theory - A Case Study of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company==<br /> <br /> &lt;center&gt;陈永相 Chen Yongxiang&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine (hereinafter referred to as TCM), the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, boasts the favorable curative effect and a good reputation across the world. With the smooth development of “The Belt and Road Initiative” and national economy, TCM has been playing an increasingly significant role in international trade, attracting more attention of foreign medical experts and consumers. As the essential attachment of a medicine, medicine instructions belong to the genre of practical writing, characterized by the unique language structure and stylistic features, guiding doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicines, such as usage and dosage, actions and indications, contraindication, etc. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. Due to the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, however, plenty of problems appear on the C-E translation of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> According to Adaptation Theory proposed by the Belgian pragmatist Jef Verschueren, language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. Translation is a cross-cultural communication activity, which involves language usage and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so on between source language and target language, and to adapt with different contexts, mentalities, cultures, etc. so as to achieve the ideal goal, from which the Adaptation Theory can be applied exactly into the study of translation. This paper will apply Adaptation Theory, therefore, as the theoretical framework, to study the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company. Employing the core concepts and investigating aspects of Adaptation Theory, the author tries to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine instruction translation, Adaptation Theory, Yulin Pharmaceutical Company <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 中药是我国医药文化的瑰宝，有着良好的疗效和口碑。随着“一带一路倡议”的稳步推进和中国经济的平稳发展，中药药品在国际贸易中所占比重日益增加，得到了国外许多医疗专家和消费者的关注。药品说明书作为药品的重要附件，是一种实用文体，有其自身的语言结构和文体特点，能够指导医生与患者了解和熟悉药品作用、用法用量、适应症和禁忌等。而中医药品说明书英译作为中医英译的一个重要组成部分，其英译质量决定了药品能否被医生和患者正确理解和使用，以及中医药产品的国际贸易繁荣。然而，由于英语和汉语之间存在着不可避免的语言和文化差异，中医药品说明书英译依然存在着较大问题。<br /> <br /> 比利时语用学家维索尔伦提出的语言顺应论认为，语言的使用是一个不断作出选择和顺应的动态过程。翻译作为一项跨文化交际活动，需要在源语与目的语之间，就用词、翻译策略等方面进行选择，对不同语境、心理、文化等层面作出顺应。可见顺应论适用于翻译研究。因此本文以顺应论作为理论依据，通过对广西玉林制药公司中医药品说明书英译进行分析研究，运用顺应论的核心概念和研究视角，进一步探讨如何更好地翻译中医药品说明书。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 中医药品说明书翻译，顺应论，玉林制药公司<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''1.1 Research Background of the Study'''====<br /> <br /> As the precious property of Chinese medicine culture, TCM has been through a profound history in China. Since “The Belt and Road Initiative” proposed for the first time, as an indispensable part in medical industry, TCM has tapped the potential of development opportunity to boost its reform so as to better make inroads into the international market. Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a renowned TCM pharmacy enterprise mainly engaged in R&amp;D, production and sales of Chinese medicines, one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties. In 2015, Consun Pharmaceutical Group Lt. has successfully brought partial share of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, which, in return, brought opportunities for the IPO and industrialization of the company. As the essential attachment of TCM medicine, the instructions guide doctors and patients to learn and understand the medicine correctly, which closely relates to consumer safety and are of great significance. The translation of TCM instructions is a significant part of TCM translation, the quality of which determines whether the Chinese medicines could be understood and used properly by doctors and patients, as well as the prosperity of TCM in international trade. The high quality translation versions of TCM instructions will accelerate TCM to enter into the international market, to occupy more competitive market share, and to better popularize the excellent TCM culture. <br /> <br /> ===='''1.2 Significance and Purpose of the Study'''==== <br /> <br /> It is noticed that studies and researches on TCM at home and abroad have boomed since the ancient Silk Road period. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from experts. Because of the inevitable differences in language and culture between English and Chinese, a lot of problems appear on the translation of TCM instructions. And against such a backdrop, there are still no settled rules or translation standards to be applied and favored in the translation of TCM instructions, hence it’s quite essential to touch upon the area of C-E translation of TCM instructions in a more comprehensive and systematic way so as to find out more effective methods and strategies for the instruction translation. Adaptation Theory is proposed by Jef Verschueren, he thinks that language use is a dynamic process of continuous choice-making and adaptation. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation is a type of language use and requires translators to make choices of words, translation strategies and so forth between source language and target language. A good translation version of TCM instructions can appropriately guide both doctors and patients to understand the pharmacological functions, usage and dosage, actions and indications and contraindications of medicines. Therefore, the quality of instruction translation has a direct impact on whether TCM can be favored and obtained a good reputation among overseas medical industry and consumers. This paper studies the C-E translation of TCM instructions of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, trying to take the Company as a case study to further discuss how to translate TCM instructions in a better way. <br /> <br /> ==='''2.Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Features of TCM Instructions'''====<br /> <br /> Being the essential attachment of a medicine, the instruction contains important information that explains what the medicine is, how to take it and the effects after taking it, guiding doctors and patients to understand and use medicines properly. It closely relates to consumers’ safety. Thus, TCM instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. However, the information covered in most TCM instructions is drug name, ingredients, actions and indications, usage and dosage, while adverse effects, precautions, pharmacological effects, drug interaction, contraindications etc. are quite simple, even without any description of these items, failing to meet the requirement of international standards. <br /> <br /> Besides, due to the profound history of TCM developed in China, most of the unique TCM languages derived from the abstract philosophical concepts of ancient times remain being used until now, say, classical style and semi-classical style, which are accepted and favored by the TCM community, causing difficulties in translating them into English. And hence four-character structure, vagueness and ambiguity of the language, and no equivalence between Chinese and English are the main features of TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> The four-character structure is concise but comprehensive in meaning, implying the extensive and abstract medical concepts of TCM. The tradition of using it to describe the symptoms and ways of treatment in TCM hasn’t been changed over time but continued to be applied and advocated in modern society. The TCM instructions are difficult to understand and translate, for the peculiar traits of TCM language, as well as the technical terms coming, directly or indirectly, from the abstract medical concepts of TCM, characterized by the unique treatment method as a whole in human body, and seeking to find answers and balance principles in nature to explain the causes and treatments of diseases, which is usually not the literal one but beyond cognition. In addition, there are gaps and non-equivalence between TCM and Western Medicine. Most TCM instruction translations apply technical terms from Latin in terms of ingredients, but adopt simple words and phrases for describing actions and indications, since the TCM language with Chinese characteristics finds no match in English. Ordinary people, as well as translators, who do not have the professional knowledge may have great difficulty in understanding and translating them. <br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Studies of TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> Traditional Chinese Medicine wasn’t legal once in the United States until 1975, as many scholars and experts were skeptical about its medical theory and way of treatment. Since the establishment of China, the government has been devoting great efforts to the recognition and popularization of TCM across the world. And from then on, a lot of studies and researches based on the translation of TCM have been published at home and abroad. Regarding the translation of TCM instructions, however, little attention has been drawn from the experts. In view of the special wording and the abstract theory of TCM, the translation of TCM instructions is of great difficulty and complexity. <br /> <br /> Currently, the translation of TCM instructions on the market, to a large extent, lacks readability and translation standards. Against such a backdrop, some scholars have striven to make some breakthroughs yet. Nigel Wiseman (2000) systematically elaborates the concept of “oriented by the source” in his dissertation, Translation of Chinese Medicine Terms: A Source Oriented Approach, in terms of the translation of TCM language, believing that the translation of TCM, as well as the instructions, should respect the original style and keep it in the target text as much as possible. In 2002, Translation of TCM Directions (《中医药说明书的英译》) written by Ouyang Lifeng (2002) put forward some practical methods for the translation of TCM instructions. He advocates “naturalization” and “readjustment”, namely, adaptation strategy, should be applied in translation, and if necessary, some additions and deletions are acceptable on the basis of faithfulness to the original text. Guided by Professor Ouyang, his student, Xiaoqiong, applies Peter Newmark’s Communicative Approach in her master’s thesis, On the Translation of TCM Booklets of Direction-The Communicative Approach (2008) to study the features of TCM instructions, suggesting that different approaches should be adopted regarding to different parts of the instructions. On translation Strategies of Chinese Medicine Instruction from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches written by Luo Haiyan (2009) conducts a relatively profound research under the guidance of Functionalist Approach in terms of each part of TCM instructions. She finds out the translation of TCM instructions is not very identical and comprehensible. Cao Qing’s thesis, A Study on Translation of Chinese Pharmaceutical Instruction (2011) states the common problems of translation instructions and advises three translation methods, namely literal translation, conversion and free translation under the Skopos Theory. There are still other scholars aiming at one aspect or another to further study the translation of TCM instructions, all of which exert a significant impact for references in translating TCM instructions. From the perspectives of Zhang Mengjing (1995), Ning Zhishou and Liu Cuiwei (1997), and Fu Wei (2006), the current TCM instruction translation lacks faithfulness, readability and incompatibility with conventional norms, suggesting that more attention should be paid in this field. <br /> <br /> Conclusion can be drawn from the above literature that studies on TCM instruction translation can be conducted from a wide scope. For the great distinction between western and Chinese culture, and the abstract medical principles of TCM, much has to be done to make the translation of TCM instructions more comprehensible and compatible with target cultures and consumers. <br /> <br /> ==='''3.Adaptation Theory Applied in Traditional Chinese Medicine Instruction Translation of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company'''===<br /> <br /> From what has been mentioned above, as the important attachment of TCM, the instructions provide the correct and detailed medical information to doctors and consumers, guiding them to take medicine scientifically and properly, and hence the medicine instructions must be objective, accurate and concise. As one of the China Top 50 TCM pharmacy enterprises, Guangxi Yulin Pharmaceutical Company is a famous brand in the whole country, boasting 12 national protected TCM varieties, and the buyout also boosts the process of IPO and reform. Through observation of the C-E translation instructions of TCM for foreigners and export, hence there are some certain instructive significance for the translation of TCM instructions. Because of the special characteristics of TCM instructions and the limited information included in the instructions of the company, this part tries to analyze the C-E translation instructions from the perspective of Adaptation Theory, mainly employing the contextual correlates of adaptability, structural objects of adaptability and dynamics of adaptability, to further discuss how to better translate TCM instructions. <br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Contextual Correlates of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> <br /> As introduced earlier, according to Verschueren, the ingredients of contextual correlates of adaptability largely include the physical world, social world, and mental world. However, the author will mainly concentrates on the adaptation to the mental world and social world due to the limited materials collected. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Adaptation to the Mental World'''=====<br /> <br /> Regarding the mental world, it involves the personality, emotions, beliefs, cognitive levels, motivations, intentions and so on of both sides of language users. In the translation process, translators should take target readers’ mind into account, not just concentrating on personal mental world or literally translating the original text from one language to another language without any adaptation. <br /> <br /> Basically, consumers of drugs tend to rely on more renowned brands when facing a bunch of medicines displayed on the shelves. The key to attract their attention not only counts on the high quality of TCM, but also on the instructions with rigorous standards, concise specification and overall comprehensibility, delivering a sense of authority and credibility. <br /> <br /> To begin with, the name of drugs is the most direct information delivered to the consumers. Thus, a good name of the TCM can catch the eyes of buyers in the very beginning. “正骨水” is the most famous and important product of Yulin Pharmaceutical Company, however, the translation of its name in the instruction simply applies transliteration and Chinese Pinyin, namely, “Zheng Gu Shui” , which fails to adapt with the mental world of target readers. Apparently, Pinyin isn’t the way of expression that they are familiar with. Translators should consider their mental expectation and make adaptation with their familiar ways of expression. In that point, “Bone-setting Liquor” would be a better name for the medicine. “Bone-setting” means the medicine is effective for the symptoms of bone problems, and “liquor” implies the ingredients involved alcohol and other irritating ingredients so that consumers can be aware of the precautions and avoid using it on fragile mucous membranes and anabrotic wounds. Also, the same type of medicine can apply the same way of translation, such as, “金装正骨水” can be translated to “Golden Bone-setting Liquor”, and “极品正骨水” is rendered as “Superb Bone-setting Liquor”. Such a name conveys the correct medical information to consumers and better adapt to their thinking patterns. <br /> <br /> Another example is “睡安胶囊”, the translation version is “Shui’an Jiaonang” . Obviously, it will confuse foreigners since they don’t recognize Chinese Pinyin in their cognitive levels. Translators should at least use “capsule” to indicate the medicine is some type of capsules effective for the sleeping problems. A well-recognized name will arouse attention and interest among consumers, attracting them to purchase the medicine. In order to adapt with their mental expectation and intention, as Ouyang (2002) advocates, naturalization or domesticating translation can be applied in translation. “Sleep Mate” or “Insomnia Killer” can better attract their attention and adapt with their beliefs and cognitive levels. In English, “mate” is a common word, which will be more acceptable and natural in such combination, and “killer” combined with “insomnia” implies the meaning of solving the insomnia problems, which is also more suitable and adaptable with their emotions and motivations. <br /> <br /> A good name of the medicine can not only imply the function of the medicine, conveying the essential information to customers, but also can draw their attention and arouse their desires to purchase the medicine. Meeting the demand and preference with the mental world of target people is also one of the requirements of medicine instructions. Under the guidance of Adaptation Theory, if transliteration or simply adopting Chinese Pinyin to translate the names of medicines will confuse customers and cause misunderstanding, adaptation is required, and not just words, but also translation strategies should be taken consideration when making adaptation. <br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Adaptation to the Social World'''=====<br /> <br /> Verschueren (2000:91) states that there is no principled limit to the range of social factors that linguistic choices are inter-adaptable with. Basically, social settings and culture play a significant role in the process of translation. What distinguishes TCM from Western Medicine mainly lies on the cultural differences. Language is the carrier of culture, and the cultural differences can be embodied in different languages, and then shown and reflected in society. Instruction translation, as the cross-cultural communication activity, is influenced largely by cultural differences in different social worlds. Followings are the very typical translation examples to illustrate the point:<br /> <br /> Example 1(感冒止咳露)<br /> <br /> Source Text (ST): 用于感冒或流感发热，头痛鼻塞, 伤风咳嗽，咽痛，肢痛<br /> <br /> Target Text (TT): Used for the treatment of cold, flu and fever, headache and nasal congestion, wind damage cough, angina and melalgia<br /> <br /> Revised Text (RT): Used for cold, flu, fever, headache, snuffle, cough, sore throat and pain in muscles<br /> <br /> Traditionally, “伤风” in Chinese means getting cold because of the invasion of “风” into the human body. “风” is actually one of the six exogenous pathogenic factors according to the medical theory of TCM, which cannot be explained from the perspective of Western Medicine. In western society, people have no concept that the natural phenomenon, say, “风” or “火”, will cause diseases in the human body. So the revised text deletes this term with TCM characteristics to avoid ambiguity and makes it more natural and understandable in English. In addition, most common patients who seek to buy medicines in pharmacies might not have the specific knowledge of medical field due to different social settings and backgrounds, thus, “angina” and “melalgia” might be beyond recognition and acceptance. Western world highlights the importance of brevity and conciseness in their society, and they place emphasis on simplification and efficiency, seldom using the very technical terms in their lives. Such social settings and cultural differences must be considered so as to make adaptation when translating. Besides, “nasal congestion” is the word-for-word translation and may cause misunderstanding among foreigners. So the revised text adopts “snuffle” and “sore throat” to indicate the meaning of “鼻塞” and “咽痛”, applying these simple words to make adaptation with cultural differences in different social worlds, and renders “melalgia” into “pain in muscles” to better deliver the meaning of “肢痛”. <br /> <br /> Example 2 (治咳枇杷露)<br /> <br /> ST: 治疗儿童伤风呃逆，咳嗽痰盛<br /> <br /> TT: Used for children’s wind-damage hiccup, cough and exuberant phlegm<br /> <br /> RT: Used for cold, hiccup, cough and sputum in children<br /> <br /> Similarly, example 2 also translates “ 伤风” into “ wind damage”, which is not appropriate in such description. As mentioned above, additions and deletions, if necessary, can be applied to make adaptation in translation. So the revised text deletes “wind damage” and “exuberant phlegm”, adopting noun coordination and making it more readable and adaptable to the social world of target readers. <br /> <br /> Literal translation of instructions is not always the first option in the C-E translation of instructions. For translators, the first thing they should consider is to be faithful to the original meaning of the text, not the text itself. They need to make adaptation to the target readers’ social world, for instance, social status, social settings, social background, cultural differences, etc., striving to make the translation concise and easy to understand in their society. Amid such different social worlds, translators must bear in mind to render localization of different cultures to make adaptation without causing ambiguity and misunderstanding while successfully keeping and delivering the implied meanings as much as possible.--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:26, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 Structural Objects of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translationn'''====<br /> ====='''3.2.1 Adaptation to the Lexical Level'''=====<br /> ====='''3.2.2 Summary'''=====<br /> ===='''3.3 Dynamics of Adaptability in TCM Instruction Translation'''====<br /> ==='''4.Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:41, 31 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Will Machine Translation Replace Human Translation or not? 莫玲 Mo Ling==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Science and technology constitute a primary productive force. In the contemporary era, with the continuous development of science and technology, artificial intelligence has shown more and more mighty strength, and machine translation has also been derived in the field of translation. In this regard, many people are beginning to worry that machine translation will one day replace human translation. When it comes to me, science and technology is people-oriented, and the continuous development of it aims at servimg mankind in a better standard. Therefore, it is not realistic to separate science and technology from humanities. The appropriate way to solve this dilemma is to integrate the two to achieve the perfectly qualitative change of &quot;1 + 1 &gt; 2&quot;. This paper will first analyze the cons and pros of human translation and machine translation, and then explore the development of computer-aided translation based on the combination of the two types above.<br /> <br /> '''Key Words'''<br /> <br /> Human Translation, Machine Translation, CAT, Compatibility<br /> <br /> '''摘要''' <br /> <br /> 科技是第一生产力。在当代，随着科学技术的不断发展，人工智能展现出越来越强大的实力，在翻译领域也相应地衍生出了机器翻译。对此许多人都开始担心机器翻译终有一天会取代人工翻译。在笔者看来，科技以人为本，科学技术的不断发展是为了更好的为人类服务。因而将科技与人文割裂开来的观点是并不现实的，最好的解决办法应是将二者结合起来，实现1+1大于2的完美质变。本文将分析人工翻译与机器翻译各自的优势和劣势，进而探讨二者相结合的后的计算机辅助翻译的发展。<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''<br /> <br /> 人工翻译，机器翻译，计算机辅助翻译，融合<br /> <br /> '''Introduction'''<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation 袁天翼 Yuan Tianyi==<br /> <br /> 浅析汉语公示语的英译<br /> <br /> 英语笔译 袁天翼<br /> <br /> 摘 要：在这个经济全球化、政治多极化、文化全球化、科技现代化、信息共享化的时代，全球经济纵深发展，人类命运共同体日趋形成，人与人、国家与国家间的联系日益密切，这时，汉语公示语的英译问题便被提上了议程。尽管中国汉语公示语的英译翻译员越来越多，但是汉语公示语的英译问题层出不穷。本文简析了汉语公示语定义，例举了生活中常见的一些汉语公示语的英译典型问题，并针对此给出了一些翻译方法与策略，并进行了未来展望。<br /> <br /> 关键词：汉英翻译；公示语；翻译策略<br /> <br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> MTI Yuan Tianyi <br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': In this economic globalization, political polarization, cultural globalization, technological modernization and informative sharing age, the global economy is deeply developing, and the human community with a shared future is coming into shape day by day. The relations among people and among countries are increasing day by day. At this time, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation become the topic of us. Though the number of Chinese-English public sign translators in China grows daily, the problems of Chinese-English public sign translation emerge endlessly. This passage offers a brief analysis of the definition of Chinese-English public sign, points out some typical problems in Chinese-English public sign translation we see in daily life, analyzes some methods and strategies of Chinese-English public sign translation, and gives some outlooks on the future of Chinese-English public sign translation. <br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese-English translation; public sign; translation strategies<br /> <br /> '''A Brief Analysis of the Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> '''I. Introduction'''<br /> <br /> The public sign is a specially applied literary form that was formed in modern times, which has a long history. It is used in public places and seen by the masses thus realizing unique communicative purposes. The public sign has become a crucial link in the communication between China and other countries in the international community. In the meantime, there are increasingly more experts and scholars paying attention to the translation of Chinese public signs into English. (Reiss, 2004). <br /> <br /> As an important tool for international communication, Chinese-English public sign translation plays an extremely important role in foreign friends’ understanding of Chinese culture（Wang Huili, 2019）. Its applied range is so wide that nearly covers every aspect of our daily life, including: Introductions of tourism trips, propaganda languages, warning languages, road signs, shop signs and advertising boards. It is mostly used on public infrastructure: Subway, airport, taxi, pier, tourist spot, park, street, community, shop, supermarket, restaurant, bank, hotel, cinema, hospital and etc. It uses simple words or sentences, or pictures only, or combines words and pictures to pass useful information to the masses, which not only serves Chinese people, but also is shown to the foreigners, which can help foreigners in China study, work and live. <br /> <br /> '''II. The Current Situation of Chinese-English Public Sign'''<br /> <br /> Public signs are an art of convincing others through effective verbal means, which are also components of language activities. They, in essence, belong to a special kind of communication. However, it is not a kind of face-to-face communication that takes place in a specific period of time, and none of the participants will appear as individuals. The object is for all the people with social behaviors in the place, regardless of gender, age, class or education level. Public signs belong to “one-way communication”, and its binding force or influence will not be as big as direct communication, but it is also used to act with words and deeds, and affects the behavior of the audience with a clear purpose. <br /> <br /> Public signs are everywhere, so what are their functions? Zhou Shuxia (Zhou Shuxia, 2017) thinks that, their functions can be divided into showing, warning, profiting, encouraging and eulogizing such five functions. <br /> <br /> Firstly, the public sign that has showing function offers all-round information about service, order, or informing service. Such as “Car Rental” and “Children and Senior Citizens Free”.<br /> <br /> Secondly, the public sign that has warning function comes up with restrictive or obligatory demands to typical people, which is often used through order, ban, information or persuasion tones. Such as: “Stand in Line” , and “Thieves Beware”. <br /> <br /> Thirdly, the public sign that has profiting function promotes consumption, thus realizing enterprises’ economic profits. Such as: “Daily Special”, “Daily Service”. <br /> <br /> Fourthly, the public sign that has encouraging function calls for or encourages people to take actions for certain goals or tasks. Such as: “One Family, One Child”, and “Working together, we can make a world of difference”. <br /> <br /> Fifthly, the public sign that has eulogizing function gives wishes and chants to certain events or people to reach the goals of propaganda or education. Such as: “One World, One Dream”. <br /> <br /> Eugene Nida (Eugene Nida , 2004) said, Chinese-English translation of public signs embraces the conversion of two different languages and two different cultures, which is not only to achieve the language equivalence, cultural equivalence, but also to enhance the possibility of understanding and the reading of Chinese-English translation of public signs.<br /> <br /> Public signs are the translation with strong humanistic color (Wu Haoxi , 2019). <br /> <br /> However, there are many problems in Chinese-English public sign translation.<br /> <br /> In 2003, Clive W. J. Granger, a Nobel Economics Prize Winner talked of the settings and problems of public signs in Beijing when he was interviewed by a program of Beijing TV Station. He said: “Foreigners will feel a little bit nervous when they come to China, because they can not understand public signs in China. ” Clive’s comment extremely shows current problems in Chinese-English public sign translation (Lv Hefa, 2005). <br /> <br /> On June 20th, 2017, a national standard conference of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service was held in Beijing. The Vice Minister of the Education Ministry and Director of the National Language Commission stressed in the meeting: “The language and character industry of China is expanding from ‘striving to promote and normally use the national common language, scientifically protecting every nation’s language and character’ to ‘managing social foreign language use and improving foreign language service quality’. ” The national standard of the Standard for English Translation and Writing in the Field of Public Service is the standard of English translation and writing quality in public service fields, which stipulates the English translation principles, methods and requirements of transportation, tourism, culture, entertainment, physical exercise, education, medical health, postal service, telecommunication, catering, accommodation, commerce and finance these thirteen service fields. <br /> <br /> To sum up, there are still many major problems in China’s public sign translation, common and ubiquitous, which make foreign experts comment like that and the government use national force to normalize translation standards. Whether the translation of public signs in scenic spots into English is harmonious and unified has a great influence on cross-cultural communication (Pinkham John, 2000). <br /> <br /> '''III. The Causes of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> '''3. 1 The Basic Linguistic Mistakes'''<br /> <br /> To be a proficient Chinese-English public sign translator, one must, fundamentally, grasp basic linguistic rules of English and Chinese, otherwise he or she must make stupid mistakes, and some even primary learners will not make. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.1<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3684466622,1422277554&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.1 is a public sign put on a glass wall in a mall, the Chinese reads“全年无休(QUAN NIAN WU XIU)”, and it tries to use English to express that “This business runs the whole year”, so the precise translation should be “NO REST DAY ALL YEAR”. But there, we can see it was translated as“365DAY SA TEAR”, which does not belong to the grammatical law of English. So this is a big mistake. Only one who understands Chinese can understand. But for ordinary foreigners, they can not. So, when translating Chinese-English public sign, the translator must be clear about the target language, and know the basic grammatical venation, then begin to translate, instead of randomly putting some letters together and finishing. Otherwise, the translator will make a big mistake like this picture.<br /> <br /> A public sign in Haichang Ocean Park of Chengdu City, Sichuan Province reads &quot;Jellyfish Museum, the 2th floor&quot;. More specifically, it is a floor direction sign. Here, the correct English for the second floor should be “2nd”, not “2th”. Apparently that the translator has poor knowledge of English vocabulary, which led he or she to make such a ridiculous mistake. Actually, in English language, if there is a number contains “11”, “12”or “13”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “11th”, “12th” or “13th” respectively; And if there is a number contains“1”, “2”or “3”, its ordinal numeral should be written as “1st”, “2nd” or “3rd” respectively. For example, “101st”, “111th”, “201st”, “211th” and etc. <br /> <br /> No.3 is a warning sign of a tourist spot, reads &quot;The rockery danger, pleases no climb&quot;, whose Chinese meaning is “There stands a rockery, it is dangerous to climb, every one is forbidden from climbing it. ” The Chinese meaning is alright. But, when it was translated into English, a big mistake occurred: “The rockery danger Pleases no climb.”<br /> <br /> First, there should be “climbing” after “no”, not “climb”, this is just English grammar knowledge that can be learned in primary school; And the “Please” is followed by a “s”, why does the translator use third person singular at the top of a imperative sentence? Second, if the translator wants to tell the tourists that the rockery is dangerous and mustn’t be climbed, he or she should write: “The rockery is dangerous. Please don’t climb” or “Dangerous rockery. No climbing” or just “No climbing”. Unless the foreigners who see this sign have supreme understanding ability, they will not easily make sense of it. <br /> <br /> 3. 2 The Tendency Towards Chinglish and Mechanical Translation<br /> <br /> Knowing a little about English, then begin to translate public sign. This is ridiculous, which is definitely going to cause obvious mistakes. Especially when translating, there is a high probability that the translator will make Chinglish errors, or tend to seek for mechanical translation, which are the most common public sign translation problems in mainland China. With regard to the tendency towards Chinglish, it only proves that the translator’s basic skills of English are not so proficient, and he or she does not fit for translation work. For the tendency towards mechanical translation, on the one hand, it demonstrates that the translator is lazy, who is not willing to think about how to translate. On the other hand, it reveals his or her lack of basic English language knowledge. In fact, these two both can be easily avoided, only if the translator pays a little more attention to it or is earnest and dedicated to their work. All those mistakes should not have been made. <br /> <br /> No.4, this is a sign that is hung in an Internet celebrity milk tea shop: Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province. It reads &quot;out of the cup area&quot;. It originally means that the customers should queue here to get their milk tea after finishing paying. The translator should have easily translated “出杯区（CHU BEI QU）”into “FETCH AREA”, but it was translated as “OUT OF THE CUP AREA”, what a joke! Purely it was translated word-for-word. The translator did not understand its true meaning. Probably it was translated by a machine. As an Internet celebrity milk tea shop runner, when dealing with such kind of cultural issues, he or she should be extremely careful, earnest and cautious, instead of casually simply copying the contents given by a machine or hiring a third-rate translator and asking him or her to randomly translate. Large scale milk tea shops must shoulder their required obligations, and undertake necessary responsibilities and duties on public sign translation. Imagine that a foreigner, who can not understand it, stand there and think: What? Standing here is standing outside the cup? Maybe something interesting would happen. Let me try!<br /> All those will bring big and standing jokes. <br /> <br /> No.5 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province. It reads&quot; tourists get off area&quot;. Its Chinese meaning is: This is the place that tourists get off from a bus. But, it was translated as “Tourists get off area”, which fully shows the ignorance and lack of English language knowledge of the translators. People may can not help doubting whether it is copied from the translation given by a machine. Famous tourist spots like this, especially this kind of 5A tourist spot, can not even shoulder the cultural obligations, let alone developing in the long run. They should make big mistakes in such a little public sign translation! Do they only want to serve Chinese well while ignoring foreigners?<br /> <br /> Similarly, No.6 is a public sign in Mount Emei of Emei City, Sichuan Province, and it reads &quot;up the mountain&quot;. The Chinese meaning is “This is the passage that leads tourists to climb the mountain”. The translation should have been a very easy and fun job, but when the sign is showed to tourists, a big big joke was born: “Up the mountain”. We can say “uphill way” or “uphill passage”, but, the translator obviously did not realize it. What’s more, when “up” is used as a verb, it is completely another meaning. It is also the symbol of such irresponsible spot management. <br /> <br /> No.7, it is a napkin given by an Internet celebrity milk tea shop (Sexytea of Changsha City, Hunan Province ) for free after buying its milk tea. It reads &quot;more China, more fashion&quot;. At first glance, everything seems okay. But more carefully, we can find the mistake. The Chinese meaning is “If there are more elements with Chinese characteristics, it will be more fashionable.” But when translating, maybe with the aid of machine, or lack of a solid English knowledge foundation, it becomes “More China, more fashion”. If the customer is a Chinese, it does not matter, for he or she can understand it, and just shows a smile. But if foreigners see, they will be pretty shocked by the sight: What the hell is this? They will think that this shop lacks money to hire a good translator, and the managers are stupid. Furthermore, the Chinese national image will be badly affected. In fact, this sentence can be translated as “The more sinicization there is, the more fashion there will be” or “With greater Chinese characteristics come more fashion”. Easier? It can be “More sinicization breeds more fashion”. Translated like these, won’t it be much more correct and intelligible?<br /> <br /> '''3. 3 The Misunderstanding of the Public Sign Translators'''<br /> <br /> It is the little knowledge of English of the translators that makes them can not even spell a basic word correctly; Or due to carelessness, they make mistakes on public sign translation, thus causing mistakes on the meaning of the sign. All these are significant reasons why there are so many mistakes in Chinese-English public signs. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.8.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.8<br /> [https://www.sinaimg.cn/edu/cr/2015/0316/3124267229.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.8. The Chinese meaning of it is “The door or passage that leads you to the outside”, in short, “EXIT”. But the public sign was translated as“EXPORT”, so, what is “EXPORT”? In a word, it means trade among different countries. The commercial goods pass through the customs, being transported from one country to another country. Distinctly, the maker was careless, who has mixed the meaning of “出口（Chu Kou）”in Chinese, thus resulting in an obvious translation error. As for public sign translation, translators must weigh every word, and think over and over and over again, not just search online, and grab all the words you “discover”, which is a highly irresponsible behavior, an extremely irresponsible behavior to the society and the country . <br /> <br /> [[File:No.9.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.9<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4069547043,45136776&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.9 is from a hospital department. Its Chinese meaning is: Here is neurology emergency department. It uses a special logogram in Chinese. But, the maker was misled, so, he or she translated it as “God Medical”. If a person has a little common sense, he or she will be made to laugh wildly. It is completely the “Understanding of a sentence simply by a word”! That should be translated as “ Department of Emergency Neurology”. Such a casual translation will make Christians think that they can see God for real. Whether can he see death here or a way to heaven with a passionate God serving you? To some extent, this is disrespect for Christians, which can even cause disputes. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.10.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.10<br /> [https://ss0.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=4055489075,1169617432&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.10 is photographed in a company building. Here, the Chinese means: this is the place where you can get boiled water. However, the translator of this public <br /> sign made a huge mistake, because he or she disintegrated the three Chinese words one by one, and thus translating them one by one, which can not be understood as a whole, let alone enable foreigners to understand the meaning of this public sign, and as a result, foreigners may not receive the service that they deserve. What’s worse, many people, including intelligent Chinese, when seeing this disqualified translation, will definitely be amused, and feel funny: What is this guy’s literate level?<br /> <br /> As a matter of fact, this public sign can be translated as “Boiled Water Room”. “开水”means “boiled water” in English. Certainly, the translator treated the “开”as a verb “open”, which is absolutely wrong. <br /> <br /> Further, this is a single room, not two or more, so we must use “room”, which is the plural form, instead of the singular form “rooms”. <br /> <br /> 3. 4 The Falsification and Loss of Information<br /> <br /> Originally, the managers want to use signs to warn people, but due to mistranslation, the information is tampered and missed, resulting in an opposite consequence, and producing big jokes. <br /> <br /> No.11 is a public warning sign in Liuxiang Barbecue Restaurant. It reads &quot; carefully hot&quot;. Is it a true warning? In the foreigners’ opinion, it is not. People who speak Chinese can realize that this sign was designed to warn customers not to be burned by the hot oven. However, the English translation is far from what it originally means. The correct translation can be “Careful! Hot!” or “Be Careful of the Hot Oven!” But according to the translation on the sign, it means “Carefully burn yourself”. Luckily, this is a small scale restaurant, if it were a large one, its reputation would be badly affected. <br /> <br /> <br /> [[File:No.12.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.12<br /> [https://ss1.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=3765137851,1011242048&amp;fm=27&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.12 is a public sign in a large shopping center. As we all know, modern shopping centers now always use smooth and shiny tile floor as the ground, which makes the shopping centers look beautiful and attractive. However, smooth though it is, one big safety problem then comes into shape: The ground is too smooth to make shoppers slide and fall. Later, the managers made public signs like No.12 to warn people not to fall. The Chinese warning is okay, Chinese shoppers can understand, but when foreigners see this, he or she will burst out laughing: What? You order me to slide on the floor with care? What on earth do you mean? I have even seen an Internet celebrity girl posting an video clip that tells us a story that satirizes this mistranslation: The girl and her father slide joyfully on the ground in a shopping center while murmuring “Carefully slide! Carefully slide!” As a matter of fact, The correct Chinese-English translation should be “Caution! Slippery!” or “Beware of Wet Floor” or “Caution! Wet Floor”. Each one of the three is okay. <br /> <br /> [[File:No.13.jpg|250px|thumb|left|No.13<br /> [https://ss2.baidu.com/6ON1bjeh1BF3odCf/it/u=461657809,3986868053&amp;fm=15&amp;gp=0.jpg] for original source.]]<br /> <br /> No.13 is a public sign that is put on the ceiling of a restaurant’s stair. Here, the translator wanted to pass such information by Chinese and English: Watch <br /> your head, do not hit the low ceiling of the stair. Be careful. Though the Chinese information is okay, the English, however, can not by understood by others, especially foreigners. <br /> <br /> Here, the makers wanted to warn the danger of the low ceiling, not to ask people to purposely hit the ceiling. So we can correct it as: “Watch Your Head”, or “Be Careful”. Both are okay. <br /> <br /> Here, the translator made a mistranslation, which reversed the original meaning when translating, thus producing a huge laughingstock. First, “碰”is not “meet”, but “hit”, according to this specific environment. It does not mean “meet someone”. Second, “小心碰头” means not to hit the ceiling, not to “meet carefully”. <br /> <br /> Throughout so many examples, every one can see that the mistakes of public sign translation are ubiquitous and common in daily life, which you can even randomly pick up one from any store you meet. Pervasive errors like these in public signs will negatively affect China’s reform and opening-up and the integration into international community, which will not only make foreigners misunderstand the meaning, but also seriously damage China’s national image. Therefore, the study of the public sign translation is extremely urgent and imperative. At present, translators must start from basic demand of Chinese-English public sign translation, endeavor to learn English well, cultivate a good sense of utilizing English and a great mindset of English utilization, proactively take part in English translation practice, and be highly alert and form a sense of “Using English language in a proper, correct, suitable and decent way”. Only then will the situation of Chinese-English public sign translation turn better. <br /> <br /> IV. Public Sign Translation Methods<br /> <br /> There is a saying goes: “Nothing can be accomplished without norms or standards. ” So is the Chinese-English public sign translation. Zhang Yan (Zhang Yan, 2015) maintains in her paper that, the public sign translation methods can be summarized as four kinds. <br /> <br /> '''4. 1 Amplification'''<br /> <br /> Many new words that are with Chinese characteristics, especially combined with numbers, need using amplification to introduce to foreign readers. For example, in the past, “五讲四美三热爱(Wu Jiang Si Mei San Re Ai）”was translated as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves”. Many foreigners said that they could not understand it. Later, it was revised as “Five Stresses, Four Beauties and Three Loves” with the notation “ stress on decorum, manners, hygiene, discipline and morals; beauty of the mind, language, behavior and the environment; love of the motherland, socialism and the Communist Party”. Hence, foreigners can easily understand its connotation. <br /> <br /> '''4. 2 Ellipsis'''<br /> To make sure that the translation is concise and intelligible, when doing Chinese-English translation, translators must properly delete unnecessary words according to English expressing habits to achieve overall generalization. Such as: “Food Paradise”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 3 Re-translation'''<br /> Due to cultural differences, many folk adages with Chinese characteristics will not be understood by readers once simply read literally. So translators can moderately reorganize those sentences that can not be translated or understood. Such as: “Drinking and Driving Costs Your Life”. <br /> <br /> '''4. 4 Backward Translation'''<br /> <br /> There are two cases: Translating the cultural expressions that are borrowed from translation back into their original forms in the target language; Translating the expressions with obvious cultural characteristics into the idiomatic expressions in the target language. Such as: “Venus Florist”. <br /> The English public sign has its own cultural and pragmatic meanings. When doing the Chinese-English public sign translation, translators should consider about the cultural differences and avoid any form of ambiguity, misunderstanding or mistranslation, and offer high quality information service, thus making public sign translation advance with the times. <br /> <br /> V. Public Sign Translation Strategies<br /> <br /> He Xueyun (He Xueyun, 2006) holds in her thesis that, theoretically, semantic translation and communicative translation differ much. Semantic translation strives to keep the language specialty and unique express method of the original work, in order to express the original work’s thinking process; However, communicative translation’s key point lies in spreading information and enabling people to think, feel and act, giving play to the function of information that language conveys and the consequences it causes. Public sign translation must focus on results, and put readers first, only by this can we improve the current situation of public sign translation, thus achieving the purposes of public sign translation. <br /> <br /> Before beginning to do anything, we all need a world view and methodology to guide us to behave well. Likewise, when doing Chinese-English public sign translation, we also need guiding ideology to direct us. Here, I will show you four Chinese-English public sign translation strategies, which act as guiding ideology, which are definitely going to be a powerful weapon for you. Just remember them and practice them, you will gain a lot. <br /> <br /> '''5.1 No Grammatical, Semantic and Logical Error'''<br /> <br /> The most basic prerequisite of public sign translation is that there is no language error: No grammatical error, no vocabulary spelling error, no language context error, no Chinglish or machine-aided translation error. <br /> <br /> “This is office area, tourists mustn’t enter” can be translated as “Staff Only”, not “OFFICE AREA PLEASE DON’T COMING”, or you will make a grammatical and redundant error. “Be careful, don’t slip into water” can be translated as “Caution! Deep Water!” instead of “TAKE CARE! FALL INTO WATER CAREFULLY!” Otherwise, people will can not help laughing. <br /> <br /> One translator was not able to translate “The grass is so beautiful, are you sure you wan to walk on it?” into English public sign, so here comes <br /> “Fangcaoqiqi riding the Heren”. What a laughingstock! This is a combination between Chinese and English, without any grammar structure. Not to translate it will be a much better choice. We can concisely translate it as “Don’t Walk on the Beautiful Grass!”<br /> <br /> '''5. 2 Concise and Intelligible Translation'''<br /> <br /> One prominent character of public sign is conciseness. It asks people to ensure the translation is crystal clear and precise, without any compound or obscure sentence. Only by achieving this can the signs become popularized, instead of making people think over and over and over again to discover their cryptic meaning. <br /> <br /> The public sign translation must be concise and intelligible, which means that you not only need to precisely convey what the maker means to people, but also must be concise. People can understand it immediately without comprehension deviation or ambiguity. <br /> <br /> '''5. 3 Understanding of Cultural Background Differences'''<br /> <br /> When translating, every translator must thoroughly understand the culture of the targeted language. Translators must comprehensively understand each specific use of the targeted language under different cultural backgrounds. If not doing so, it may cause severe disputes, and even cause irresistible outcomes. Here are several examples. <br /> <br /> “Dragon” is a legendary animal in traditional Chinese culture. Chinese people often view themselves as “dragon”, and even say that they are “Descendants of the Dragon”. Thus, “Dragon” means holy and sacred thing in Chinese culture. But in English speaking countries, the meaning of “dragon” is not so. In these countries, “dragon” means something evil like Satan, sometimes it is even used to describe thugs, scoundrels or other bad behaviorists. Therefore, invariably coping the icon of “dragon” and using it in other cultures is a definite mistake. In a word, a public sign language translator must totally comprehend the cultural background differences. <br /> <br /> '''5. 4 Obedience to Certain Norms and Standards'''<br /> <br /> As long as someone is translating, he or she must obey certain rules, norms and standards. He mustn’t translate according to his will. This is a truth. <br /> For example, according to China’s first set of standards on how to regulate the use of foreign languages in China, which was jointly issued by the State Standards Commission and the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on November 20, 2017 and officially implemented on December 1, 2017, some of the standards have been specified in detail. <br /> <br /> Names of tourist spots: Names of mountains, rivers and lakes should be written in Chinese pinyin. Translations of names of temples should vary according to different situations, so are the towers’ names. In line with external service needs, English explanations can be added. <br /> <br /> '''VI. The Future of Chinese-English Public Sign Translation'''<br /> <br /> China is a major powerful country, and is the country with the second highest Gross Domestic Product in the world, which is why China should keep close economic and cultural relationships with other countries. In order to integrate China with international community in a better way, there must be high quality public sign translation. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation must improve the China’s influence power in international community. High quality public sign translation represents that China is rich in translators and intellects, and shows that China can fulfill obligations and shoulder responsibilities as a major country. Achieving this means China not only takes responsibilities for Chinese people, but also for all human beings. Good quality public sign translation is definitely going to significantly synergize the course of reform and opening-up. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation is obliged to facilitate foreigners to travel in China, boost domestic consumption demand, form a new growth point for economy, promote the rise of Gross Domestic Product, and accelerate the comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable development. High quality public sign translation is also an integral part of the New Development Philosophy: Innovation, coordination, green, open and share. High quality public sign translation corresponds to the New Normal of Chinese economy. At present, the economy of China has been changing from developing at a high speed to develop at high quality, and is at the stage of changing economic development mode, transforming driving forces of economic development and optimizing the economic structure, so high quality public sign translation is badly needed. Thus, considering the big change of Chinese economy, achieving high quality public sign translation is an urgent affair. <br /> <br /> High quality public sign translation has the duty to embody a city’s humanism spirit, cultural speciality and charm, which is the inevitable requirement of core socialist values and system. It also promotes the spreading of Chinese culture, and improves the influence power of Chinese culture. High quality public sign translation also levels up Chinese people and overseas Chinese’s sense of identity and belonging. What’s more, it can narrow the gap between Chinese and foreigners, and acquire more recognition from them towards China. Domestically, high quality public sign translation can strengthen national cohesion; Externally, it will strengthen China’s soft power, and increase China’s international speaking right while creating national radiation power. <br /> It is an important measure to improve China’s public service and governance capability by establishing an evaluation mechanism and promoting the standardization of English translation. It is of great benefit to further improve China’s service level of opening to the outside world, demonstrate its cultural soft power and enhance its international image (Guo Jinghong, 2019). <br /> <br /> In short, looking forward to the future of Chinese-English public sign translation from a strategic perspective, translators must remain true to their original aspiration and keep their mission firmly in mind, which is: To be devoted to the future of socialism with Chinese characteristics, to be dedicated to the landscape of translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and to be committed to the sustainable development of Chinese-English public sign translation of socialism with Chinese characteristics. <br /> <br /> We must treat Chinese-English public sign translation with the point that advances with the times (Tian Guomin, 2019). The English translation of public signs of tourist attractions belongs to the category of cross-cultural communication, and the translator should have certain cross-cultural knowledge and awareness, so that the English translation can be more understood and accepted by the audience and truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication (Yang Hongyu, 2019). The communicative translation theory aims for the target readers (Gutt, 1991). Translation of public signs is a very important task in China with the increasing connection to the outside world (Newmark, 2001). Since reform and opening-up, China has been integrating into the international community day by day. To fully achieve this, as regards of Chinese-English public sign translation, we still have a long way to go. There is no time for us to delay the work of strengthening, proceeding, and improving public sign translation. The rising level of quality of Chinese-English public sign translation will improve both city image and urbanization level. He Xueyun contends in her article that, many people take it for granted that if one knows a foreign language, he then can translate. As a matter of fact, basic skills of public sign translation not only includes foreign language level, but also the knowledge of foreign cultures. <br /> <br /> '''VII. Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> So, how to facilitate the overall development of Chinese-English public sign translation？Firstly, we need to keep pace with the times. Language is constantly changing, so are many words and idioms, and so are public signs. In order to accurately convey information to the audience, it is essential to integrate the latest, most reliable and most accepted language into public signs. Secondly, it is necessary to fully understand the idiomatic usage of public signs, because public signs are mainly aimed at English speakers, so it is necessary to strengthen the accumulation of words, phrases and idioms, which is also the basis of translation. Thirdly, the translators of Chinese-English public signs should use accurate words and phrases in combination with specific environment and objects, and should not fail to convey the meaning or deviate from the original meaning, which otherwise will result in misunderstanding. Of course, only achieving the above is not enough. In order to do a good job in the translation of Chinese-English public signs, we need to keep improving our translation attitude and spirit of study, and constantly improve and summarize and innovate on the basis of the original, so as to make the translation of Chinese-English public signs more perfect and recognized by the international audience. It is very important for the academic community and people from all walks of life to analyze the problems in the application of public signs and put forward corresponding improvement countermeasures (Liu Xiaoping, 2019). <br /> <br /> A Chinese-English public sign translator must fully realize and shoulder the responsibilities that translators must carry, form a sense of community of a shared future, fully acknowledge the current situation of Chinese-English public sign translation, completely learn lessons from the predecessors who have made mistakes in Chinese-English public sign translation, totally implement the four public sign translation strategies I mentioned before, to make Chinese-English public sign translation serve the construction of a moderately prosperous society in all respect, the construction of modern powerful socialist country, the construction of building China into a great modern socialist country that is prosperous, strong, democratic, culturally advanced, harmonious, and beautiful, and the realization of the great Chinese dream, that is: the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. <br /> <br /> <br /> Bibliography<br /> <br /> [1]Eugene Nida &amp; Charles Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [2]Gutt &amp; Ernst, Agust. Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 1991.<br /> <br /> [3]Newmark, Peter. Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> <br /> [4]Pinkham, John. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> <br /> [5]Reiss. Translation Criticism: the Potentials and Limitations [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> <br /> [6]国家标准委. 公共服务领域英文译写规范[S].2017.<br /> <br /> [7]郭京红. 公示语英译中的错误观点与评价方式[J]. 海外英语, 2019,(23):154-155. <br /> <br /> [8]贺学耘. 汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略[J].外语与外语教学, 2006,(03):57-59. <br /> <br /> [9]刘小平. 公示语翻译中存在的问题及对策[J]. 凯里学院学报, 2019, (04):72-74.<br /> <br /> [10]吕和发. 公示语汉英翻译研究——以2012年奥运会主办城市伦敦为例[J]. 北京:中国翻译, 2005,(06):38. <br /> <br /> [11]田国民. 谈汉语公示语的英译[J]. 英语教师, 2019, (22):110-113. <br /> <br /> [12]王回力. 汉英公示语翻译的现状及其交际翻译策略[J]. 延边教育学院学报, 2019, (05):31-33. <br /> <br /> [13]吴浩熙, 李海红. 功能对等理论下的公示语翻译及策略[J]. 海外英语, 2019,(20):59-61. <br /> <br /> [14]杨洪玉等. 旅游景点公共标识语的英文翻译[J]. 北京工业职业技术学院学报, 2019, (04):122-126. <br /> <br /> [15]张焱. 汉英翻译过程中的难译现象处理[M]. 北京:中国社会科学出版社, 2015,(16):44-46<br /> <br /> [16]周树霞. 浅析公示语的汉英翻译[J]. 校园英语, 2017,(42):239-239.<br /> <br /> == A Comparison of Machine Translation with Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan==<br /> <br /> ='''Foreignization and Domestication'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in Translation: Functionalist Approaches Explained 汤蓓 Tang Bei==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> ====Definition of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> ====Functions of Domestication and Foreignization====<br /> ===A Brief Introduction to Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====Skopos Theory====<br /> ====Theory of Translational Action====<br /> ====Text Typology====<br /> ===Account for the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization with the Notion of Functionalist Approaches===<br /> ====From the Viewpoint of Skopoos Theory====<br /> ====From the Viewpoint of Translational Action====<br /> ====From the Viewpoint of Text Typology====<br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in Howard Goldblatt’s Translation of Mo Yan’s Works 欧蓉 Ou Rong==<br />  <br /> 摘要：一直以来，中国文学的独特风格在世界文学中备受瞩目，在流向海外的过程中，翻译成为了跨文化沟通的桥梁与传播的媒介。莫言是中国著名代表作家，2012年获得诺贝尔文学奖，外国对其作品的翻译研究从未断过。葛浩文是美国著名中国当代文学翻译家，莫言所有作品的英译本都来自于他。本文旨在通过分析葛浩文在翻译莫言作品过程中体现的归化和异化，从而指出其过人之处，从而思考中国文学作品被英译时应注意的事项，加强与提高不同文化之间交流的理解度与流畅度。<br />  <br /> <br /> 关键词：归化；异化；葛浩文；莫言的作品<br />  <br /> <br /> Abstract: For a long time, owing to the unique style, Chinese literature has attracted much attention among world literature. In the process of flowing overseas, translation has become a bridge of cross-cultural communication and a medium of transmission. Mo Yan is a well-known representative Chinese writer, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012. The study on his works about translation abroad has never stopped. Howard Goldblatt is a famous American  translator specializing in contemporary Chinese literature, and all English versions of Mo Yan's works are from him. Through analyzing the domestication and foreignization that reflects in the translated version of Mo Yan's works by Howard Goldblatt, the thesis aims to point out the extraordinary of this application and consider the matters that should be paid attention to when translating Chinese literary works into English to strengthen the understanding and improve the fluency of the exchange between different cultures.<br />  <br /> <br /> Key words: Domestication; Foreignization; Howard Goldblatt; Mo Yan’s works<br />  <br /> <br /> 1.Introduction<br /> <br /> 2. Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> 2.1. The Definition of Domestication<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Definition of Foreignization<br /> <br /> 3. Howard Goldblatt’s Translation Strategies on Chinese Literary Works<br /> <br /> 4. The Embodiment of Domestication and Foreignization in Mo Yan’s works<br /> <br /> 5. The Enlightenment under the Application for Translation<br /> <br /> 6.Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 15:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br /> <br /> ==Domestication and Foreignization in the Course of Translation Under the Direction of Skopostheorie 谭星越 Tan Xingyue==<br /> <br /> ==Study of domestication and foreignization in cross cultural translation 周罗平 Zhou Luoping==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Language is the carrier of culture and the medium of communication between cultures. Language and culture are closely connected. Nowadays, cultural exchanges are becoming increasingly frequent; hence, it’s particularly important to use translation to convey information between different cultures. Translation is a process not only about transforming one language into another, but also about noticing the history and cultural tradition behind languages. Therefore, in cross-cultural translation, translators should master two methods to deal with culture: domestication and foreignization. This article will introduce the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization and explore how to reasonably use them in cross-cultural translation.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Domestication Foreignization Cross-cultural Translation <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 语言是文化的载体，是文化间传播和交流的媒介。语言和文化之间密不可分。在文化交流日益频繁的今天，用翻译去传递不同文化之间的信息就显得格外重要。翻译不仅仅是将一种语言转化为另一种语言，更要关注不同语言背后所承载的历史背景和文化传统，故在跨文化翻译中，译者应掌握处理文化的两种翻译方法：归化和异化。本文将系统地介绍归化和异化这两种翻译策略，并探究在跨文化翻译中如何选择这两种翻译方法。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 归化 异化 跨文化翻译--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 00:55, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> Influenced by different geographical environment, historical development and other factors, different nations and countries form their unique culture. Translation plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. The translator as the main body of translation activities should convey the culture of one language in another language. In this process, the translator is faced with how and to what extent to show the cultural connotation of source language; therefore, the translator is bound to face the choice between domestication and foreignization.<br /> Domestication, oriented by the target language culture, aims to eliminate the strangeness brought about by the source text, but it also reduces the opportunities for the target readers to contact with foreign cultures. While foreignization, oriented by the source language culture, aims to retain the unique style and cultural characteristics of the source language, but it will increase the reading difficulty. The best way is to combine domestication with foreignization. Therefore, the translator should fully consider the type of the text and the readers of the translation to choose the translation strategies and methods reasonably.<br /> This paper will be divided into five parts. The first part is the introduction of this paper. The second part is the introduction of domestication and foreignization, as well as a brief introduction of the representatives of domestication and foreignization. The third part is an analysis of the factors that influence the choice of domestication and foreignization. The fourth part introduces the translation methods under domestication and foreignization. The fifth part is the conclusion.<br /> <br /> ==='''Domestication and Foreignization'''===<br /> The terms domestication and foreignization were first put forward by Lawrence Venuti in his work The Translator’s Invisibility. The two concepts of foreignization and domestication are defined by Venuti based on Schleiermacher’s distinction between the two different translation orientations. In his speech &quot;On the Different Methods of Translating&quot; in June 1813 Schleiermacher clearly pointed out that there can be only two ways of Translating. Either by keeping the author as still as possible, so as to lead the reader to the author; the other is to keep the reader as still as possible, thereby guiding the author to approach the reader (Jiang 2016). Venuti, on the basis of Schleiermacher’s distinction, called the former foreignization and the latter domestication.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction of Domestication'''<br /> According to Venuti, domestication is actually an ethnocentric practice, bringing foreign texts into the cultural values of the target language and thus “bringing the author back home” (2009).Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator follows the target language culture and adopts conservative methods to assimilate the original text so as to meet the needs of the target language readers. <br /> In this sense, the biggest advantage of the domestication is that it make the translated works more easily accepted by the target language readers and that readers can better understand the connotation of the source text. In addition, In addition, domestication well reflects the coexistence of different cultures in the process of communication, and shows that translators seek common ground when facing culture differences and conflicts. Of course, every coin has two sides. Domestication translation method also has its shortcomings. When translators adopt domesticating method, they tend to assimilate part of the original content with different language style or unique national culture, which makes the translation lose the characteristics of the original text, thus affecting the communication and spread of different cultures and hinders readers' understanding of foreign culture.<br /> Eugene Nida is the representative figure advocating domestication. Nida's functional equivalence theory or dynamic equivalence theory shows that he is a supporter of domestication translation. His dynamic equivalence theory shows that he pursues the most natural equivalence translation. He once said that “dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language” (Nida 2004). In other words, dynamic equivalence means that the reader's response to the translation is consistent with that of the original. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory fully considers the reader's language culture and the reader's ability to appreciate the translation. Therefore, in the course of translating, the translator should take the completely natural and smooth language expression as the goal. In order to make the translation natural and smooth, the translator must make some adjustments to the original text. Some heterogeneous cultures which are not accepted by readers should be eliminated as much as possible. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory takes the reader into full consideration. It aims to eliminate the readers' strangeness to the original content and let readers better understand the thought and meaning of the original text, which precisely reflects the characteristics of domestication translation.<br /> <br /> '''Introduction of Foreignization'''<br /> According to Venuti, foreignization is an ethnodeviant practice, keeping language and cultural differences of the original texts as far as possible and thus sending the reader abroad (2009). In other words, in order to show the cultural characteristics of the source work, translators use foreignising method during the translation to retain the characteristics of the source text and try to keep the writing techniques used by the author of the source language. Hence, for the readers of the target language, the translation is exotic and unfamiliar. <br /> Same to the domestication, foreignization also has its advantages and disadvantages. Foreignization, by transplanting the culture of the source language into the culture of the target language, enriches the culture of the target language to a great extent. For example, the Chinese phrase “武装到牙齿” is translated as “armed to the teeth”, which greatly spreads Chinese culture and enriches the English and Chinese language culture. Of course, foreignization also has its limitations. Some cultural differences and language differences are difficult to overcome. If foreignization is adopted blindly in the process of translation, there will produce some translations that readers cannot understand and accept, and translation will also lose its function of cultural communication.<br /> Schleiermacher and Venuti are strong supporters of foreignization. Schleiermacher’s preferred strategy is to accommodate the reader to the author. He claims that translations need not be same as the original author writes in the source language. The translation does not conform to the general expression habits of the target language. He believes that a translator who knows the target language can help target readers who are not proficient in the foreign language but have a strong understanding of the original text. In order to achieve this goal, the translator must adopt the foreignization translation method, emphasize the value of heterogeneous culture, and ensure the faithfulness to the original text by subordinating the words in the target text to the source language (Jiang 2016). In this way, the translation can be faithful to the meaning of the original text and can introduce heterogeneous cultures and concepts to readers of target language.<br /> In his book The Translator's Invisibility, Venuti expressed his understanding and support for foreignization translation in detail. He believes that foreignization translation is a kind of translation strategy that preserves and highlights the heterogeneity of the original text in the translation. First, he believes that foreignization is reflected in the selection of translation materials. He mainly aims at the classic translation of literature and culture of the target language. In fact, in the process of foreignising translation, the translator chooses a foreign text which is different from the mainstream culture of the target language, which can change the cultural composition of the target language. Second, foreignization translation is reflected in the language used by the translator in the process of translation. This means that in the process of translation, the closer the language style of the translation is to the language style of the original, the more heterogeneous the readers will feel. Moreover, Venuti advocates that in the process of translation, the translator should use words that are not commonly used and non-standard. Translators should mix slang, neologism or archaic words to achieve heterogeneous effects. In this way, the foreignization style of translation highlights the heterogeneity of foreign texts and challenges and resists the mainstream culture of the target language. Thirdly, foreignization translation is embodied in cultural alienation. By highlighting the cultural differences caused by language differences, foreignization translation promotes the development of cultural diversity, helps to resist the hegemony of European and American culture, and helps to promote the development of culture and language of weak and small nations. Fourthly, foreignising translation highlights and enhances the status of the translator, which changes the phenomenon that the smooth translation makes the translator invisible in the past, thus promoting translation research to gradually move to the academic center (Jiang 2016). Venuti believes that smooth translation has long occupied the mainstream position in the history of western translation, and the fluency of translation has become the standard to judge whether a translation is good or not. Venuti challenged and questioned this phenomenon. He said that the smooth translation covered up the translator's intervention and interpretation of the original text, and covered up the language and cultural differences of the original work. Therefore, he put forward the concept of resistant translation to expound his translation thoughts. Resistant translation refers to a translation strategy that preserves some heterogeneity in literary translation. The object of resistance is the prevailing translation thought in British and American culture, that is, fluent translation is acceptable translation (Fang 2011). Venuti challenged the dominant position of British and American culture and introduced the idea of weak culture by advocating resistant translation. Translation is not only a process of seeking similarities between languages and cultures, but also a process of facing the differences between languages and cultures. Translators cannot completely and thoroughly eliminate these differences. Therefore, a good translation must be the blending and collision of different cultures, from which the readers can better understand the cultural diversity.<br /> <br /> ==The Application of Domestication and Foreignization in the Translation of Chinese Allegorical Sayings 龚钰冕 Gong Yumian==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract''': Chinese Xiehouyu (allegorical sayings) is a unique part of Chinese folk culture, and people are familiar with it. The translation of Chinese and English allegorical sayings is a kind of cross-cultural communication activity that spreads the Chinese national language and culture to the English world. In depth study of the connotation and translation methods of Chinese allegorical sayings has played a significant role in promoting and improving the Chinese-English translation and cross-cultural communication between Chinese and English. Based on the theory of domestication and foreignization, this paper attempts to analyze the types and components of Chinese allegorical sayings, and to explore their translation strategies.<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''：汉语歇后语是中国民俗文化特有的一部分，人们耳熟能详。汉英歇后语翻译是一种将中华民族语言文化传播到英语世界的跨文化交流活动，深入学习研究汉语歇后语的内涵和翻译方法，对汉英语言的互译和跨文化交际都起到了很好的促进和提高作用。本文试图用归化和异化理论出发，分析汉语歇后语的类型及其构成，探讨汉语歇后语的翻译策略。<br /> <br /> '''Key Words''': Chinese Allegorical Sayings, domestication and foreignization, translation strategy<br /> <br /> '''关键词'''：汉语歇后语；归化和异化；翻译策略<br /> <br /> = '''Title Translation''' =<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Study on the Translation of Movie Titles 陈惠 Chen Hui==<br /> <br /> == A Study on Movie Titles Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 罗雨晴 Luo Yuqing==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''I.Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Cultural Words'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry Based on Scopos Theory==<br /> &lt;center&gt;周思庆 Zhou Siqing&lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> This paper attempts to illustrate the influence of Skopos theory on translation strategies and the influence of translation strategies on translation effect by analyzing the different translations of culture-loaded words in Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry based on Scopos Theory according to Nida’s classification of culture-loaded words. This research is of great significance to refresh blood into the study of Li Qingzhao’s Ci Poems and promote excellent Chinese traditional culture to go abroad.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> culture-loaded word, Li Qingzhao, Scopos Theory<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 本文主要以目的论为指导，以奈达对文化负载词的分类为依据，从对不同英译版本的李清照词中文化负载词的翻译进行分析，说明目的论对翻译策略的影响以及翻译策略对译文效果的影响，旨在为李清照词的英译研究注入新鲜血液，推动中国优秀传统文化走向世界。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 文化负载词， 李清照， 目的论<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Li Qingzhao, is the representative of the graceful and restrained school well-known for her elegant, fresh and refined language as well as rich and vivid images. Her poetry is an unparalleled cultural treasure in the history of Chinese literature. Culture-loaded words are those words rich in cultural connotations. Nida divided culture-loaded words into five categories, namely ecological, material, social, religious and linguistic culture-loaded words. As the representative of the “German school”, Hans J. Vermeer proposed the Scopos Theory and continued the functionalist tradition. Analyzing the culture-loaded words in different translations of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems according to Scopos theory is conducive for the readers to grasp the elegant style of Li Qingzhao's, to figure out the proper translation strategies, and to encourage more creation of excellent translation works.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Introduction of Li Qingzhao and her Ci-Poetry===<br /> ====1.1 Brief introduction of Li Qingzhao====<br /> Li Qingzhao, a well-known poetess in Song Dynasty, is the only woman who is generally compared with the most outstanding poets. As a female writer, she suffered a lot in that unstable age full of oppression and discrimination, but still kept a resolute and resistant attitude toward life no matter how much turns and twists in the process of struggle. Li Qingzhao was born in a rich and cultured family in 1083. Thanks to her father Li Gefei, the Minister of Rites, and her well-educated mother, she had a peaceful and favorable circumstance in her childhood and received a good education, which paved the path for her literary career. Unlike most ignorant women in that age, she had great talent in many aspects, such as painting and music, especially writing. She was a versatile writer whose Ci Poems and prose are both excellent. Her contribution in literature earned great fame for herself.<br /> <br /> She married to Zhao Mingcheng, the son of a vice-president of the Board of Rides when she was eighteen years old. The marriage life was happy and idyllic in the early years. They collected and appreciated rare books, paintings and antiques together. However, their peaceful and harmonious life was ruined by the invasion of the Jurchens in 1127. They were forced to fled to the southern areas and separated with each other. The bulk of precious collections, including the ancient paintings, vessels, and books, lost during the fugitive way. Her husband was dispatched to a new official post in Zhe Jiang province and died on the way. Since then, Li Qingzhao lived lonely and homelessly in endless sorrow. The miserable and painful life experience didn't destroy<br /> her poetry proposition but deepened the theme of her literary works. The concern for the fate of the masses and country showed her great integrity and patriotic passion.<br /> <br /> ====1.2 Development and characteristics of Li Qingzhao's Ci-Poetry====<br /> <br /> As a literary form, Song Ci, also called Ci Poems or long-short lines, emerged in Tang Dynasty and popularized in Song Dynasty. Ci Poems revolved from a kind of folk music used for expressing the emotions through its original melody. Li Qingzhao is regarded as the representative of the graceful and restrained party.<br /> <br /> Generally, Li Qingzhao's proposition of Ci Poems can be divided into two periods according to the critical historical events in Song Dynasty and her personal life experience. The former period works most depicted her delightful life as a young girl. The theme includes the praise of nature and beauty, her pure love to her husband, and the memories of the innocent childhood, such as Rumengling( 如 梦 令 ), Dian Jiangchun( 点 绛 唇 ), Jianzimulanhua( 减 字 木 兰 花 ) ， Cai Sangzi( 采 桑 子 ), Zuihuayin(醉花阴), Yijianmei(一剪梅) and so on. As for the latter period, her works changed dramatically because of the downfall of the Northern Song Dynasty as well as the death of her husband. The theme of her poems turned to homesickness, the grief for the instability of the nation and the melancholy meditation of the miserable life. She transmitted her feelings in the images implicitly rather than cry out her sorrow directly. The poems written in this period include Spring in Wulin(武陵春), Shengshengman(声声慢), Yongyule(永遇乐) and so on.<br /> <br /> To conclude, her elegant and pure language and sensitive emotion were demonstrated in both of her literary period. Her Ci Poems are full of accurate and vivid images, leaving the readers a wide imagery space. No other poetess in Song Dynasty can replace her position in the Chinese history of literature.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Introduction of Scopos theory===<br /> ====2.1 Historical development of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> Functional approaches emerged in 1970s and developed through three stages: (1)Katharina Reiss introduced the functional category of translation criticism; (2) Hans J. Vermeer proposed Scopos theory; (3) Justa Holz-Manttari put forward the theory of translation action.<br /> <br /> In the first stage, Katharina Reiss proposed the text function and translation strategy, which paves the way for the Scopos theory. The theory foundation of Reiss’s theory is the functional equivalence theory, which aims to establish a model of translation criticicm based on the functional relationship between source text and target text (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:32). Katharina Reiss divided text into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. The proposal of functional translation theory signifies that translation study gradually get rid of static linguistic typologies.<br /> <br /> In the second stage, Hans J. Vermeer established the initial theory of functional group, Scopos theory, further developing the functional translation theory. He pointed out that translation is a human activity and a kind of transformation. Every human activity has its purpose and will create certain consequence , a new situation or event or a new thing (Zhang Chenxiang, 2007:34). This is the origin of Scopos theory. Reiss mentioned that, “the source text can be assigned to a text type and a genre, and in making this assignment, the transoat0r can decide on the hierarchy of postulates which has to be observed during target-text production” (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984:196). Vermeer thinks that translators needn’t be restrained to certain translation method, instead, the translators should consider the purpose of translation and the psychology of the target audience and use the translation strategies flexibly. In the process of translation, the translator can adapt literal translation or free translation according to the situation to make sure the expected effect can be realized.<br /> <br /> In the third stage, Justa Holz-Manttari developed Vermeer’s theory and proposed the theory of translation action 1n 1984. She avoid using the term “translation” and focus on the process of translation which concludes traditional translation and other text building activity. In Holz-Manttari’s model, translation is defined in a broader sense as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose”, or an intercultural communication whose product is the target text which achieves appropriate function in a particular cultural context. According to the functional approach, all participants have certain functions or roles in the interaction. The TT addressees are crucial in specification of the purposes of translation(Nord, 2001:20).<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Basic rules of Scopos theory====<br /> <br /> In the Scopos theory, there are three basic rules, namely skopos theory, coherence rule and fidelity rule. Among the three rules, scopos rule is the most significant one. “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precissely in the way they want it to function.” This rule can help solve the contradiction between literal translation and free translation. It means that the choosing of translation strategies depends on translation purpose. When the scopos focuses on the original language, as long as the features of the original culture is well expressed, literal translation or even word for word translation can be adopted.<br /> <br /> The coherence rule is also named intra-textual coherence by functionalists. It requires that the translated text should make sense on the communicative situation in which it is received. It specifies that a translation should be acceptable in a sense that it is coherent with the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 100) Being coherent means being “part of the receiver’s situation”, so the cultural aspects should be taken into consideration. Besides, the target readers’ culture-specific world-knowledge, expectations and communicative needs are also important factors which may affect the way of handing a text, translators ought analyze these factors carefully. (Li Zhao, 2011:24)<br /> <br /> Since the source text is the offer of information , it should also be taken into account. Fidelity rule is also named “intertextual coherence”. This coherence balance the source text and the target text and the form and degree of such intertextual coherence are determined by the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation skopos. However, intertextual coherence is subordinate to intra-textual, and both of the two are subordinate to the skopos rule.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Introduction of culture-loaded words===<br /> ====3.1 Definition of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> Since Bassnett and Lefervere put forward the concept of “cultural turn” in 1990, the interaction between translation and culture has been drawn more attention. During the five thousand years’ civilization, China has accumulated its unique culture due to the unique geographical locations, living environments, historical background, etc. <br /> <br /> Many scholars has made different definitions to cultural loaded words. J. F Aixel gives these words another name “cultural-specific items” and defined them as: “some items appearing in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target reader’s cultural systems” (J. F Aixel, 1996:58). Later, Mona Baker defined culture-loaded words as: “The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as ‘cultural-specific’.”(Baker, 2004:21). This paper studies the translation of culture-loaded words according to Nida’s classification of cultural elements. Nida divided culture into five categories: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. This paper will analyze the culture-loaded words according to the five categories.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 Classification of culture-loaded words====<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Ecological culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> Culture develops in certain ecological environment, so different region has different culture. Ecological culture-loaded words refer to those words that reflect the distinctive geographical conditions, the natural surroundings, feature of the climate, plants and animals, etc. in a language. Even the connotations of the same thing in western and eastern culture are different or even opposite.<br /> <br /> For example, the “west wind” in China is totally different from that in western countries. Because China lies in the Eastern Hemisphere, with mountains to the west and oceans to the east. This location makes it dry and cold in autumn and winter when the west wind blows. Therefore, the west wind in Chinese culture often refers to the cold wind in autumn an winter, which is often used to describe the desolate, cold, and sometimes also compared to the decadent force of the fall of the sun with a derogatory meaning. Such as “古道西风瘦马” in Ma Zhiyyuan’s 《天净沙·秋思》. On the contrary, Britain is located in the western hemisphere, the west Atlantic island, and the east is the continent of Europe. When the west wind blows from the Atlantic Ocean, Britain is in the season of revival. Therefore, in English culture, the west wind is the symbol of hope and strength. For example, the Ode to the West Wind, a famous British poem, reflects this meaning. Obviously, through the above analysis, we know that “西风” and the west wind have the same conceptual meaning but have very different associative meaning due to different ecological environment.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Material culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> Material culture-loaded words include the words related to the economic life, daily supplies, commodities, food, transportation, etc. Different nations have different living habits, so the material products are quite different. For example: “旗袍”(qi pao), “麻将”(ma jiang),”馄饨”(Wonton), etc.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 Social culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> The tradition, custom, living habit, social activity, etc. All belong to the category of social culture. Due to different historical background, political feature, tradition and custom, the social culture-loaded words formed and developed. For instance, “重阳节”(chong yang jie) is a traditional Chinese festival to give the blessings to the old people, which is familiar to Chinese but unfamiliar to foreigners.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Religious culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> Religious culture is composed by the religious faith and and ideology under the different nation’s cultural background, which demonstrate in the difference in psychology and language behavior. Chinese people advocate Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism whereas western people mainly believe in God. Therefore, the cross-cultural communication barriers and language translation barriers emerged. Religious culture-loaded words reflects the characteristics of religious beliefs, so it is quite difficult for the foreigners to understand the Chinese religious culture-loaded words. For example, western people believe in God while Chinese people believe in “天”(tian), “菩萨”(pu sa), “佛”(fo).<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Linguistic culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> Language as one part of culture also produces translation problems. Since the two languages belong to two different language systems, their different language features will be involved in translation. These particularities may be reflected in phonetics, morphemes, vocabulary and syntax. For example, reduplicative words and four-character words and expressions are frequently seen in Chinese but are rarely seen in English.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 4 The application of Scopos theory in the translation of culture-loaded words===<br /> <br /> Chinese culture and western culture are so different due to different geographical location and historical background. And these differences also reflect in the two language systems, which is also known as cultural gap. In the process of translating Li Qingzhao’s Ci-Poetry, the translator may face all kinds of problems due to the cultural gap. In this chapter, the focus is on analyzing the suitable translation strategies from the perspective of Scopos theory.<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> ==='''Acknowledgements'''===<br /> ==='''References'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Study on Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'' Translated by Lin Yutang from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization 蒋淇玮 Jiang Qiwei==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines.<br /> Among the current English versions of this book, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to catch a glimpse of the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written in classical Chinese and has a long history, which both make the translation more difficult, especially the translation of its culture-loaded words.<br /> Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that demonstrate specific things in a culture. As we all know, China has a centuries-old history and rich civilization, possessing plenty of unique cultural phenomena, not to mention numerous culture-loaded words. In Six Chapters of a Floating Life, there are many culture-loaded words that are worthy of study.<br /> By consulting relevant materials, I find that there are only a few works analyzing cultural-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life from the perspective of domestication and foreignization.<br /> This pair of translation terms was put forward by Lawrence Venuti, a famous American translation theorist, in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995. As a matter of fact, domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites and complement each other. Neither absolute domestication nor foreignization exists. There are different degrees of domestication and foreignization in all translation activities and works. Therefore, it is reasonable, scientific and feasible to analyze Mr. Lin’s translation from this perspective, which can fill certain research vacancy and benefit future studies in this field.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, the author will subdivide domestication and foreignization into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> domestication; foreignization; Six Chapters of a Floating Life; Lin Yutang; culture-loaded words<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 《浮生六记》是清代文人沈复于1808年所著的自传体散文，以真言诉真情，为历代读者所推崇。目前流传较广的《浮生六记》英译本中，林语堂先生的Six Chapters of a Floating Life成文最早且与沈复原文风格最为接近，让不少外国读者得以一窥中国一无名文人的若梦浮生。<br /> 沈复此书以文言文著就，加上距今年代较为久远，译者的翻译之路可谓困难重重，这其中文化负载词的处理更是值得反复推敲。文化负载词是标志某种文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。众所周知，中华民族的历史文明源远流长，独有的文化现象数不胜数，应运而生的文化负载词自然不在少数。《浮生六记》一书中就有相当数目的文化负载词具有研究价值。<br /> 通过查阅相关资料，本人发现从归化和异化角度来解读林译中文化负载词的研究还少之又少。归化和异化这对翻译术语是由美国著名翻译理论学家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）于1995年在《译者的隐身》中提出的。作为两种翻译策略，归化和异化是对立统一、相辅相成的，绝对的归化和绝对的异化都是不存在的。所有的翻译活动及作品都存在不同程度的归化和异化现象，故而，从这一角度来分析林译具有合理性、科学性和可行性，且能填补一定的研究空缺，为之后的相关研究提供可参考的思路与借鉴。<br /> 因此，本文作者将聚焦这一文学经典，将归化与异化这两种翻译策略细分为不同的翻译方法，对林译中有代表性的文化负载词进行分析解读，以小见大，从词见章，进而证明归化与异化的翻译策略的指导性，找出林译在国内外成功的原因，指出其在中国文化“走出去”中所起的积极作用，并为文化负载词的翻译难题提供解题思路及开口，引起大众对于文化翻译的重视与思考。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 归化，异化，《浮生六记》，林语堂，文化负载词<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter One Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> With globalization surging ahead, cultural communication and exchange have become rising tides that no one can fight against. Chinese and English, as the language with the largest number of users and the language most widely used in this globe, are both crucial languages, which work as vital bridges in cultural world.<br /> However, as is known to all, China is a nation of age-old history and rich civilization. On her vast earth, there grows plenty of unique cultural phenomena. As a result, quite a number of culture-loaded words have been emerging. For culture-loaded words have their specific cultural connotations, it is hard to render them so that foreign readers could understand, which is a real and tough task for translators. <br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written in classical Chinese by Shen Fu, who was a Chinese scholar in Qing dynasty, in 1808. It is popular among readers for its genuine words and sincerity between the lines. In this book, there are many culture-loaded words, which are worth studying.<br /> Among the current English versions of it, Lin Yutang's Six Chapters of a Floating Life is written first and the closest with the original version in style, which enables lots of foreign readers to take a look at the life of an obscure Chinese scholar.<br /> Thus, in this thesis, under the guidance of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization, the author will subdivide them into several detailed translation methods so as to analyze representative culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life. By doing this, this paper aims to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, find out the reasons of the success of Mr. Lin’s translation, point out the positive role of this translation in the &quot;going out&quot; of Chinese culture, and provide reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Two Literature Review'''===<br /> <br /> 2.1 A Study on Six Chapters of a Floating Life<br /> For the sake of carrying on this study, we must have a basic understanding of both our original and translated text sources: Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Hence we will have a brief review of its original version and English version translated by Mr. Lin in the following paragraphs. <br /> <br /> 2.1.1 A Brief Review of Its Original Version<br /> Six Chapters of a Floating Life is an autobiographical prose written by Shen Fu, who was an unknown scholar in Qing dynasty, in the 13th year of Jiaqing (AD 1808). It includes six chapters, of which only four remain, recording Shen Fu’s wedded bliss, pleasures of life, ups and downs, travel experiences, experiences in Formosa and the way of life. The phrase in this book’s title &quot;floating life&quot; derives from a passage in Li Po's poem, “ Our floating life is like a dream; how often can one enjoy oneself ?”<br /> Shen Fu, whose courtesy name is Sanbai, and alternative name Meiyi, was born in Suzhou, Jiangsu province in China in the 28th year of Qianlong (AD 1763). He was a man of letters, who was once an assistant to ranking officials and a merchant.<br /> The remaining four chapters of Six Chapters of a Floating Life was accidentally found on the stall in Suzhou by a man called Yang Yinchuan. Yang passed it on to Wang Tao, his brother-in-law, who then published it with movable type in 1877. Subsequently, this book gradually established itself on the literary field.<br /> This book is a pure and fair record of Shen Fu's ordinary but difficult life, which is still full of unforgettable and beautiful moments. It is incredibly touching, for Mr. Shen wrote down his real experiences and sincere feelings in plain words naturally, without traces of sham.<br /> Nowadays, Six Chapters of a Floating Life has become a classic and owned a mass of readers. Many people even called it “little A Dream in Red Mansions” for its description of the conflicts in the feudal family and society, which highly affirms its literary value and achievements.<br /> <br /> 2.1.2 A Brief Review of Its English Version Translated by Lin Yutang<br /> In the spring and summer time of 1935, Lin Yutang successively translated Six Chapters of a Floating Life into English and serialized them in the English magazines T'ien Hsia Monthly and Hsi Feng published in Shanghai. For the sake of better work, Mr. Lin has modified his translation no less than ten times. Now, his translation version has been acknowledged as the most popular one for it is the closest to the original text in terms of writing style.<br /> Lin Yutang once highly praised Shen Fu’s wife Yün, “Yün, I think, is one of the loveliest women in Chinese literature.” Mr. Lin said he translated the work for two reasons, one is to let the world know Yün by her name, and the other is that he has found lots of things in the simple life of this couple, the pursuit of beauty, the experience of ups and downs, and unswerving love for carefreeness.<br /> In February of 1999, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press reprinted Six Chapters of a Floating Life with Mr. Lin’s translation in the form of picture book. Its introductory notes claim that the reprinting is first due to Mr. Lin’s translation work, which has contributed a lot in the promotion of Chinese culture, secondly Mr. Lin’s superb artistic attainments and extraordinary cultural accomplishments, and lastly his beautiful and skilled use of English language. It demonstrates that Mr. Lin's translation has a far-reaching influence.<br /> <br /> 2.2 An Introduction of Culture-loaded Words<br /> Here we will focus on another important item in this study: culture-loaded words. This introduction covers three aspects, including definition, categorization and previous studies on them in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which enable us to distinguish, select and analyse culture-loaded words in future steps.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Definition of Culture-loaded Words<br /> There are many definitions for culture-loaded words, and I have presented three different versions below. <br /> First, Mona Baker claims that &quot;the source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a religious belief, a social custom, or a type of food. Such concepts are often referred to as `culture-specific' &quot; (2000:21). This definition mentions three fields, namely religion, custom and food, which are now recognized to be among the main sources of culture-loaded words. Second, it means that the cultural information words carry in the source language finds no equivalent in the target language (包慧南，2001：10). In this version, the focus is “no equivalent”, which reveals why it is significant to study the translation of culture-loaded words. For in numerous cases, there is no equivalent in the target language. Third, J.F. Aixelá, a Spanish translator and translation theorist, defines them as &quot;culture-specific items&quot; and states in his book Culture-specific Item in Translation that &quot;Some items appeared in the source text do not have equivalent items in the target readers' cultural system or these items have different textual status with those in the target readers' cultural system, thus leading to translation difficulty while transferring the function and meaning of the source text to the target text&quot; (张南峰，2004：19). From this definition, we are able to get a new perspective. Besides “no equivalent”, it makes a point that culture-loaded words can exist in the target cultural system but with different function and meaning.<br /> To sum up, as barriers to translation, culture-loaded words have no equivalent in other cultural systems and are marks and mirrors of a nation’s distinct environment, which are often seen in fields like religion, custom, food etc.<br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Categorization of Culture-loaded Words <br /> Eugene Nida considers that &quot;if translators want to do a good job in cross-cultural translation, there are five types of cultural factors: 1) ecological culture; 2) material culture; 3) social culture; 4) religious culture; and 5) linguistic culture&quot;(胡壮麟、姜望琪，2002). In line with Nida's categorization of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can also be classified into five types accordingly, namely ecological culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words and linguistic culture-loaded words.<br /> This thesis will analyze Lin Yutang’s translation of culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life on the basis of Nida's categorization.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Previous Studies on Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life<br /> Among those studies of the English versions of Shen Fu’s Six Chapters of a Floating Life, the studies of Mr. Lin’s account for a large proportion of it. In Quan Shulian’s article “Translator’s Cultural Orientation: Comparative Study of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life”, she compares the translation of culture-loaded words done by Mr. Lin and Shirley Black and then claims that Shirley Black tends to use domestication while Mr. Lin applies foreignization more frequently. With a different focus, Li Yi, who has studied the culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life translated by Lin Yutang, analyzes the translation of culture-loaded words in three aspects: wording, Chinese idioms and the looks of women, and concludes that it is the purpose of translation determines which translation strategies to use and domestication and foreignization are a unity of opposites which should not be discussed apart. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Three An Analysis of Translation Strategies Based on ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> 3.1 Translation Strategy of Domestication<br /> Domestication, as opposed to foreignization, refers to a translation strategy, which aims to translate the source text into target language in a transparent, fluent and natural style so as to minimize the strangeness for target readers.<br /> As free translation is the most widely used translation method pertaining to domestication, we will discuss it and its two branches paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1 Free Translation <br /> Free translation refers to a translation method that reproduces the transferred meaning of the source text, which can be further divided into paraphrase and idiomatic translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.1 Paraphrase <br /> When applying paraphrase, the translator translates the source text explanatorily, without application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of those parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 1a. 合卺后，并肩夜膳，……（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 1b. After the drinking of the customary twin cups between bride and groom, we sat down together at dinner… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 35)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “合卺” refers to a characteristic part of ancient Chinese wedding ceremonies that the newlyweds drink cross-cupped wine in their wedding room. Foreign readers would have difficulty comprehending this phrase as there is no such a rite in their countries. Thus, Lin Yutang applies the translation method of paraphrase, explaining exactly what the custom is, which enables foreign readers to understand this special activity.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation<br /> Idiomatic translation is an explanatory method of translation as well, with application of collocations and idioms in the target language as replacement of the parts in the source text.<br /> <br /> 2a. 井井然未尝稍失。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 2b. Whatever she did was done well, and it was difficult to find fault with her. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 40-41)<br /> <br /> “未尝稍失”means that someone handles things incredibly well, without anything wrong. And we can translate this Chinese phrase just in such an explanatory way, for it is clear and correct in meaning. But it is comparatively lengthy. That’s why here Mr. Lin adopts the English phrase “find fault with”, which is quite familiar to English users. For it conveys the meaning of the source text precisely and concisely, and improves the smoothness of foreign readers’ reading activity.<br /> <br /> 3.2 Translation Strategy of Foreignization<br /> Compared to domestication, foreignization refers to a translation strategy that retains the original expressions and differences between source and target languages to a larger extent. This translation strategy can offer foreign readers more exotic information if they are willing to explore, but the reading process is less natural and efficient. <br /> And foreignization consists of three translation methods, namely transliteration, word-for-word translation and literal translation, which will be presented below.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Transliteration <br /> Transliteration refers to the rendering of alphabets, words or phrases in one language with symbols of similar or even the same pronunciations in another language.<br /> <br /> 3a. 服余衣，长一寸又半；于腰间折而缝之，外加马褂。（沈复，2018：31）<br /> 3b. As my gown was found to be an inch and a half too long, she tucked it round the waist and put on a makua on top. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 108)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “马褂” refers to the mandarin jacket worn over a gown, which is a kind of special costume of Chinese characteristics. It is popular in Qing dynasty and the Republic of China. Originally, it’s worn by the Chinese Manchu people on horseback. “马” means “horse” in English. “褂” means a short gown. And that is the reason why this costume is called “马褂”in Chinese. Though foreign readers barely know this kind of clothes and its origin, Mr. Lin translates it as “makua” tersely according to its Chinese pronunciation, which offers foreign readers an opportunity to get a clue of the new item “makua” and shows his confidence of Chinese history and culture.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Word-for-word Translation<br /> Word-for-word translation is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another in the source text without considering the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to translate a word in accordance with the paraphrasing method.<br /> <br /> 4a. 一场，主考得香钱百文。（沈复，2018：57）<br /> 4b. The official examiner would get one hundred cash “incense money”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 253)<br /> <br /> “Incense” translated into Chinese is “香”, while the English equivalent of “钱” is “money”. From this we can find that “incense money” is a word-for-word correspondence with “香钱”. There are much fewer people in English-speaking countries who are Buddhists, compared with China. So the concept of “incense money” may be strange to them. Here, Mr. Lin translates this phrase literally without transforming or considering morphological differences in two languages, which shows a brand-new concept to plentiful foreign readers. And it might arouse their interest to figure out what this phrase implies and what’s the culture connotation behind it.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 Literal Translation<br /> Literal translation, or directed translation, is the rendering of text in which a word is used to replace another word in the original text correspondingly, with consideration of the differences between the two languages in morphology, syntax and semantics, so as to enable the translation to conform to the lexical and syntactic norms of the target language.<br /> <br /> 5a. 急人之难，成人之事，嫁人之女，抚人之儿，指不胜屈，挥金如土，多为他人。（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 5b. He used to help people in trouble, bring up other people's sons and marry off other people's daughters in innumerable instances, spending money like dirt, all for the sake of other people. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 299)<br /> <br /> “挥金如土” in Chinese means to throw one’s money about. There is a set expression in English both in meaning and construction, which is “spending money like water”. But instead of the image “water”, which is more common and well-accepted among English people, Mr. Lin keeps the original image “dirt” in his translation. That’s because the image “dirt” is more acknowledged by Chinese people, who have been rooted in agriculture civilization and dealt with dirt all the time. Hence, the literal translation of “dirt” into English is able to let readers of different culture background grasp more of the source text and aware of the culture differences.<br /> <br /> 3.3 A Brief Conclusion on the Translation Strategies <br /> In this Chapter, we have mainly discussed five translation methods based on Six Chapters of a Floating Life. Among them, two belong to the translation strategy of domestication while three the translation strategy of foreignization.<br /> The former instances from the book have proved that the application of the translation methods under domestication enables foreign readers to comprehend and accept literary works in a closer and more natural way, while the translation methods under foreignization provides them with a choice to feel the cultural differences and find out more valuable information. There is no absolute domestication or foreignization and no perfect choice of translation strategies. It is the purposes of translation that determine which translation strategy or methods to use. As to Mr. Lin, he has combined the usage of both the two superior strategies and their translation methods in his translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Four An Analysis of the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Six Chapters of a Floating Life'''''===<br /> <br /> 4.1 Domestication Applied in Culture-loaded Words<br /> In this part, we will center upon some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of domestication.<br /> <br /> 4.1.1 Free Translation of Culture-loaded Words<br /> As we have mentioned before, free translation is the most commonly used translation method pertaining to domestication and it includes paraphrase and idiomatic translation. Therefore, we will discuss them with examples of culture-loaded words in the book. <br /> <br /> 4.1.1.1 Paraphrase of Culture-loaded Words<br /> The following two examples are able to demonstrate the brilliant use of paraphrase by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> 6a. 自此耳鬓相磨，亲同形影。（沈复，2018：9）<br /> 6b. And so every day we rubbed shoulders together and clung to each other like an object and its shadow… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 42)<br /> <br /> The Chinese phrase “耳鬓相磨” is culture-loaded, which just derives from this book of Shen Fu. It literally means the rubbing of people’s ears and sideburns, whose extended meaning refers to the close relationship among people. Here Mr. Lin applies the new image of shoulders instead of the original images of ears and sideburns, for it would be hard for foreign audience to grasp the connection between ears and sideburns and the intimacy within them. Meanwhile, rubbing shoulders can accurately express the meaning of closeness in English. So he uses the phrase “rubbed shoulders” to convey the original meaning in an explanatory way.<br /> <br /> 7a. 粉颈 （沈复，2018：8）<br /> 7b. Beautiful white neck (Lin Yutang, 2019: 38)<br /> <br /> In China, scholars conventionally adopt the word “粉”, which is “pink” in English, to modify one’s face, neck, etc. to show that one’s skin is white touched with red. However, if translating the Chinese term “粉颈” literally, we will get the phrase “pink neck”. There is no doubt that it will be odd for foreign audience. Therefore, Mr. Lin uses “beautiful white” rather than “pink” to modify “neck”, which expresses the meaning of “粉” briefly and precisely without causing troubles to readers and makes their reading activities more natural and pleasant.<br /> <br /> 4.1.1.2 Idiomatic Translation of Culture-loaded Words<br /> The following example is able to demonstrate the fine use of idiomatic translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 8a. 大醉而卧（沈复，2018：7）<br /> 8b. I fell asleep drunk like a fish. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 37)<br /> <br /> This four-character Chinese phrase means one is lying in a state of terrible drunkenness. In the processing of this phrase, Mr. Lin uses a set English phrase “drunk like a fish”, which describes that one is terribly drunk. The adoption of this ready-made phrase in translation does convey the meaning of the source text correctly and vividly, which makes it easy for foreign readers to catch on and picture the scene. From this we can see that wise use of idiomatic translation may yield twice the result with half the effort.<br /> <br /> 4.2 Foreignization Applied in Culture-loaded Words<br /> In this part, we will center on some culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life that are translated by Mr. Lin with the adoption of foreignization.<br /> <br /> 4.2.1 Transliteration of Culture-loaded Words<br /> The following two examples are able to show the use of transliteration by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 9a. 故上下呼芸为“三娘”。后忽呼为“三太太”……（沈复，2018：63）<br /> 9b. hence they used to call Yün “san niang” at home, but this was later suddenly changed into “san t'ai t'ai”. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 301)<br /> <br /> “San” refers to “number three” in Chinese. “Niang” generally means a young married woman in a big household, while “t’ai t’ai” suggests the mistress of an independent home. “Niang” and “t’ai t’ai” are two of those unique terms of addressing people in ancient Chinese society, so there are no equivalents in English. That’s why Mr. Lin chooses to introduce their Chinese sounds to foreign audience, which leaves them a hint to learn two interesting addresses with era characteristics and know the distinct Chinese system of addressing.<br /> 10a. 余则从之学画，写草篆，镌图章…… （沈复，2018：56）<br /> 10b. They would then either write “grass-script”, or “chüan-script” or carve seals… (Lin Yutang, 2019: 247)<br /> <br /> “篆书” refers to a style in Chinese calligraphy, often used on seals. If we translate the Chinese character “篆” literally into English it would be “seal”. However, Mr. Lin abandons the easy translation of “seal- script” and renders this calligraphy style as “chüan-script” according to its Chinese pronunciation, which exhibits an individual kind of Chinese writing style to foreign readers. There will be problems that most people who know little about China will feel difficult to understand this ancient “script”. And if they desire to figure it out, they need to do extra work beyond reading this book. Nevertheless, in this way, they have chances to know much more about China, which is an efficient way of spreading Chinese culture and driving cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> 4.2.2 Word-for-word Translation of Culture-loaded Words<br /> The following example is able to show the masterly use of word-for-word translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 11a. 芸笑曰：“白字有缘，将来恐白字连篇耳。”（沈复，2018： <br /> 13）<br /> 11b. “It is all right,” Yün smiled and replied. “to have one's life bound up with the Po's, only I am afraid I shall be writing Po characters all my life.” (Lin Yutang, 2019: 54-55)<br /> <br /> The so-called Po characters are words written wrong. This kind of words indeed exists in Chinese writing system, but they are used in a wrong way by people for they are of similar pronunciations and forms while in different meanings. In translation of this sentence, Mr. Lin renders “白字”, which means misspelt words, as “Po characters” word for word. “Po” is close to the pronunciation of Chinese character “白”, while “character” literally means “字” in Chinese. Mr. Lin translates the culture-loaded phrase like this to demonstrate a new term to foreign readers, instead of “misspelt word” which is easy to grasp but lack of Chinese charm. In this way, foreign readers can be more conscious of the original cultural genes lie behind those English words.<br /> <br /> 4.2.3 Literal Translation of Culture-loaded Words<br /> The last two examples will show the tactful use of literal translation by Mr. Lin in his translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> 12a. 但李诗宛如姑射仙子，有一种落花流水之趣，令人可爱。 <br /> （沈复，2018：12）<br /> 12b. but Li Po’s poems have the wayward charm of nymph. His lines come naturally like dropping petals and flowing waters, and are so much lovelier for their spontaneity. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 53)<br /> <br /> In Chinese, “落花流水” is an idiom, which usually refers to the beauty of the scenes is waning in the late spring or one is defeated utterly. But this phrase is used here to compliment Li Po’s poems’ fluency and naturalness. Even though this expression is full of Chinese features, it is not too hard for foreign readers to get its implication from the images of “dropping petals” and “flowing waters”. For we have a common sense about these two natural scenery that they are both in the state of harmony and fluency. So Mr. Lin’s adoption of the method of literal translation is quite appropriate here and leaves some space for readers to imagine and taste by themselves.<br /> <br /> 13a. 芸曰：“世传月下老人专司人间婚姻事……” （沈复，2018：27）<br /> 13b. “It is said that the Old Man under the Moon is in charge of matrimony,” said Yün. (Lin Yutang, 2019: 92)<br /> <br /> “月下老人” is the god of marriage who is in charge of human love relationships in Chinese mythology. This image is peculiar to China, so it stands to reason that there is no equivalent expression in other countries. When rendering this culture-loaded phrase, Mr. Lin chooses the method of literal translation with words of capitalized initial letters, which enables readers to feel that it is obviously a new culture symbol for them and the Old Man may be a Chinese god. Then it is up to the readers themselves if they want to search for some more information about this “Old Man under the Moon” or not. In this way, the translation becomes briefer and it rests with the readers concerning how much information they will get beyond the lines.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter Five Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Concerning the current fact that different cultural systems around the world are becoming increasingly connected, translation activities have been literally taking place at every moment. However, the cultural differences in different counties have made it an arduous task. In view of the tremendous differences between China and English-speaking countries, the translation works are no easy tasks as well.<br /> As symbols which carry lots of cultural information, culture-loaded words are obstacles in translation, for they have no equivalents in other languages. So when translating these words, translators need to be alert and adopt the most proper translation strategies and methods so as to achieve the translation purposes to the deepest extent.<br /> In this thesis, guided by domestication and foreignization, the author has discussed several culture-loaded words in Six Chapters of a Floating Life, which translated by Lin Yutang. Different from other theses focusing on this issue, the author probes it in five detailed translation methods under the two translation strategies we have mentioned before.<br /> Through the analysis of former examples, we can come to the point that domestication and foreignization are the unity of opposites. There is no standard answer that which translation strategy should be used in which circumstances. It is the purposes of translation that determine our choice. In the translation of Six Chapters of a Floating Life, Lin Yutang has proved this to us by using different translation methods in accordance with his purposes, which contributes to his translation success both at home and abroad and the cultural exchanges between China and other countries.<br /> In total, this thesis has basically fulfilled its tasks to prove the instructiveness of the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and find out the reasons why Lin Yutang’s translation version turns out to be a huge success and receives warm responses. At the same time, it points out that this translation has played an active role when Chinese culture steps out to the global stage, and provides reference for the translation of culture-loaded words.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> [1]. Lawrence, Venuti. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> [2]. Eugene, A. Nida. Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br /> [3]. Eugene, A. Nida. Toward a Science of Translating [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.<br /> [4]. Mona, Baker. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> [5]. 包惠南. 文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2001.<br /> [6]. 冯丽. 浅析文化视角下的林语堂译本《浮生六记》[J]. 漯河职业技术学院学报，2013(3)：116-117.<br /> [7]. 胡壮麟，姜望琪. 语言学高级教程[M]. 北京：北京大学出版社，2002.<br /> [8]. 刘艾莉. 认知翻译观视角下《围城》中文化负载词的翻译研究[MA]. 广东外语外贸大学硕士学位论文, 2015.<br /> [9]. 梁林歆，许明武. 国内外《浮生六记》英译研究：回顾与展望[J]. 外语教育研究，2017(4)：53-59.<br /> [10]. 李懿. 从归化和异化论林语堂《浮生六记》译本中文化词的翻译[J]. 英语广场·学术研究，2013(11)：43-44.<br /> [11]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》（双语版）[M]. 湖南：湖南文艺出版社，2019.<br /> [12]. 沈复. 《浮生六记》[M]. 浙江：浙江工商大学出版社，2018.<br /> [13]. 吴华玲. 林语堂中庸观在其译作中的审美再现——以林译《浮生六记》为例[J]. 云梦学刊，2010(3)：113-116.<br /> [14]. 王维维. 从形合与意合角度分析林语堂《浮生六记》译本[J]. 英语广场·学术研究, 2012(10)：46-47.<br /> [15]. 熊兵. 翻译研究中的概念混淆[J]. 中国翻译，2014(3)：82-88.<br /> [16]. 张南峰. 艾克拉西的文化专有项翻译策略评介[J]. 中国翻译，2004.<br /> [17]. 朱怡天. 《浮生六记》林语堂英译本中文化负载词的翻译[MA]. 上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2013.<br /> [18]. 翻译理论与翻译技巧论文集[C]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司选编，1983.<br /> <br /> ==How to keep &quot;Chineseness &quot; in Idiom Translation from Chinese to English 瞿淼 Qu Miao==<br /> <br /> 摘要：俗语是流传在人民群众口头上的，结构相对稳定的通俗语句，一般包括谚语、歇后语、惯用语和俗成语。汉语俗语承载着中国语言文化特色，蕴含着丰富的文化信息。在汉英俗语翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以常常出现译文丢失了中国特色的情况。本文从归化和异化的角度，对比了分别使用归化和异化翻译方法的译文的效果，讨论汉英俗语翻译保持中国特色的方法，得出结论，在汉语俗语英译过程中应该采取异化为主，归化为辅，并结合注释的方法，以此来最大限度地保持俗语的中国特色。<br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> ==Translation of English Proverbs from the Perspective of Culture 韩海洋 Han Haiyang==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> under the context of close communication between eastern and western countries, cultural influence now is increasingly enjoying more importance than before in language exchanging. As for translation of English proverbs, proper translation strategies should be considered in order to better understand their meaning and characters. By looking up thesis and documents, some translation strategies need to be concluded. In terms of cultural influence and social communication, foreignization and domestication are chosen in which the former is used more frequently that the latter. It arrives the conclusion that foreignization applied for translation of English proverbs is on the increase. <br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> proverbs; culture; translation strategies<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 由于文化因素在不同语言之间的交流具有一定的影响，特别在中西方交往日益密切的背景下。为了更好的翻译英语谚语，使其达到应有预期效果，适当的翻译策略可以在翻译过程中更好地了解谚语的含义与特色。通过查阅资料和文献，总结出合适的翻译方法。根据现在的社会背景和文化影响，对于归化和异化两种方法，异化的选择得到了更多的倾向。在翻译的过程中，将文化因素考虑进去对于语言翻译上面，异化的趋势将会逐渐增大。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 谚语; 文化; 翻译方法 <br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> With the advent of 21th century, society has been changed in a wide scope, and shed light on the unparalleled interaction of culture and economy as most exemplified phenomenon happening everywhere. Translation is thereby a way to transfer from one culture to another, in which the effect of cultural background is behind language the essence of best fruit of translation. The history of translation has been lasted for a long time, for example when it comes to English proverbs, which can be traced to centuries ago, like Bible and works of Shakespeare. It is not rare to see that each country has its own unique culture, and under the cover abundant resources mirroring a country can be exploited. English proverbs as a product of culture the bridge for cultural exchange is been studied since centuries ago. The strategies of proverbs translation also have been experimentally discussed from time to time as the rapid development of culture and economy. Translation plays a key role in promoting a country’s own culture, because that is the way of importing and exporting knowledge of culture to another country. Proverbs is the product of culture that cannot be understood directly without any effort to digest it. So translation is needed, which could impose exotic flavors to new conception or understanding, but the premise is that translation is properly chosen in regard to nowadays strongly cultural promotion awareness.<br /> <br /> Usually proverbs are concise, concrete and pithy words which are rhythmed and organized for the sake of being simple to remember and spread to people. Proverbs are summarized by certain people from all walks of life in a specialized area, including eating habits, farming, belief, customs and so many. Proverbs composed of words the exact symbol of language, are named as the crystal of culture in a easily understandable way. Culture awareness is highly appreciated whatever it is developed country or developing country. For the fulfillment of translation of English proverbs, therefore this thesis aims to translate English proverbs with appropriate translation strategies-mainly foreignization and domestication from the perspective culture.<br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter 1 General Introduction to English proverbs'''===<br /> <br /> 1.1 Definition of Proverbs<br /> As far as history is concerned, proverbs can be dated back to the times that language is produced. According to Dictionary of Proverbs, proverbs are “a succinct and memorable statement that contains advice, a warning or a prediction, or an analytical observation”. Maybe the first definition is given by Socrates that a proverb is noted as brevity, philosophical tone, and common usage. In the 15th century, Michael Apostolius of Byzantium wrote, “A proverb is a statement which conceals the clear in the unclear, or which through concrete images indicates intellectual concepts, or which makes clear the truth in furtive fashion”(Honeck, 1997: 12). Champion (1966:xi) has claimed his idea “a proverb in my opinion is a racial aphorism which has been, or still is, in common use, conveying advice or counsel, invariably camouflaged figuratively, disguised in metaphor or allegory.” <br /> <br /> According to Mieder (1993), “A proverb is a short generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorable form and which is handed down from generation to generation”. <br /> Although definition is definitely different from one to another, one thing is for sure is that proverbs have been proved to exist for a long time. From all the above have been talked, proverbs can be boiled down to a simple, culture-loaded, and wide-circled saying enjoying great popularity throughout the whole country. Considering it that a majority of elements are included in proverbs, especially when it comes to perspective of culture, some feasible measures should be properly taken to handle it. <br /> <br /> 1.1.1 Origin of Proverbs from Abroad<br /> Proverbs are not come out from nowhere, and the amount and meaning of them do not stay the same eternally. As a rule, comparison between at home and abroad is always been found. From abroad, English proverbs could be seen in Bible, and works from Shakespeare and other fables. Part of old proverbs are stemmed from Bible, which largely related to God and so many fairy tales, or in other word like “God” or any related implication are sometimes recorded in proverbs. Like the famous one said: “man proposes, God disposes”, it shows that in western country people faithfully believe in God who is enshrined in most western religions, especially Christianity. .<br /> <br /> Except from Bible, in the times of Renaissance Shakespeare’s works can be found in which some proverbs are known from that time. For example, in Romeo and Juliet there is one sentence “a rose by any other means would smell as sweet”. It means that irrespective of how things’ names are changed, the essence embedded in them would still intact. Shakespeare is as one of the most brilliant play writers just on the behalf of renaissance period. There are still amounts of proverbs created by other scholars like Francis Bacon, John Milton and so on.<br /> <br /> 1.1.2 Origin of Proverbs at home<br /> <br /> In china, proverbs can be traced to Spring and Autumn periods. At that time, people mostly work at farm, so there are a lot of proverbs related to farming or country life. with Zuo’s Commentary( 左 传 ) deserves the first.(ibid,2003:31) In it, the Chinese proverb “山有木，工则度之；宾有礼，主则择之”has its track, and most of the proverbs mentioned in Zuo’s Commentary are from Zhou Dynasty as “Zhou proverbs”(周谚). Besides, terms like “Xia proverbs(夏谚)” can also be found in Mencius(孟子). Like the proverb “吾王不游，吾何以休？吾王不豫，吾何以助？一游一豫，为诸侯度”from Mencius, though have not been handed down, it is regarded as the earliest proverb that have been recorded (ibid,2003). Xia is an extremely ancient dynasty in Chinese history, as far as over 4,000years from today. So maybe proverbs are not as popular as today, they are definitely has records and can shed light on Chinese history.<br /> <br /> Proverbs in China are said to date back to as early as before the words came into being. People at that time did not pass down their knowledge and experience by writing, while they made it by speaking and saying in a simple and memorable way. With time moving forward, proverbs are gradually been regarded as important as written words which play a great role in future generation in dealing with culture and heritage. No matter what kind of proverbs are produced, from the historical evidence it can be observed that proverbs can across ocean and land, moving to another country, another culture domain. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> Proverbs are memorable, vivid words which are succinct and simple in form summarized by people from all walks of life. Both Chinese and English are bountiful in considering the thousands of proverbs have been recorded and there are still more proverbs to be created as time goes on. For the record, proverbs are not spoken at random and created at one’s free will. Some rules can be depended on, such as the lifestyle, living environment, education, social value, and so on. Take environment for example, the British lived near to ocean or sea, and therefore it is common to see proverbs related to sea spoken by English people “In a clam sea, every man is a pilot.”<br /> <br /> 1.2.1 Cultural Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> Broadly speaking, culture contains all the aspects of the society and gives its people ability viewing the world. Meanwhile, culture also can be regarded as a deciding element on distinguishing the difference from each country. It is no exaggeration to say that a country’s most standing heritage is its culture, which keeps changeable in line with the history. Although nowadays similarities of culture are seen more easily than ever before, the reason is under the influence of globalization-culture import and export take place here and there. The logic is culture formed from all walks of life, which means language is included, and proverbs are product of language. Therefore, proverbs carry characteristics of culture whatever the country is and how singular its culture is. Social customs is one of the big parts in a cultural society, there are some symbols or people are widely used in proverbs. Jack and Jill usually refer to man and woman in general such as: “every Jack has his Jill”. The counterpart in china is also easy to find. To name a few, there are more could be found in each cultural community. The next indispensable one is religion. It is well acknowledged that western countries like America and the UK, are religious countries, in which the words like: “God, devil, and church” are seen here and there. Like it has been said before, language is the product of culture, which contains every aspect of people’s life from individuality to the whole society. What is more, value concept is also included since it reflects how a country embodies its culture to the outside world. Giving respect for the aged in china is a necessary and ethic social value passed on and on for thousands of years. In Chinese, there is proverb saying that: “不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”. It means youth should listen to what the old men told you, or you will pay the price of what you have done. Instead, traditional values favor in masculinity, people think that men are superior to women and they have direct control over them. Ego and individuality in America is felt deeply, because they think that they are going to be successful by themselves from any given chance. They seldom make big achievement by working in group rather than enjoying doing it by their own hands. Proverbs like “near is my shirt, but near is my skin” is emphasizing that someone himself is more important than others. <br /> <br /> 1.2.2 Rhetorical Characteristics of Proverbs<br /> <br /> As proverbs express concrete meaning by only a few words, sometimes it has to apply some kind of rhetorical devices for perfectly presenting the delicacy of proverbs. Some meaningful proverbs are not understood directly by adding each word all together, however, it only can be realized by using proper rhetorical methods to give their deep meaning, in another word, connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> Simile is often seen in proverbs, and it usually compares one thing to another thing, in order to showing its vivid or obscure picture to receptor who may not understand directly from plain words. In sentences with simile, “like” and “as” are widely used for example, “March come in like a lion and goes out like a lamb”, and “time tries friend, as fire tries gold”. The former means that the changes of March is different from how it is coming and ending, and the latter means that friend like gold needs to be tested then you would find who is your real friend. Both of them impressively express the core meaning from unfamiliar thing or abstract thing to specific and easily understandable thing. Metaphor is seemingly like simile, but it is more implicitly explaining meaning than simile. Like “brevity is the soul of wit” and “an empty bag cannot stand upright”. The former means brevity is so important to wit like the soul of a person, the latter one translated in Chinese is “人是铁，饭是钢，一顿不吃饿的慌。” Hyperbole is a rhetoric that uses overstatement or obvious exaggeration to emphasize something, such as “Our life is but a span” and “An unfortunate man would drown in teacup”. The former means life lasts in a few times as short as span, which is obviously overstated. The latter means if a person is feeling unlucky at that day, whatever you do will bring bad lucky. Personification is the ability to endow common lifeless things with features of human-being. For instance, “Money is a good servant but a bad master”, and “fortunate knocks once at least at every man’s gate”. The former means money should be rationally handled or it may be a burden for you. The latter means everyone has a chance to be fortunate at least once.<br /> <br /> From all above have been discussed, they are just the most common figurative devices formed into proverbs. In terms of the function of rhetorical, proverbs can come into being in a simple, memorable form. It can be inferred that proverbs in a much degree use rhetorical to express refined and concrete meaning. Meanwhile it reflects the problem that when doing translation of proverbs, focus are more than just words themselves needed to be considered, as well as culture, form and connotative meaning. <br /> <br /> 1.3 Differences Between Proverbs and Maxims, Sayings, Idioms<br /> It seems that proverbs are looked the same as maxims, sayings, and idioms one way or another, but in fact there still exists some differences between them. For one thing, the existence of proverbs is across the whole world, therefore, no one can precisely calculate how many of them are recorded, and how many of them are still unknown to us. In terms of the number of proverbs is uncertain, so making a convincing definition is unrealistic, at least not perfect. If referring to it could be found that the definition in the dictionary is also easy to distinguish from each other. <br /> <br /> Some researchers disagree with each other on the definitions of these similar terms. Fergusson (1983) states some proverbs are simple folk sayings. Burton Stevenson (1987)’s idea about proverb is that― “A maxim is the sententious expression of some general truth or rule and it becomes a proverb when it gets its wings by winning popular acceptance.” Some scholars believe that sayings are one stream in the vast ocean of proverbs while others argue that proverbs should be included in the realm of sayings. In one source defining idioms and proverbs, NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary (1987) mention that ― “the idiom ‘a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush’ is a proverb meaning that something you already have is better than something you might get.” As for classifying maxims and proverbs, Cordry (1997) suggests that “one defines a maxim as a rule of conduct and a proverb as a comment or observation with regard to the universal experience of life, the distinction is not always clear.” And as given in Concise Oxford English-Chinese Dictionary (2003), saying is defined as “a maxim, proverb, adage, etc.” Even so, there must be some obvious features we could rely on to categorize them in general. It could be concluded that maxim and saying are mostly the expression of principle or behavior of man or the rules that summarized by famous writer or philosopher. Thus maxim and saying are seldom heard or seen except reading in the books and hearing from author himself. As a number of them are in a serious or form expression, there they are not as popular as proverbs which are created from daily experience by common people. In regard to idiom, its meaning is not the each word put together, but by understanding it form local people who made them and made it spread in his surrounding places. Idioms sometimes are not complete sentences but simple phrases. While, proverbs enjoy great popularity and are universally spread because of their concrete, succinct and vivid description. <br /> <br /> In conclusion, proverbs are prevalent in the world enjoying widespread social value and abundant sentence structures, but for sayings and maxims they are carrying the color of literature. Idioms have local color that is only understood within the same or similar speech community. With such understanding, it lays the foundation for researcher to better study and distinguish the distinctions form others. <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter 2 Relation Between Culture and Proverbs Translation'''===<br /> <br /> 2.1 Definition of Culture<br /> <br /> As many scholars have been studied the definition culture, there have been existed sorts of definitions, in which they do not have big difference in one way or another. Culture is a general word that could take language, customs, religion, and others into account. One of the oldest and most quoted definitions of culture, which is frequently mentioned regardless of so many entries of definitions, was formulated by the 19th-century English anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor in the first paragraph of his Primitive Culture (1871) as “Culture… is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. …” (Katan,2004:16). While Nida, a famous linguistic and translation theorist, gives his definition of culture as “the totality of beliefs and practices of a society” in the book Language and Culture (2001:139) and as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” by New mark given in his book of A Textbook of Translation (2001:94).<br /> <br /> From the mentioned above, culture includes every aspect of human life such as housing, transporting, communicating with people, recording of history and so on. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that proverb, or even language is a part of culture. Some scholar even put that language is the medium of culture, without language there may be no existence of culture. So the importance of culture cannot be ignored in order to better understand the deep meaning when studying proverb, a culture-loaded word, and more attention should be given to perspective of culture.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Language and Proverb<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that language is the product of culture since culture is culturally transmitted from the view of linguistics. Therefore, proverbs are composed of a set of words, which are selected from a particular language community. Take English and Chinese for example, they both represent their special culture and unique characteristics respectively. More importantly, proverbs are the crystal of language, which can be used as a convenient tool to understand different cultures for language is the bridge leading to culture.<br /> <br /> 2.3 Value and proverbs<br /> <br /> Value is associated with sorts of people’s live and is defined by these people living in a specific area. Value of appreciation on people is an obvious example that eastern and western countries have extreme angles on how to appraise a person. Tanned skin and jeans clothes are symbols as to select people whom they like more, but for eastern, white skin and Qipao maybe are thresholds for people to judge a person whether he or she is more stylish. Value of eating is still a big mark to differentiate race or natality. Cooked meal in china and salad in the west make the difference that eating habit is so little sameness on each other. There are still more, living environment and national policy if is related to country. All of them shape all kinds of values which are on behave of its countries or people. Like east or west, home is the best means “金窝，银窝，不如自己的狗窝.” Proverbs are not just created form nowhere but they are existed for ages and still available only if they are still reflecting meaningful viewpoints. <br /> <br /> Language is a part of culture and also at the same time a reflection of culture. Taking Chinese and English for example, they belong to different language families, therefore there exist some distinctions between them. Chinese people usually don’t say daring or family name directly, which is so different from western people who call their parents’ name and say sweet words without any concerning of awkwardness or shyness. It works to proverbs, and that is the social custom defining a society what is their core valve. <br /> As far as we know, social value between western country and eastern country are of great differences. In western country, self-awareness and individuality are mostly emphasized, but for eastern, more attention is given to collective wisdom and working in groups. Like Chinese proverbs “ 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。”and in English proverbs such as “ God helps those who help themselves.” From above being said that it has a lot benefits to study proverbs to better understand culture and language.<br /> <br /> 2.4 Cultural Similarity on Chinese and English Proverbs<br /> <br /> Without any effort it can tell that Chinese and English are defined by different language families. Even so, Chinese and English proverbs shared some similarities in various ways, which are performed in different form and speech of proverbs. Because there exist universal truths and life styles, they are more or less understood by people from society to society. Like the truth of the universe in the definition of right and wrong and subjects including philosophy, math, chemistry, they are all developed separately in different areas but shared and summarized by all members form all the world. In this point, proverbs play the role in spreading some common knowledge and experience to the outside world, though forms are created by different society, they are carrying the same meaning or implying one way or another. Examples like “a snow year, a rich year(瑞雪兆丰年), strike while the iron is hot, and a neighbor is better than a distant cousin.” All of them are proved to share universal life experience and truth in the everyday life. Because people live under the same sky, sun, star, they go on making their living by hard working.<br /> <br /> It is no exaggeration to say that cultural exchanges are rapidly happening all over the word, and foreign culture may be assimilated by domestic culture or rejected by its opposite expression of culture. In this sense, we have same expressions in different ways of forms, like “情人眼里出西施” (Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder). They are describing the same thing but with different cultural background, therefore they sometimes have similarities in one way or another.<br /> <br /> 2.5 Cultural Difference in Chinese and English Proverbs<br /> <br /> Without a doubt that cultural similarities surely make translation easier in understanding foreign proverbs, but they are not silver bullets to taking all the proverbs into consideration. When it comes to separate boundaries which cut the Earth into serval parts, under this context, local culture will be formed and promoted in its own birth place. One of the most common features of culture is religion in western and eastern country, because western people have belief in God, Chinese people believe in Buddhism, which are of two great differences. That is the reason why in the process of translation, factor of culture has to be reckoned, especially in the new eras. <br /> As Nord have ever put forward in Translating as a Purposeful Activity that ―A culture-specific phenomenon is one that is found to exist in a particular form or function in only one of the two cultures being compared‘‘ (Nord,2001:34), therefore culture will be compared at a time when people have different perceptions on things, in which language would be the first. The grammatically sentence structure and the pronunciation for example, have little in common regarding they belong to different language family.<br /> <br /> Living environment is an element on deciding the formation of proverbs. Traditional Chinese people were busy doing farming, agriculture, so there are proverbs associated with them. Like “ 瓜熟蒂落” means things will be done when they are mature, and “人靠血样，苗考水活”means blood is a necessity for existence of human being as well as water to seedlings.” Moreover, a fruitful harvest is dependent on the weather, producing proverbs such as “三月三，著蓑衣，三月十五冷凄凄”, which means lunar early month has heavy and the middle is heavily cold. But for English proverbs, which are to a large extent related to fishery or marine affairs such as “to sink or swim”, “to keep one’s feet above water” and so many. Therefore both of the proverbs are created surrounding environment. <br /> <br /> Except for living environment, living customs are also reflected on formation of proverbs. In different communities, people have different perception of things like animals. In Chinese proverbs, “杀鸡取卵” which equals to “kill the goose that lays golden eggs”, in which different animals are choose represent local customs. English proverbs would say that “look for a needle in a haystack”, which has a Chinese counterpart as “大海捞针”. It means that doing something is as difficult as finding out a small piece in an immerse container. Dog is also a featured sign that stand for different views in Chinese and English proverbs. In China, although dog is loyal to his master, it always leaves unrespectable impression on people, on the contrary, English love dogs and cherishes them so much sometimes even more than their family. <br /> Different cultural heritage and religious beliefs are also play a key role in the formation of proverbs. It is not hard to refer that understanding proverbs on the bases of translation is convenient for study foreign culture. With all the differences and sameness, within the range of translation, culture is a must during translation <br /> <br /> ==='''Chapter 3 Translation Strategies for English Proverbs'''===<br /> <br /> Translation strategies have long been studied for a long time, during that time, domestication and foreignization have been considered as dominating strategies that were applied by a lot of scholars. Cross-culture exchange has gained great trend, especially in those years global communication between countries develops rapidly. It is true that here exists another method like “functional equivalent” created by famous scholar Eugene Nida who claims that in the process of translation source text and target text are both considered as author and reader are separated by the language or culture. The best function of translation is aiming to make source text as readable as reader-oriented text, which is popular in centuries ago in the era of underdeveloped cultural exchanges. In Chinese culture, the history of translation can also be traced to hundreds of years ago, some brilliant point of view like “信，达，雅”by Yan Fu, then it was changed into “信，达，切”by Liu Chongde. It means that translated text in which the flavor of text should be close to its original color of its culture. Taking what translation strategies into consideration should comply with the trend of culture exchange and its development. <br /> <br /> 3.1 Domestication and Foreignization<br /> <br /> Domestication is a target language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into reader’s meet. It is compatible with the taste of people who think their country is strong enough to set international standard and in which all other countries will prepare for the transmission of culture. It is the assimilation that causes translator to change resource text into native flavor. But for this phenomenon, the reason is that people’s recognition is limited and their hold self-importance to the most, therefore, everything from outside will be transmitted into domestic flavor. As communication of culture and technology grows rapidly and each country would like to strengthen its comprehensive power by take into foreign culture. As for translation strategies, which are still be reckoned which one should be adapted. Foreignization is a source language oriented translation device, which is to change the flavor into author’s meet. The roots of the terms “domestication” and “foreignization” can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher‘s argument in 1813 in a lecture on the different methods of translation, he found only two methods of affecting the domestic reader‘s understanding of the foreign author, “Either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him.” (Venuti, 2004:19-20).<br /> <br /> In China, some scholars also have put forward their own opinions about the definitions of domestication and foreign. Among them, Lu Xun’s opinion is famous. He claimed that domestication was as “rewriting, changing the foreign story into Chinese story and changing the foreigners into Chinese” (罗新璋,1984:301), while foreign was “translation is like going abroad traveling, it must reflect the scene and flavor of the foreign country concerned.”(ibid,1984:301) <br /> Expect the definition of domestication and foreignization, translator when doing the work of translation should consider the perspective of culture and the intention of the writer as well as reader whether they want to the culture of source text to be originally intact or changed into readers’ culture.<br /> <br /> 3.2 Foreignization over Domestication for Translation<br /> <br /> As far as social development is concerned, cultural exchange is more frequent than now or ever. In previous centuries, domestication is always been advocated by Chinese and western translators, as the exchange of economy and culture is not as common as today. Countries blindly think themselves as the leading one, so naturally take translated text as a respect from other countries. In translated works, any trace of alien culture is eliminated, in favor of own country’s culture to be admired and promoted. The awareness of culture is not developed people only unconsciously find that in their mind anything enters into their country is no foreign at all, because every product from aboard will be transferred into familiarly native fruit with sense of closeness. In another way, people at that time are barely having the chance to access to education, in particular for poor family most of them are illiterate. It is without saying that no room is left for people in their countries to study culture abroad while native culture still did not gain completely popularity. From the above being mentioned, at an early age, domestication has upper hand indeed. So in choosing translation strategies, it is no doubt that it should be domestication centered. <br /> <br /> For another thing, as technology and economy develop from nowhere, cultural exchange between countries has witnessed great changes in the past decades. In highly developed areas, people in their countries universally receive full education in which their counties’ historical culture has been deeply absorbed. So, in the process of translation, foreign culture as novel things fulling with exotic flavor has attracted people a lot to see the differences and experience a foreign journey. The untouchable place of domestication did not enjoy its popularity an anymore for its limitation of spreading of foreign culture. Therefore, foreignization became more and more important as translation tool in the view of people’s eye. It not only translated the original foreign text into native character, but also carried the foreign special into domestic text. Take china for example, although as a developing country in the Asian, china has so much say in the stage of the world in the aspect of culture and world peace. Language as the bridge of communication, have to be understood by others in the way of translation. In one way or another, domestication and foreignization can both play the role in the translation, but from the perspective of culture, foreignization seems to weigh more in nowadays choosing translation strategies.<br />  <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> Proverbs are culture-loaded words that has been transmitted and renewed from generation to generation as well as the changes of different eras. As a part of language and the product of culture, it is no exception that proverbs can be a medium, which offer the opportunity to learn language and culture. With the advent of new technology and wide economic communication, translation is playing an indispensable role in this process. Proper translation strategies are essential that whether foreign culture should be taken into consideration since it stands as the soft strength of a country. By considering this, foreignization has more superiority when compared with domestication. Foreignization as a trend translation, keeping the original culture intact to target readers, meanwhile can enrich a native country’s culture and expand vocabulary. There is no doubt that domestication is not totally worthless, regarding proverbs has multiple varieties, which cannot be translated simply by foreignization, therefore domestication is worked as supplementary tool assisting foreignization in translation. <br /> <br /> Foreignization leaves the culture of source text untouched, wishing to give target reader exotic environment where readers experience different aspects of culture, like religion, belief, custom and others.<br /> <br /> In the end, as cultural development and social progress is moving forward, foreignization has more advantages than domestication.<br />  <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> [1] 边晓霏. 从文化视角探究谚语翻译[MA]. 保定:河北大学, 2013.<br /> [2] 陈金诗. 英汉谚语的特征与翻译[D]. 武汉:中南民族大学, 2006.<br /> [3] 董晶,刘亚楼.英语谚语的文化内涵与翻译方法[J]. 河北联合大学学报(社科<br /> 版),2015,(1): p: 100-103.<br /> [4] 付艳丽. 跨文化语境下英语谚语翻译的意蕴与特征表达[J]. 济南职业学院学报, 2016,(4): p: 90-91.<br /> [5] 丁敏. 从文化视角看英语谚语的翻译[D]. 西安:西安外国语大学, 2014.<br /> [6] 郭敏. 英汉谚语中的文化差异及其翻译[D]. 重庆:西南大学, 2008.<br /> [7] 韩娇阳. 从谚语英汉互译中看文化缺省及其补偿策略[D]. 长春:吉林大学,2009.<br /> [8] 陆道恩.文化视角下英语谚语的翻译技巧[J]. 高教学刊, 2015, (24): P:257-258.<br /> [9] 李克时. 论英语谚语汉译的异化趋势[MA]. 南京:南京农业大学,2009.<br /> [10] 刘卫平. 文化视角下的美国谚语翻译[D]. 桂林:广西师范大学, 2008.<br /> [11] Li, H. A Study of Film Subtitle Translation from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization[MA]. Shenyang: Liaoning University, 2012.<br /> [12] Mo, L, H. A Study on Chinese and English Proverbs about Marriage from the Perspective of Contrastive Linguistics[MA]. Nanning: Guangxi University, 2014.<br /> [13] Mao, Q. A Study on the Proverbs in Shakespeare’s Play in Their Chinese Translations in the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor[MA]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal Univeristy, 2017.<br /> [14] You, X, J. A Contrastive Study On Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese and Its Influence on the Chinese-English Translation of Ancient Fables[D]. Suzhou: Suzhou University, 2009.<br /> [15] Zhao, C, H. A Study on Proverb Translation from Cross-Cultural Perspective[D].<br /> Changchun:Jilin University, 2012.<br /> <br /> ==Subtitle Translation Strategies of Cultural-Loaded Words from the Perspective of Skopos Theory 刘金惺琦 liu jinxingqi==<br /> <br /> ==Translation of Chinese Neologisms from the Perspective of Cross-cultural Translation Theory 解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637==<br /> &lt;center&gt;解帆 Xie Fan 202070080637&lt;/center&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> With the continuous enhancement of China's overall national strength and international influence, Chinese is playing an increasingly important role in communications and exchanges among countries all over the world. An increasing number of Chinese neologisms are used to express and describe the status quo. These neologisms invigorate Chinese culture, however, meanwhile, they make it harder for the world to understand Chinese. <br /> <br /> On the one hand, each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word construction and expression. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent sign systems. On the other hand, different ethnic groups have different historical traditions, religious beliefs and way of thinking, which increases the difficulty of understanding. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes indispensable in popularizing Chinese culture. Through reviewing relevant paper, it’s easy to find that the late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. Previous articles have pointed out these problems, but how to improve the quality of translation by avoiding them hasn’t been mentioned. This paper introduces the classifications and characteristics of Chinese neologisms, explains the significance of cross-translation theory to Chinese neologisms translation, and discusses ways of translating Chinese neologisms based on the previous viewpoints combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Key Words===<br /> Chinese neologisms; cross-cultural theory; English translation; strategies<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 跨文化翻译理论指导下汉语新词英译的研究<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 随着我国综合国力和国际影响力不断增强，汉语在世界各国沟通与交流中起到越来越重要的作用，用来表达和描述社会状态的汉语新词也日益增多。这些新词给中国文化带来生命力的同时，也给世界人民理解汉语带来了困难。<br /> <br /> 一方面，语言本身存在着不可译性，每种语言在其组词造句、表达方式上都具有其独特性，现实中并不存在两种完全对等的符号系统。另一方面，不同的民族有着不同的历史传统、宗教信仰、思维方式，这尤其增加了语言理解的难度。因此，跨文化翻译成为中华文化传播过程中的重要一环。通过翻阅相关资料，不难发现由于汉语新词的英译起步较晚，国内外相关翻译研究尚未成熟，因此在英译汉语新词的过程中出现了一些问题。前人已有相关文章指出过这些问题，但没有提出如何才能避免这种问题、提高译文质量。基于前人的相关理论和观点，并结合实例，本文将首先介绍汉语新词分类及其特点，然后说明跨文化翻译理论对于英译汉语新词的意义，最后介绍在跨文化翻译理论下英译汉语新词时的几种方法，希望为后续规范汉语新词英译行为提供必要参考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 汉语新词；跨文化翻译；英译；策略<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> With the growing power of China and the further improvement of the globalization, China's contact with other countries in the world has become closer. And how to maintain Chinese culture’s uniqueness when it is introduced to the world has been the top priority for translators. The development of China has given birth to a large number of Chinese neologisms with its uniqueness. The society changes with each passing day, covering from international affairs to domestic matters. Against this background, neologisms are likely to be derived. These words attract widespread attention and gradually enter people's daily life. Since the implementation of the reform and opening up to the outside world, a great number of Chinese neologisms have appeared. <br /> <br /> Not only do these neologisms with Chinese characteristics vividly show Chinese people’s understanding of their unique phenomena, but also they largely enrich the expression of Chinese. However, at the same time, these words pose serious problems for translators as well. On the one hand, the differences between Chinese culture and western countries’ culture are numerous, which makes it hard to find equivalent of Chinese neologisms in English. On the other hand, with the times going forward, the number of Chinese neologisms is steadily increasing, which results in difficulties in translating Chinese neologisms into English. Therefore, Cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms into English becomes prevailing. Cross-cultural translation theory was proposed by Mary Snell Hornby in her well-known representative book Translation Studies: an Integrated Approach. She believes that translation is not a process of decoding or the transformation of language symbols, but also the transformation of cultural patterns. Due to the rapid development of Chinese society in the past decade, more and more translators have turned to Chinese neologisms, making the study of English translation of Chinese neologisms a new focus. Chinese Translators Journal, Lexicographical Studies and other authoritative academic journals have set up columns for translation of Chinese neologism. There are also vocabulary books compiled according to the specific types of Chinese neologisms, such as Chinese-English Expressions of Current Events by Yang Quanhong and English Translation of Buzzwords and Sayings by Chen Dezhang. In addition, the most representative ones include Yang Quanhong's Approaches to Translation of Chinese Words and Expressions into English and Zhang Jian's On Translation of Chinese Press Neologisms into English. In the age of information, it is not hard to find English translation of Chinese neologisms on English learning websites such as https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, https://www.en84.com/ and so on. These websites have launched platforms for English translation of Chinese neologisms and updated them timely. So far, scholars have studied Chinese neologism from different perspectives. This paper is based on 138 related articles including these key words such as “cross-cultural theory” “Chinese neologisms” and “English translation” on http://kns.cnki.net. Fu Rong narrated the difficulties and methods in The English Translation of Chinese Neologism from a Cross-cultural Perspective. Zhou Hongjie elaborated on the basic principles, methods and key points in The English Translation of Chinese neologisms from a Cross-cultural Perspective. In addition, a majority of articles analyzed the status quo in the English translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, but few dwell on strategies of solving the problems during the course of translation. This paper introduces Chinese neologisms and its classifications and characteristic in the second section, the significance of cross-translation to Chinese neologisms in the third section and ways of translating in the fourth section. It is based on the previous viewpoints and puts forward practical strategies to be followed in the translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-translation theory combining with examples.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 1 Overview of Chinese Neologisms===<br /> <br /> Neologisms are words new in connotation or form. In other words, they can either be new words created to express new concepts and phenomena in line with times or existing words given new meanings. These words help the further development of language, embody Chinese people's latest understanding of the world with the times going forward, and enrich the expression and promote transmission of Chinese language. (Fu Rong, 2015: 80) To better translate Chinese neologisms into English, we need to have a deeper understanding of Chinese neologisms, including its classifications and characteristics.<br /> <br /> 1.1 Classifications of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, Chinese neologisms can be classified into four categories, namely, old words endowed with new meanings, Chinese abbreviations, newly generated words and loan words.<br /> <br /> Old words endowed with new meanings, as the name suggests, are existent words that have been endowed with new meanings for reuse even though have been forgotten for a long time. (Li Chunjiang, 2015: 62) Take “备胎(spare tire)”as an example, which refers to an extra tire carried in a motor vehicle for emergencies. It now refers to a back-up, second line, just-in-case, or a B-plan or contingency, in other words, someone who is benched now. Besides, “粉(powder)”originally refers to fine powder used for makeup or paint, while it means having a crush on or adoring a famous celebrity now. With the changing society of China, the essential characteristics of the things or phenomena referred to by the old words have changed as well. Because of the uniqueness pf Chinese words, it may be defective to use substitute words and fail to reflect the pun. Not only does endowing the existing words with new meanings produce connection between old words and new meanings, but also reduces the trouble of creating new words.<br /> <br /> Chinese abbreviations are the result of refining existing words. The process of extracting mainly depends on the importance of each part of the words. Those significant parts are selected to replace the lengthy words. The most common Chinese abbreviations can be divided into three forms. First, extracted initials. Such as “哥哥(brother)--GG”, “笑死我了(It’s so funny that I have a shortness of breathe)” and “漂亮小姐姐(good-looking sister)--PLXJJ”. Second, syllable imitation. Such as “呜呜呜 (onomatopoetic words of cry)--555”, “我爱你一生一世(I love you forever)--5201314” and “不要这样子(don’t do like this)--表酱紫”. Third: reduced words. Such as “很累，感觉不会再爱了(feel so tired that will not fall in love again)--累感不爱” and “躺着也中枪(a lying person can be shot as well)--躺枪”. Chinese abbreviations have their own laws of forming, so it is easy for us to understand as long as we recognize the laws of them. Besides, in the premise of reflecting the principle of simplicity and the purpose of economy frugality, Chinese abbreviations are helpful to ensure goog rationale and high semantic transparency. Nowadays, people are always pursing a simple and peaceful life, which gives rise to the frequent use of abbreviations. Nevertheless, the abbreviations of words should neither be arbitrarily imitated, nor be simply carried out by way of analogy. Instead, the abbreviations with the widest social acceptance should be selected through investigation and evidence collection from multiple aspects.<br /> <br /> Newly generated words can be roughly divided into two types. The first is generated through metaphors, similes and metonymy. For instance, “虎妈(tiger mom) is defined as strict disciplinarian mothers who demand high achievement from their children and maintain control of their activities”, and“猫爸(cat dad)”refers to fathers who take a more softly approach to parenting, preferring to be emotionally sensitive, gentle and relaxed about rules and discipline, and they are in the belief that this kind of parenting will make their offspring self-sufficient and independent. With new things coming in, people need words to describe them but there are no ready expressions at hand. The metaphorical use of some expressions will do the job as it will reflect the same essence of the objects through metaphor. The second type is created with the arrival of new phenomenon. For instance, “APEC蓝” is employed to describe the quality air and the exceptionally blue sky in Beijing during the APEC meeting in 2014. And “蒜你狠”is used to illustrate the price of garlic which soared more than 100 times in 2010, even outstripping meat and eggs. A great number of new phenomena and new concepts spring up, however, it’s hard to describe them with the existing words. Under this circumstance, the vocabulary system needs to produce more new words to meet the requirements of social communication.<br /> <br /> The advancement of globalization, communication and cooperation in some fields among countries are deepening day by day, which inevitably bring changes in language, and that is so-called “Chinese localization”. Loan words are “transformed” into Chinese words in accordance with the rules of pronunciation, semantics, structure and grammatical system of Chinese. In the mid-1970s, Taiwanese used “show--秀” as morphemes to match with &quot;做&quot; and &quot;作&quot;. To the surprise of the editor, these newly created words were so well-received in the entertainment industry that a large number of words such as “歌舞秀、双人秀、真人秀、脱口秀”were produced. Nowadays, the neologism “秀儿” referring to those who like to show off their resources is widely accepted. Similarly, “博客、思客、播客、朋客、创客”appeared one by one. “客” was derived from “黑客(hacker)”, in other words, the word group of “X客” were generated. <br /> <br /> 1.2 Characteristics of Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> In order to have better quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, translators need to have a deep insight into its characteristics. Chinese neologisms are characterized by cultural uniqueness, simplicity, vividness and uncertainty.<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms come from a wide range of sources, but they all have roots in China. Some are based on Chinese culture. For instance, “山寨(mountain fastness)”originated from Water Margin, which used to refer to the place where the poor live. But when used online, the original meaning is transformed to plagiarism, imitation, parody and other popular cultural phenomena. Others are on the basis of customs. Take “红色炸弹(red bomb)” as an example. Since Chinese traditional wedding ornament is red, the word &quot;红色炸弹(red bomb)&quot; is used to describe the overwhelming wedding invitations. <br /> <br /> We are living in a fast-paced era. The speed of generation and transmission of information are accelerating. Under this situation, we crave for cost-effective communication. This status quo requires concise language. Chinese abbreviations exactly exemplify the simplicity. Abbreviations are condensed with rich information content, and effectively reinforce the expressiveness of Chinese vocabulary. Therefore, the number of abbreviations in vocabulary increases rapidly.<br /> <br /> The appearance of Chinese neologisms meets people's needs to describe an object or a phenomenon more vividly. Such as “人艰不拆” means that since life has been so hard, some things should not be exposed. And “酸菜鱼”is used for persons who are jealous, ugly, and redundant to make fun of themselves. “剁手党”refers to the addicted shopping crowd. They buy countless things, but often regret after calming down, even vow to chop off their hands if they don't act rationally next time. The vividness of Chinese neologisms adds humorous effects to the expression.<br /> <br /> With the crazy tempo of life, Chinese neologisms emerge in an endless stream. For one thing, with the increasing influence of network to people's life, online language is a shock to traditional language since many words are not compatible with Chinese language system. For another, neologisms fade away with the end of an event and are quickly replaced by neologisms with the times.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 2 Cross-cultural Translation Theory and Its Significance===<br /> <br /> As Chinese neologisms are rooted in Chinese culture, translators are supposed to turn to cross-cultural translation theory when translating Chinese neologisms into English. Hence, having a deep insight into it and its significance helps improve the quality of translation.<br /> <br /> 2.1 Hornby’s Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> Cross-cultural translation theory refers to translation across cultural divide and be less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. Cross-cultural translation theory was put forward by German translation theorist Mary Snell-Hornby. From her perspective, translation is a kind of cross-cultural communication. In this way, translators should not only have a bilingual ability, but also the cultural backgrounds of the source language and the target language. In reality, there are no two completely equivalent language systems. Each language has its own uniqueness in terms of word formation, sentence construction and expression, which is even more distinctive in translating into the target language with totally different economic, political, social and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, cross-cultural translation becomes a rigid demand. In the process of cross-cultural translation, translators are supposed to strike a balance between Chinese style and maximize the recipients’ understanding and acceptances’ of Chinese culture. Mary Snell-Hornby proposed that translators should skillfully switch the two languages in the process of translation as well as deeply dig into the culture backgrounds behind the two languages. In other words, translation is more bicultural transformation than bilingual transformation. (Wang Weidong, 2011: 78).<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, the cultural deposits have a direct bearing on the expression of words, its connotations and emotions. Hence, translators must take these factors into consideration in translation. Cross-cultural translation theory has the following requirements for translation, which can be divided into three aspects: first, to express the meaning of the source language. Second, to dig out the cultural connotation of the source language. Third, to convey the emotion of the source language. Only when translator meets the three requirements above can the quality of the translation be guaranteed.<br /> <br /> 2.2 Significance of Cross-cultural Translation Theory<br /> <br /> The significance of Cross-cultural Theory to English Translation of Chinese Neologisms can be divided into the following three aspects. The British historian Dr. Toynbee once said, it is not surprising to say that the 21st century belongs to East Asia led by China for China’s control over East Asia is not merely political, but cultural. Though East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan maintain their political independence, they are strongly influenced by Chinese culture.” Therefore, promoting English translation of Chinese neologisms is very important for enriching the world language system, improving China’s soft power and introducing Chinese culture into the world.<br /> <br /> 2.2.1 Learning the Chinese Idiomatic Expression<br /> <br /> Translators can learn the rules of Chinese word-formation and characteristics of Chinese expression in the process of translating from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory. There are great differences between Chinese and English word-formations. Take the three main forms of Chinese neologisms as example. Subject-predicate forms, such as “私聊” and“群聊”; Verb-object forms, such as: “煞风景”“抬杠”; Complementary forms, such as: “吓尿”and so on. In English vocabulary system, most compound words are in the form of nouns, while Chinese has a variety of parts, such as verbs, nouns and adjectives. Translators can grasp the characteristics of Chinese word-formation through the translation and readers can understand the Chinese idiomatic expression. <br /> <br /> 2.2.2 Spreading Chinese Culture Contained in Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Chinese neologisms are produced in China’s distinctive environment, containing culture with Chinese characteristics. It is an effective way to spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms through cross-cultural translation. For example, “打虎” and “拍蝇” have become buzzwords in China these years. In fact, both above two neologisms are political terms. The “tigers” refer to corrupt officials at higher level and “flies” at grassroots level. Chinese neologisms are epitomes of China's development in a certain period, carrying much social information. The world can learn about the development of China through Chinese neologisms. Accordingly, determination of Chinese government to take out “tigers” and swat “flies” can be seen through these coinage of new terms such as “打虎” and “拍蝇”. Therefore, cross-cultural translation helps spread Chinese culture contained in Chinese neologisms.<br /> <br /> 2.2.3 Conveying Emotion Expressed by Chinese Neologisms<br /> <br /> Emotional expressions are essential to translation of Chinese neologisms. Translation of Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory helps to convey emotion expressed. For example, it is not proper to translate“和事佬”into“peacemaker”. In Chinese, “和事佬”refers to persons who are unprincipled and blindly promote reconciliations, with derogatory meaning. While in English, “peacemaker” refers to those who create and safeguard peace, with commendatory emotions. Therefore, if the cross-cultural principles are violated in translation, there will be differences in the expression of emotions, which will hinder the expression of real emotions and lead to misunderstanding.<br /> <br /> ===Chapter 3 Methods of Chinese Neologisms Translation===<br /> <br /> To improve the quality of Chinese neologisms translation, translators need to have a full knowledge of problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms, and then avoid them by choosing appropriate ways of translating and following principles of cross-cultural translation theory.<br /> The late start of English translation of Chinese neologisms results in the immature translation of Chinese neologisms both at home and abroad, with some problems existing in the process of the translation of Chinese neologisms. <br /> <br /> Nowadays, it is common to see rigid translation, which leads to failure to convey its true meaning. For example, if “我好方”is translated into “I’m so square”, it will confuse readers. In fact, this neologism refers to people in panic. As its word “方”pronounces similarly to the word “慌”，it is employed to make fun of those who can't distinguish between “f”sound and “h” sound. Similarly, “蓝瘦，香菇” can’t be translated into “blue monsters and shiitake mushrooms” for it refers to “I’m so sad that I’m going to cry”. Hence, rigid translation will result in misunderstanding. Not only should we make translations interesting, but also we need to ensure they are correct.<br /> <br /> Many Chinese neologisms, after being translated into English, can express their meanings accurately, though fairly lengthy. For instance, if“无语”is translated into “have nothing to say”, it seems a little bit lengthy. We can translate it into“speechless”, instead. When translating Chinese neologisms, translators are supposed to use as few words as possible to accurately convey as much information as possible, making readers spend as little time as possible to understand them.<br /> <br /> Till now, many neologisms lack Chinese uniqueness after being translated into English. For example, “杠精”will lose the uniqueness the word“精”carries if it is translated into“argumentative person”. In China, “精”commonly describe demons and ghosts, with derogatory meaning, such as those used in“白骨精”“蜘蛛精”and“蜈蚣精”. In this case, it is not proper to translate“精”into “person”. Therefore, we need to ensure Chinese culture be spread in the process of translation.<br /> <br /> 3.1 Transliteration<br /> <br /> Transliteration is the translation of Chinese neologisms into English which sounds similarly to Chinese. Transliteration of Chinese neologisms into English can fully retain the pronunciation of Chinese and traditional Chinese culture. What’s more, it is more efficient.<br /> <br /> Zeng Lisa once proposed that translators should accurately convey more information with as few words as possible, so that the audience can obtain the clearest and smoothest information with as little time as possible. Transliteration gives priority to efficiency and can meet the requirements of the fast pace of modern society, improve the communicative efficiency of readers, and save space for readers' cognitive ability to play. <br /> <br /> For example, &quot;大妈&quot; is transliterated into &quot;dama&quot; and entered the Oxford dictionary. In addition to this, there are a sea of transliterations of Chinese neologisms in modern English vocabulary, for example: &quot;风水&quot; (fengshui), &quot;八卦&quot; (bagua), &quot;太极&quot; (taichi), &quot;气功&quot; (qigong), and &quot;武术 &quot;(wushu), &quot;功夫&quot; (kungfu), &quot;胡同&quot; (hutong), &quot;麻将&quot; (mahjong), &quot;叩头&quot; (while), and so on. Transliteration makes Chinese neologisms widely spread and its culture behind. However, if translators stick to the literal interpretation or explanatory translation of some words, it may lead to cumbersome words and poor quality. <br /> <br /> 3.2 Literal Translation<br /> <br /> Literal translation is one of the efficient way of translation. Literal translation enables us to directly find equivalent expressions in English in terms of form, style and connotation, which is the perfect embodiment of &quot;commonness&quot; between English and Chinese. Above all, literal translation helps promote Chinese culture.<br /> <br /> Language carries and transmits culture, as it is the heart of the cultural system. Culture influences and even shapes language, which is the foundation of language and the source of innovation. In the current context of cross-cultural communication, translation is not only a process of language conversion, but also a process of cultural transplantation.The transmission between eastern and western cultures is practical in theology, but it is limited in reality. Chinese neologisms are the most active part of Chinese vocabulary, which reflect the way of thinking, values, customs and lifestyles formed by the Chinese people in the new natural and social environment. Therefore, literal translation works for spreading Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> In modern English, examples of literal translation of Chinese neologisms can be found everywhere, such as “一国两制--one country, two systems”, “二孩政策--two-child policy”, “希望工程--Hope Project” and “好久不见long time no see” and so on. Literal translation is straightforward, concise and efficient. Not only can it effectively reduce the boredom caused by the transformation from Chinese to English, enrich the expressiveness of English, but also maximize the retention of Chinese cultural.<br /> <br /> Therefore, it is necessary to interpret or add annotations in the context, otherwise it is difficult to convey its Chinese characteristics and cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 3.3 Free Translation<br /> <br /> Free translation is another way of translating, which emphasizes the relative independence of both Chinese and English. On the one hand, differences exist in different language systems including grammatical constructions and expressions. On the other hand, there are quite a few distinctions between different cultures including historical traditions, religious beliefs and even ways of thinking, ways of thinking. Therefore, sometimes free translation is required to avoid misunderstanding and disputes.<br /> <br /> Free translation refers to reproduce the matter without the manner, or, the content without form. Put another way, it explains the general idea of Chinese neologisms. For example, “豆腐渣工程” refers to the construction project that collapsed or did not comply with relevant regulations due to cutting corners in the construction process. It is translated into English as “jerry-built project”. “白色污染”, the pollution of the environment by plastic waste that is difficult to degrade, is translated as “plastic pollution”. In a word, although the paraphrased neologisms need not strictly stick to Chinese, it can better reflect the meaning of Chinese.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> The emergence of Chinese neologisms demonstrates a new face of China. Neologisms are new in content, form, and content, which are produced to express new concepts and phenomena. However, due to the obvious cultural differences between China and western countries, there are many obstacles in the course of translating Chinese neologisms into English. Neologisms are perhaps the number one problem for non-literary translators and professional translators. Under this circumstance, cross-cultural translation of Chinese neologisms becomes a prevailing trend. Cross-cultural translation refers to translating crossing cultural divide and being less influenced by factors such as politics, religions, regions and ideologies. In a way, translating Chinese neologisms into English from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory can help to promote understanding of Chinese. In another, it can effectively convey the emotions expressed by neologisms. Moreover, it can help to promote the spread of Chinese culture. In spite of the continuous standardization and improvement of translation, there are still some problems in the process of translating Chinese neologisms into English, such as rigid translation, wordy translation and translation with cultural loss. English translation of Chinese neologisms may be a daunting problem, so we need translators with joint efforts, both stick to effective translation methods, flexible and innovative, and latest changes, in order to improve the overall quality of translation of Chinese neologisms, thus speak up aloud in the international community. In this paper, three main strategies are suggested, and they are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. To better translate Chinese neologisms from the perspective of cross-cultural translation theory, translators need to adopt compatible ways of translating with different types of Chinese neologisms and target readers. On the one hand, it is necessary to fully grasp Chinese neologisms, which requires translators to have more knowledge of Chinese cultural background and Chinese idiomatic expression. On the other hand, we should find the way of translating which is most accepted by readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, Chinese neologisms are constantly updated with the development of the society. If we do not keep pace with the times and know the latest meaning of Chinese neologisms, it may lead to misunderstanding. (Tian Longjiao, 2013: 160) Therefore, translators should constantly supplement, update or revise the English translation of those Chinese neologisms without definite translation, which is an important guarantee to keep the English translation of Chinese neologisms accurate. Advancing with the times often requires translators to pay close attention to the post-translation effect. On the other hand, translators should also constantly draw on new English words. Chinese neologisms have strong timeliness, especially with the increase of Internet users, hence, at any one time emerge Chinese neologisms which are closely associated with the society. In short, in the process of translation, translators must pay attention to riding on the trend of the times so as to update the expression of the target language and readily accepted by readers. Update expressions means keeping up with the development of the times and use idiomatic English to illustrate new things, new words and new expressions. <br /> In other words, on the basis of grasping the exact meaning of Chinese neologisms, we should make it understood in English. Translators should not only improve their ability to understand Chinese, enhance their ability to translate Chinese into English, but also be keeping with the times so as to introduce more Chinese neologisms into English and continuously inject more Chinese elements into English. 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''中国翻译''Chinese Translators Journal<br /> <br /> ='''Translation of Dish Names'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the C-E translation of Chinese dish names:From a Functional Equivalence Perspective 刘洋诺 Liu Yangnuo==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> With increasing global influence, the task of cultural communication is a formidable project. Translation as a media plays an important role in cultural communication. A Bite of China, a TV program to introduce Chinese dishes, has gained popularity at home and abroad, thus broadcasting Chinese dishes. But difficulties in translating Chinese dishes are evitable considering abundant culture-loaded expressions and complex cooking skills. The essay discusses theoretical and practical significance of researching Chinese dish names. We summarize some point of views from other scholars. Also, we analyze the difficulties in translating Chinese cuisines from a functional equivalence perspective. Combined with translation examples, we discuss three strategies for translating Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> '''Keywords'''<br /> <br /> Chinese-English translation; Chinese dish names; functional equivalence<br /> <br /> '''摘要'''<br /> <br /> 中国国际影响力不断提高，文化交流的使命更加艰巨。翻译作为文化交流媒介，其重要性也不容忽视。中国饮食文化节目《舌尖上的中国》在海内外热播也进一步推动了中国特色饮食文化的传播，但是其丰富的文化内涵和多样的烹饪技巧也给译者带来不少困难。本文探讨研究中国菜名翻译的理论和实践意义，总结中国菜名翻译目前的研究成果。从功能对等理论出发，分析中国菜名翻译的困难，同时也结合翻译实例，提出三个中国菜名翻译的策略。<br /> '''关键词''' <br /> <br /> 中译英；中国菜名；功能对等<br /> <br /> '''I.Introduction'''<br /> <br /> As the old Chinese saying goes, food is the God of the people. In other words, we regard food as the primary need. Chinese cuisine has a firm connection between our daily life and Chinese culture. But when it comes to Chinese cuisine, there are many aspects left for us to consider, such as the etiquette of dining table, dietary structure or habits, the art of dietary decorations and cultural connotation. In the chapter, we will mainly focus on Chinese dish names. From semantic linguistic point of view, there are two structure in a language. The surface structure is Chinese dish names themselves, but the deep structure is the meaning behind these dish names. It’s not surprising that we will discuss the relationship between some Chinese dish names and their cultural connotation in the later part of this chapter. Chinese dish names are endowed with Chinese culture through culture-loaded expressions or idioms. When we dive into our research, it’s easy to find out that behind some dish names from historical stories and anecdotes are layer upon layer of meanings. Although the majority of us understand the importance of translating Chinese dish names, good translations still remain in the dark. The reasons abound, ranging from a great variety of Chinese dishes and difficulty in fully understanding of cultural connotation behind Chinese dishes.<br /> <br /> The chapter takes functional equivalence coined by Eugene Nida as a theoretical basis. In the first part, we look back on previous studies on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names. In the second part, we try to discuss difficulties in translating Chinese dish names in terms of basic information and cultural backgrounds. In the third part, we review functional equivalence theory. In the last part, we turn to discuss the possibility of applying the theory into translation practice on Chinese dish names in order to improve C-E translation of Chinese cuisine. We consolidate commonly used strategies into three combined with translation examples in reality. And then we summarize what we have discussed before and to point out limitations of this chapter. The purpose of our research is to have a better understanding of our own culture and transmitting Chinese culture to foreigners. Apart from cultural aspect, cultural communication interconnects with economic and political aspect, which is one of reasons why China attaching much importance to cross-cultural communication and transmission.<br /> <br /> '''II.Previous Studies on the C-E Translation of Chinese Dish Names'''<br /> <br /> There are some scholars who have paved the way for our further researches. Among these researches, almost all of scholars share the same Chinese cultural background. Some of them describe strategies for C-E translation of Chinese dish names based on several translation theories. Others analyze the C-E translation of Chinese dish names at restaurants abroad. Zhang Tingli (2015) summarized six characteristics of Chinese dish names based on A Bite of China, a popular TV program in China. Below are six characteristics: place names plus ingredients, personal names plus ingredients, main ingredients plus supplementary ingredients, cooking procedures, various flavors and cultural elements. Li Weiwei (2017) wrote a report on Chinese-English cuisine interpretation under the guidance of Skopos Theory, including the Skopos rule, the coherence rule, the fidelity rule and the loyalty rule. Che Yimo (2019) summarize three principles to analyze the menu translation quality of a Chinese restaurant based on cross-cultural communication theories. The three principles include semantic proximity, cultural communication and aesthetics. Xue Jingnan (2015) involves an analysis of the translation of Chineseness by Chinese-Candians in food discourse from a cultural perspective, which providing a glimpse into Chinese culinary identity. Similiarly, Lee Yi Yan (2016) mainly focus on cultural and sociological phenomenon behind Chinese food. His research is based on two types of popular Chinese food narratives: Ang Lee's Eat Drink Man Woman published in 1994 with a televisual documentary series A Bite of China released in 2012. As the chapter published in International Communication of Chinese Culture (2018), four scholars collected from Malaysian Chinese weddings and the lunar new year celebration in order to investigate the concrete and abstract naming of Chinese dishes and to discuss the common cultural considerations underlying them. They found that concrete naming deals with the tangible aspects of a dish by incorporating method of preparation, taste/aroma, appearance of dish, as well as container used. Under the guidance of their chapters, we are able to explore more in this infinite sphere. We pay tributed to great efforts they have paid. While researches on the C-E translation of Chinese dish names have spread into most sectors, researches from a functional equivalence theory are few because previous scholars mainly apply Skopos theory and cross-cultural theory into their researches. In the chapter, we will discuss the C-E translation of Chinese dish names coupled with functional equivalence theory. In the next part, we will turn to existing problems in the C-E translation of Chinese dish names.<br /> <br /> ==The Untranslatability and Loss of Meaning in Chinese Dish Names Translation 袁雨晨 Yuan Yuchen==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> ==A Study of English Translation of Chinese Dish Names from the Perspective of Domestication and Foreignization -- Taking Hunan cuisine an Example 邬香 Wu Xiang==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> As a bright pearl in the storehouse of traditional Chinese culture, catering culture plays a more and more important role in the increasingly frequent cross-cultural communication. However, there are many problems in English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the neglect of cultural connotations of dishes, and the lack of unified translation standards. Foreignization and domestication can effectively solve the above problems. From the perspective of foreignization and domestication this chapter takes the English translation of Hunan cuisine as an example, and uses different translation strategies for realistic and freehand dishes from the linguistic and cultural levels. Although domestication and foreignization can not remove all the obstacles in English translation of dish names, they can help to accurately express the meanings of dish names, reflect their cultural connotations, and promote cultural exchange and dissemination.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Chinese dish names; English translation; domestication and foreignization; cross-cultural communication<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 饮食文化作为中国传统文化宝库中一颗璀璨的明珠，在如今日益频繁的跨文化交流中的作用愈发重要。但是目前中国菜名英译中出现不少问题，主要包括使用直接生硬的表达方式、忽略菜肴文化内涵、缺乏统一的翻译标准。运用异化和归化翻译策略能有效解决上述问题。本章拟从异化和归化的视角出发，以湘菜英译为例，针对写实型和写意型菜肴从语言和文化层面使用不同的翻译策略。尽管归化和异化不能清除菜名英译中所有的障碍，但其有助于准确表达菜名含义，体现其蕴藏的文化内涵，促进文化交流与传播。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 中国菜名；英译；归化和异化；跨文化交流<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> After thousands of years of precipitation and inheritance Chinese food culture has emerged on the international stage and gradually gained the favor and recognition of foreigners. In today's society cultural exchanges between countries and nations are increasingly frequent. As a cross-cultural communication activity, translation refers not only to the process of language conversion, but also to the process of cultural transformation and dissemination. Because Chinese food contains a large number of cultural and artistic features, which reflect the Chinese cultural landscape, we have different translation versions in the process of translating Chinese dishes. This is not conducive to the spread of Chinese culture. It’s known that translation strategies of domestication and foreignization can retain the cultural elements in the original text to the greatest extent. As one of the eight major cuisines in China, Hunan cuisine has its unique characteristics and rich cultural heritage, so it is suitable to adopt domestication and foreignization in English translation. Many domestic scholars focus on specific translation methods and skills in the research on translation of dish names, and rarely consider the translation strategies of foreignization and domestication. However, it is necessary to clarify what kind of translation strategy to adopt before choosing appropriate translation methods and skills, because the implementation of the former is reflected in the application of specific translation skills, while the application of the latter requires certain translation strategies (熊兵, 2014). Therefore, this chapter will discuss the application of translation strategies of domestication and foreignization in the English translation of traditional Chinese dish names based on the corpus of Hunan dishes.<br /> <br /> ===2.Exiting problems in English translation of Chinese dish names===<br /> <br /> Chinese food culture is extensive and profound. It has a long history. The importance of English translation of Chinese dish names in cross-cultural communications between China and foreign countries is self-evident. However, there are many problems in the English translation of Chinese dish names, such as the use of direct and rigid expressions, the lack of unified translation standards, and the ignorance of the cultural connotation of dishes. These problems make foreigners and some domestic English learners confused. In the following, I will analyze in detail with examples.<br /> <br /> 2.1 The use of direct and rigid expressions<br /> <br /> China has a vast territory and abundant resources. The eating habits and cooking methods in different regions of the country are different. Some dishes are named after myths, legends and allusions, while others are complex in cooking methods and various in ingredients. Direct and stiff expressions can‘t express the rich connotations of these dishes, and even make people funny. For example, if &quot;Jiaohua chicken, a whole chicken roasted in caked mud&quot;(叫花鸡) is translated into &quot;beggar's chicken&quot;(叫花子的鸡), it does not reflect the origin and the cooking method of this dish. It is said that in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty, a beggar in Changshu（常熟，a city of Jiangsu province） got a chicken by chance. He had no cooking utensils and seasonings. So he had to put the chicken into the mud to simmer and roast it. When the chicken was cooked, it knocked off the mud shell, and the aroma overflowed. It became a delicious dish. Another example is that &quot;木须肉&quot; is translated as &quot;wood mustache meat&quot;（木头胡子肉）. This translation is confusing and does not reflect the main ingredients of this dish. I think that it is appropriate and reasonable to translate it into &quot;stir fried pork with eggs and black fugus&quot;.<br /> <br /> 2.2 The lack of unified translation standards<br /> <br /> At present there is no uniform international standard for the translation of Chinese dish names, which leads to the emergence of multiple translation versions in the book market and restaurants. It brings inconvenience and trouble to foreigners and seriously affects the spread of Chinese catering culture. For example, there are several different translations of &quot;麻婆豆腐&quot; in China: bean curd with minced pork in hot sauce; Mapo Tofu; tofu made by woman with freckles. The last translation is not very appropriate and easy to cause disgust. Foreigners are familiar with the translation of &quot;Mapo Tofu&quot; and have already accepted it, so it is acceptable not to explain it. The first translation is to make people salivate. It reflects the method and raw materials of this dish. There are also many ways to translate &quot;宫保鸡丁&quot;, including &quot;Kung Pao chicken&quot;, &quot;fried diced chicken in Sichuan style&quot; or &quot;sautéed chicken cubes with chili and peanuts&quot;. So many translation versions will not only make readers confused, but also fail to reflect the characteristics and cultural connotation of Chinese dish names. Therefore, the translation of the unified dish names is one of the problems to be solved in correctly understanding Chinese cooking culture.<br /> <br /> <br /> ===3.Translation strategies of domestication and foreignization ===<br /> <br /> ===4. Application of domestication and foreignization in English translation of Hunan cuisine===<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Studies'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu==<br /> <br /> ==Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> In the context of economic and social globalization, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on local national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain the cultural characteristics of the source language to the greatest extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture from three perspectives: the necessity of foreignizing translation, the limitations of foreignizing translation and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> foreignizing translation; national culture<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本文章从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的局限性以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。<br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 异化翻译：民族文化<br /> <br /> ==='''1.Introduction'''===<br /> The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for the translated text will be more easily accepted by the target language readers. Although this may attract more target language readers, in the translation process of &quot;domestication&quot;, we allow the source language culture to adapt to the target language culture, and even replace the source language culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality of cultural production and transformation is concerned, this is likely to cause the development of the homogeneity of the cultures of various ethnic groups, and this does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization, and is not conducive to maintaining the cultural uniqueness of various ethnic groups. A typical domesticated translation in Chinese-English translation is David Hawkes's translation of &quot;red&quot; in ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''. Considering the different understanding of red in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated &quot;怡红公子&quot; as &quot;green boy&quot;. Although this translation is conducive to the understanding of western readers, it also loses the cultural connotation of Chinese red. In the context of Chinese culture, &quot;red&quot; mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With such kind of domesticating translation, western readers can never really understand the real Chinese culture. Compared with domesticated translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture.<br /> <br /> ==='''2.The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br /> The concept of foreignization translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St.Jerome in ancient Rome, which is the embryonic form of literal translation. The most famous translator in the early Middle Ages, Manlius Boethius, had a rich view of literal translation as (1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving content, neither can be achieved. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments. During the Renaissance, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation method. In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: (1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent. Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation method is for the translator to follow the original author's meaning ; if possible, follow his words closely, and finally reproduce his character as much as possible. Charles Batteux believes that the first translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible.<br /> <br /> From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained at the level of language meaning, content and formal style. The development in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology has gradually extended and developed literal translation, which is the basis of Western foreignizing translation ideas.<br /> <br /> Friedrich Schleiermacher put forward two very different translation methods in his famous speech entitled &quot;On Different Translation Methods&quot;: the translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader close to the original author; or let the reader as much as possible stay still and make the original author approach the reader. He advocated that the first translation method, the foreignizing translation method, is the real translation method, allowing readers to appreciate foreign customs and respecting language and cultural differences.<br /> <br /> Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves in themselves, so language itself is translation. Benjamin emphasized the directness of language and intended to subvert the bourgeois instrumental language view. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation method, retaining the language form of the original text, that is, the difference in the way of meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation method is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. It is to achieve the ultimate goal of pure language human salvation.<br /> <br /> Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of &quot;translation ethics&quot; in the book &quot;The Test of Difference&quot; in response to the traditional translation thought centered on &quot;the transmission of meaning&quot; that has long dominated the western translation world. The translation ethics advocated by Berman is to respect the original work and respect the language and cultural differences in the original work. To this end, he advocates foreignizing translation, implements foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translated text, enriches himself through the introduction of &quot;others&quot;, in order to achieve his goal of translation ethics.<br /> <br /> Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, the concept and terminology of &quot;foreignizing translation&quot; have not been promoted to the agenda of translation studies until 1995, when Lawrence Venuti published his famous book &quot;The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation&quot;. Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology. Its rich connotations can be summarized in the following five points: differences in material selection, language Differences with culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the target language culture, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. In other words, Venuti’s translation ethics emphasizes the absorption and acceptance of the “other” as the “other”. On the one hand, it respects the language and cultural differences of the foreign other, and on the other hand, it can be used to challenge the culture of the target language. Mainstream values<br /> <br /> ==='''3.The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation '''===<br /> Translation circles have different definitions of foreignizing translation, but generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that preserves the characteristics of the source language, which will help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’ perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1.The Need of Language Development'''====<br /> As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges among countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation played a very important role in this process. The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary did not exist in the target country, but through the translator's foreignizing translation, a large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people. And it can be widely disseminated and used in popular culture. For example: &quot;honeymoon&quot; (蜜月), this word had no corresponding expression in Chinese at the time, and its meaning (the first month of the wedding) did not exist in Chinese at that time. It was Lin Shu's method of alienation. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey &quot;蜜&quot;, moon &quot;月&quot;) to form the word &quot;蜜月&quot;. This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese. There are also many other words, such as &quot;咖啡（coffee）&quot;, &quot;丁克（DINK）&quot;, and &quot;可乐（cola）&quot;, which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as &quot;Jiaozi(饺子）&quot;, &quot;tofu（豆腐）&quot;, &quot;Kungfu（功夫）&quot; originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. Once these foreign words are accepted by the society，they are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language alienation. The alienation of language is the general trend, and it cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing method actually follows the universal law of language development.<br /> <br /> The influence of foreignizing translation is not limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level (Wang Kefei, 2002:458). When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he discussed a dozen of foriegnizing translation of syntaxes. Facts have proved that the foreignized syntax of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the Chinese vernacular. Modern Chinese is also influenced by Western languages, and the frequency and scope of passive voice use have expanded. Passive form was used as early as in ancient Chinese, but it is rare, and it is generally used to express misfortune or unpleasant experience. Affected by the translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant things. It means that the syntax of source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language.<br /> <br /> It can be seen that the use of foreignization translation method can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some vocabulary and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this kind of thinking, they showed great importance to the language form of the original text.<br /> <br /> In China, Mr. Lu Xun has always advocated foreignization translation for the purpose of importing new expressions to develop vernacular Chinese. &quot;Chinese are too imprecise...To solve this problem, I thought I had to endure a little bitterness one after another and put in strange, ancient, foreign syntax. Then we could take it as ourselves.&quot; (Chen Fukang, 1992:298). In the fifteen or sixteen years after the May Fourth Movement, many writers and translators consciously adopted the foreignization translation method under the advocacy of Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai and others. Their works not only absorbed a large number of Western vocabulary, but also used some syntactic structures of Western languages, which gradually overcomed the lack of vocabulary and thin sentence structure of ancient Chinese, and promoted the final development and maturity of the vernacular.<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2.The Need of Culture Communication'''====<br /> Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which all have contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depends more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems.<br /> <br /> Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and new expressions. The French philosopher Derrida believes that &quot;translation is to play with similarities and differences in endless analysis.&quot; Through translation, we can achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.<br /> <br /> In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential source language culture. Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors and behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. For this kind of proverb, if you blindly adopt the domestication translation method, translate &quot;God help those who help themselves&quot; as &quot;自助者天助&quot;, and translate &quot;The mills of God grind slowly but sure&quot; as &quot;天网恢恢 疏而不漏&quot;. Then, for most Chinese readers, they may never understand the true religious culture of the West.<br /> <br /> Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices. This is the only way to multiculturalism. When the phrase &quot;Praise is not pudding&quot; is translated into &quot;赞美不能当饭吃&quot;, it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. But the cultural connotation of pudding for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of &quot;赞美不能当布丁吃&quot; highlights the importance of pudding in the translation. Another example is the proverb &quot;Unkissed, unkind&quot;. If it is translated as &quot;不作揖，不友善&quot; by using domesticating translation method, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the original culture. Therefore, using foreignizing translation method, &quot;不亲吻，不友善&quot; can make readers understand the difference between Western etiquette and Chinese, and will not cause obstacles in cultural exchanges.<br /> <br /> ==='''The Limitations of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''The Influence of Foreignizing Translation'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Work Cited'''===<br /> <br /> == Analysis on the Key problems in Chinese-English Translation and Corresponding Solutions ----- Based on Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation 姜好 Jiang Hao==<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'': From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing==<br /> <br /> ===解释学视角下''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''译本的对比研究===<br /> <br /> ===ABSTRACT===<br /> <br /> Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary <br /> translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic <br /> theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and <br /> fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and <br /> translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. Then the author and translator <br /> of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.<br /> <br /> ===Key words: Hermeneutics; ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''; historicity of understanding; fusion of horizons; effective history===<br /> <br /> ===摘 要===<br /> <br /> 解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密<br /> 切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫<br /> 人的''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。随后介绍了''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对<br /> 译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。通过以上分析，笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的<br /> 时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：解释学；''Uncle Tom’s Cabin''；理解的历史性；视域融合；效果历史===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s. In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, &quot;You are the little woman who caused a great war.&quot;<br /> <br /> The influence of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'' on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers. The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of <br /> different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.<br /> <br /> Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into <br /> hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic <br /> philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of &quot;history of understanding&quot;, &quot;fusion of horizons&quot;, and &quot;history of effects&quot; in his works. These three <br /> principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In <br /> view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'', I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.<br /> <br /> ===1.Literature Review===<br /> <br /> This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' <br /> Guide to Translation Studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.1. Development of Hermeneutics==== <br /> <br /> Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a <br /> philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, the <br /> messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of <br /> hermeneutics is the &quot;interpretation&quot; of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, <br /> modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics（郑立平，易新奇，2015：101-104）.<br /> <br /> The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must <br /> explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language <br /> understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. With the continuous secularization <br /> of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of <br /> literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were <br /> deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods.<br /> Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of &quot;historical rational critique&quot;, concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.<br /> <br /> Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they are called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics as a dual task of theory and practice lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom” (洪汉鼎，2010:459).And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.<br /> <br /> ====1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics====<br /> <br /> Gadamer always believed that the term &quot;Hermeneutics&quot; came from Hermes &quot;Hermes&quot;, one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he believed that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that stood before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but should be an act of creation. He believed that the author's &quot;intent&quot; does not exist, and the search for the author's &quot;intent&quot; is also futile. <br /> <br /> As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the &quot;historicity of understanding&quot;, Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons. The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.<br /> <br /> ====1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies====<br /> <br /> As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.<br /> <br /> First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text（章启群，2002:77）. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.<br /> <br /> Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical roots of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.<br /> <br /> Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.<br /> <br /> ===2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators===<br /> <br /> This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.<br /> <br /> ====2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe====<br /> <br /> Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers. <br /> <br /> Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war&quot;. This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.<br /> <br /> ====2.2. Lin Shu====<br /> <br /> Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.<br /> <br /> At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission in translating this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. Translator Lin Shu ’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.<br /> <br /> ====2.3. Huang Jizhong====<br /> <br /> Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.<br /> <br /> ===3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics===<br /> <br /> The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation（陈宏薇，2004：24）. Therefore, in the following chapter, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.<br /> <br /> ====3.1. Comparative Analysis from a Linguistic Perspective====<br /> <br /> The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese. Then they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis=====<br /> <br /> Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:<br /> <br /> 1. “Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe, 2011:3)<br /> <br /> 林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(林纾&amp;魏易，1981：4)<br /> <br /> 黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（黄继忠，1993:3）<br /> <br /> This paragraph comes from the first chapter of ''Uncle Tom’s Cabin'', where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong. The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts.<br /> According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. (谢天振，2000：204) &quot;Fusion of Horizons &quot; overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through &quot; Fusion of Horizons &quot;.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon=====<br /> <br /> Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:<br /> <br /> 2. “I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom” (Stowe, 2011:44)<br /> <br /> 林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (林纾&amp;魏易，1981：14)<br /> <br /> 黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。” （黄继忠，1993:30）<br /> <br /> This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word &quot;忸怩久之&quot;, showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of &quot;忸怩&quot;. However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of &quot;pre-understanding&quot;. Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word &quot;忸怩&quot; added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of &quot;pre-understanding&quot;，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” (Gadamer H, 1999:250) Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own &quot;pre-understanding&quot; in the process of understanding and translating the source text.<br /> <br /> 3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe, 2011:132)<br /> <br /> 林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(林纾&amp;魏易，1981：45)<br /> <br /> 黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（黄继忠，1993:94）<br /> <br /> When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as &quot;一代伟人&quot;, thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as &quot;正人君子&quot;. &quot;正人君子&quot; used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as &quot;真正的绅士&quot;. It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as &quot;married&quot; and &quot;my wife&quot; were translated by two translators as &quot;出阁&quot;, &quot;结婚&quot; and &quot;吾妻&quot;, &quot;内人&quot; respectively. These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---&quot;effective history&quot; and &quot;pre-understanding&quot;. The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text.<br /> During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary work in the same era, and different versions of the same literary work will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax=====<br /> <br /> 4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe, 2011:44)<br /> <br /> 林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (林纾&amp;魏易，1981：14)<br /> <br /> 黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （黄继忠，1993:30）<br /> <br /> In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.<br /> <br /> According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.” ( 柳晓辉, 2010: 125 )Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text. However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities.<br /> <br /> 5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe, 2011: 2)<br /> <br /> 林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(林纾&amp;魏易，1981：3)<br /> <br /> 黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（黄继忠，1993:1）<br /> <br /> This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel. This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words &quot;家亦少康&quot;, while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.<br /> <br /> In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats &quot;faithfulness&quot; as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the &quot;prejudice&quot; caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.<br /> <br /> ====3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective====<br /> <br /> British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is &quot;a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society&quot;.(Hebding&amp;Glick,1992：37) Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，the translator must bring the characteristics of his own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translator's language and culture are different from the original author's culture.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective=====<br /> <br /> A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating this religious content, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:<br /> <br /> 6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe, 2011: 95)<br /> <br /> 林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (林纾&amp;魏易，1981：34)<br /> <br /> 黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（黄继忠，1993:72）<br /> <br /> In the above example, &quot;Christian&quot; is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.<br /> <br /> This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the &quot;misreading&quot; phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of &quot;misreading&quot;. This &quot;misreading&quot; also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.<br /> <br /> 7.There were others，which made incessant mention of “Jordan’s bank”,and “Canaan’s field”, and the “New Jerusalem”. (Stowe, 2011: 46)<br /> In the above example, there are many religious words, such as &quot;Jordan ’s bank&quot;, &quot;Canaan ’s field&quot;, and &quot;New Jerusalem&quot;. Lin Shu chose to omit them, while Huang Jizhong chose to translate them literally, translating them into “约旦河岸”、“迦南战场”and“新耶路撒冷”. These words are all from Bible and contain a wealth of referential meanings. The development of Christianity in China in the two eras was different, which was the key reason for the difference in translation between the two translators. Lin Shu's translation version is related to his era, and is closely connected with his own translation purpose. The different translation versions of the two translators are in line with their own horizons and knowledge structure, and they can also meet the readers' expectations. The different treatment methods for the religious content appearing in the original text fully reflect the translator's subjectivity and creativity. Both translators have contributed wonderful translation versions to readers of different eras.<br /> <br /> From a perspective fusion perspective, Gadamer believes that &quot;the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint.&quot; Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture. (朱健平，2006:69-74)The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image=====<br /> <br /> Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：<br /> <br /> 8. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe, 2011:73）<br /> <br /> 林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（林纾&amp;魏易，1981：25）<br /> <br /> 黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（黄继忠，1993：49）<br /> <br /> The word &quot;fire&quot; was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.<br /> <br /> In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word &quot;五内如焚&quot; to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of understanding. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the &quot;Horizon&quot; of original text and the translator’s &quot;Horizon&quot;. Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.<br /> <br /> 9. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe, 2011:215）<br /> <br /> 林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(林纾&amp;魏易，1981:75)<br /> <br /> 黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（黄继忠，1993：143）<br /> <br /> A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture（李磊，2008）.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word &quot;honeymoon&quot;, so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.<br /> <br /> From the perspective of hermeneutics, literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking. (邹广胜，2001，（4）：2) . Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of &quot;faithfulness, elegance, and elegance&quot;, we must also take into account the reader's understanding.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works. 2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of &quot;creative treason&quot; will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method[M]. Beijing: Peking University Press, 1999:250.<br /> <br /> Hebding, Daniel E. &amp; Glick, Leonard. Introduction to Sociology: A Text with Reading[M]. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1992:37.<br /> <br /> Stowe, Harriet Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin[M]. Jilin: Jilin Publishing Group Co., Ltd, 2011:2、3、44、46、73、95、132、215.<br /> <br /> Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001:56.<br /> <br /> 陈宏薇.新编汉英翻译教程[Z].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2004:24.<br /> <br /> 洪汉鼎.诠释学：真理与方法[M].北京：商务印书馆, 2010:459.<br /> <br /> 黄继忠.汤姆大伯的小屋[M].上海:上海译文出版社, 1993:1、3、30、49、72、94、143.<br /> <br /> 李磊.从伽达默尔哲学阐释学看Uncle Tom’s Cabin 的两个中译本[D].上海外国语大学硕士学位论文, 2008.<br /> <br /> 林纾,魏易.黑奴吁天录[M].北京:商务印书馆, 1981:3、4、14、25、34、45、75.<br /> <br /> 柳晓辉.译者主体性的语言哲学反思[J].外语学刊, 2010，（1）：122-125.<br /> <br /> 谢天振.翻译的理论建构与文化透视[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000:204.<br /> <br /> 邹广胜.读者的主体性与文本的主体性[J].外国文学研究, 2001,（4）：1-7.<br /> <br /> 朱健平.翻译即解释:对翻译的重新界定----哲学诠释学的翻译观[J].解放军外国语学院报, 2006,（2）：69-74.<br /> <br /> 郑立平,易新奇.翻译过程中文本理解的解释学阐释[J].外语学刊, 2015,（04）:101-104.<br /> <br /> 章启群.意义的本体论----哲学阐释学[M].上海:上海译文出版社, 2002:77.<br /> <br /> ==Comparisons of Translation in China and Western Countries from Different Historical Perspectivesr 彭丹 Peng Dan==<br /> <br /> ==On Subtitle Translation of Why Women Kill from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence Theory 唐铭 Tang Ming==<br /> <br /> ==The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan==<br /> <br /> ='''Translation Criticism'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On Translation Criticism-based on back-translationTranslation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng==<br /> <br /> ==Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin==<br /> <br /> ==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br /> <br /> ==Contrast between literal translation and free translation 刘艺 Liu Yi==<br /> <br /> ='''Cultural Differences'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue==<br /> <br /> ==Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies 马娟 Ma Juan==<br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies;<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''The Influences of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''The Coping Strategies of The Influence'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''=== <br /> ==Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn 吴琪 Wu Qi==<br /> <br /> ==The influence of cultural differences on translation methods 姚佳 Yao Jia==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''key words'''===<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> The long-term transmission of culture must depend on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become the cultural transmission between countries. There are some differences between Chinese and Western social values and ways of thinking. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are simply understood from the expression. In addition, different nationalities are often influenced by their own cultures in the process of historical development, which will also lead to mistakes in Chinese and English translation. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They began to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.<br /> <br /> ===The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation===<br /> <br /> Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Historical Background<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Thinking Mode <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 2.3 The Social Customs<br /> <br /> ===Influences of cultural differences on translation===<br /> <br /> 3.1 Lexical gap <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 3.2 Semantic conflict<br /> <br /> <br /> 3.3 Use specific translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences<br /> <br /> ===The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences===<br /> <br /> 4.1 Focus on the work itself<br /> <br /> <br /> 4.2 Focus on the reader <br /> <br /> <br /> 4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Work Cited===<br /> <br /> ==Study of Domestication and Foreignization in Cross—Culture Translation 李海泉 Li Haiquan==<br /> <br /> ==Characteristics of Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong==<br /> <br /> ==The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠 Yang Ziling==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> Abstract: As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics. Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.<br /> <br /> Key Words: TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory<br /> <br /> 摘要：中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。<br /> <br /> 关键词：旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论<br /> <br /> I. Introduction <br /> China is a large tourism country with rapid development of tourism industry. Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material(hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.<br /> TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors.<br /> Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012:70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.<br /> This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed. <br /> Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.<br /> <br /> II. Literature Review <br /> <br /> III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences<br /> <br /> IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules <br /> <br /> V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory<br /> <br /> VI. Conclusion <br /> <br /> References<br /> <br /> ='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On the study and analysis of three kinds of beauty and transformation in the mid autumn festival prelude to water melody under the guidance of functional equivalence 林敏 Lin Min==<br /> <br /> ==Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong==<br /> <br /> 摘 要：随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。<br /> <br /> 关键词：功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法<br /> <br /> Abstract: With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.<br /> <br /> Key Words: corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:12, 30 October 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==A study of Functional Equivalence in Translating the Prose——A Case Study on Cong Cong 汤伊然 Tang Yiran==<br /> <br /> ==Functional Equivalence Theory and Functional Translation in Translation Studies 阳慧 Yang Hui==<br /> <br /> ==A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on ''The Lion King'' 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei==<br /> 摘要：儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。<br /> <br /> Abstract: Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of ''Lion King'', the thesis makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.<br /> <br /> Key Words: Children's Psychological Characters, Children's Literature, Equivalence Theory --[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''History of Translation'''=<br /> ==Quality evaluation of translation 谭鑫洁 Tan Xinjie==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> == Abstract: ==<br /> This article mainly discusses the history of Chinese translation from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the founding of New China to the present, and then discusses the history of Western translation from the fourth century BCto the seventeenth century to the present, and then compares the similarities and differences of Chinese and Western translations from the time of development of Chinese and Western translations and their origins.<br /> <br /> ==='''key words'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> ===Complete transcript of the content of the original work ===<br /> <br /> ===Same style and manner of writing===<br /> <br /> ===Equivalent effect===<br /> <br /> ===Discussion===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China 王煜 Wang Yu==<br /> ===摘要===<br /> 翻译是一种跨文化交流活动，翻译活动加快了人类文明发展步伐，减少了人们之间的沟通障碍。随着时代的变迁，中国和西方国家逐渐形成了各自的翻译史，翻译史的研究是学科建设的一项基础工程。尽管中西方翻译史在某些方面有所差异，但却都有着各自的独特性，并对人类的翻译活动产生了巨大的影响与贡献。文章将以中国和西方国家为主要对象，从二者翻译史起始，包含阶段和各阶段代表人物，影响意义，差异性出发，对二者的翻译史进行简略的对比研究。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 翻译史；西方翻译史；中国翻译史<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Translation is an intercultural communication activity, translation activities have accelerated the development of human civilization and reduced the communication barriers between people of different countries or nations. With time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the western and eastern countries have gradually formed their own history of translation, the study of translation history is a basic project of discipline construction. Though there are many differences among the translation histories of western countries and China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright unique lights and have an indelible influence and contribution to human translation activities. This paper intends to make a brief comparison of translation histories between western countries and China, which includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.<br /> <br /> ===Keywords===<br /> Translation history; Translation history of the West; Translation history of China <br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> No matter in China or in the west, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history has made a great influence on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of the literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of language, and the history of translation is almost as old as language itself, it is closely related to the changes in today's society. Since the 1980s, the translation studies in the mainland of China have made remarkable progress in the curriculum design of Chinese and western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, there were many related works came out one after another including A brief history of Chinese Translation: the part before the May 4th Movement（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Zuyi Ma, A historical manuscript of Chinese translated literature （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Yugang Chen, and also the A Short History of Translation in the West（《西方翻译简史》） the author of which is Zaixi Tan. Thus, it opens the gate for the compilation of Chinese and western translation history works.（谢天振，2009） The history of western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a glorious history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes. Through the comparative study of Chinese and western translation history, it will help us to have a deeper understanding of Chinese and western translation activities and thus to gather a general full view of it, which will be a positive and meaningful attempt.<br /> <br /> 2. The Translation History of Western Countries<br /> Western translation activities are rich in a long history and a multiyear span. The history of western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: the traditional stage, the modern times and the contemporary. More specifically, it can be grouped into the ancient times, the middle ages, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.<br /> <br /> 2.1 The First Stage: Translation in the Ancient Times<br /> <br /> The translation history of western countries first began in the the 3rd century B.C. &quot;In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt, between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; Strictly speaking, the first western translation is the Greek Homer Epic Odyssey translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BC.”(谭载喜,2000) At the end of the 4th BC, during this time, the Greece began to decay and the Roman had became stronger and stronger with its military expansion. The expansion of the Roman Empire brought it into contact with the splendid Greek culture, therefore, the Romans not only conquered the Greek city, but also inherited and developed the brilliant achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then created a splendid cultural of its own era after Greece. So soon began a large scale translation activities, the activity of translating and introducing Greek classical works probably began in this period.（刘军平,2009）Many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome and so on, also the famous Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used Latin language to translate or adapt Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas. Started the translation tradition and promoted the birth and development of Roman literature.<br /> <br /> 2.2 The Second Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (4th-6th)<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Third Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (11th-12th)<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Fourth Stage: Translation in the Renaissance Period<br /> <br /> 2.5 The Fifth Stage: Translation after WWⅡ<br /> <br /> 3. The Translation History of China--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:43, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Translation manipulated by ideology 许静 Xu Jing==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:'''There has a long history and culture Chinese and Western translation, and translation plays an indelible role in promoting cross-cultural communication and cultural communication. This article first discusses the history of translation in China from four stages , then discusses the five stages of western translation history , and finally compares and analyzes the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western translation histories, and puts forward some of the author's own views.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:'''The history of Chinese,The history of Western,the stages of translation history,comparison<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''中西方翻译历史文化源远流长，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上承担着不可磨灭的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，再从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''中国翻译史，西方翻译史，翻译高潮，对比<br /> <br /> '''Ⅰ.Introduction'''<br /> <br /> Since the 1980s, the Chinese translation studies community has made remarkable progress in the establishment of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works.In the 1980s and early 1990s,A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China from Ma Zuyi and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars.The four stages in the history of Chinese translation have promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society to varying degrees.The same as our country, Western translation has an age-old history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.The five stages in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and to a certain extent promoted the development of Chinese translation.In fact, when we examine the development trajectory of Chinese and Western translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts together, we find that there are some similarities between Chinese translation and Western translation.Especially in the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts, the two have very similar evolution laws.<br /> <br /> ='''Literal and Free Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==Rethink Literal and Free Translation 彭永亮 Peng Yongliang==<br /> <br /> ==Examine the display of translators’ subjectivity in literary translation from the translation outlook of cognitive linguistics 宋建茹 Song Jianru==<br /> <br /> ==On the Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization 韦洪朗 Wei Honglang==<br /> <br /> ==On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei==<br /> <br /> ==Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi==<br /> '''Abstract：'''<br /> <br /> The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed problem in translation studies. To compare these two translation methods, the basic point is to understand the purpose of translation. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people who speak different languages can understand each other’s cultures. Due to the differences in social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, how to choose between the two translation strategies of literal translation and free translation requires translators to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of these two methods. This essay mainly compares literal translation and free translation between Chinese and Russian to help students and translators translate better.<br /> <br /> '''Key words：'''<br /> <br /> Translation strategies, Literal translation,Free translation <br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''<br /> <br /> 直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。想要将这两种翻译方法进行对比，最基本的一点就是要明白翻译的目的是什么。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，如何在直译和意译这两种翻译策略中做出选择，就需要译者衡量两种方法的利弊。本文主要对汉语和俄语间直译和意译进行比较，以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''<br /> <br /> 翻译策略，直译，意译<br /> <br /> '''1.Introduction'''<br /> <br /> The former Soviet Union translation theorist Fedorov believed: “Translation is an activity that expresses what has been used in one language as a unified whole of content and form, and accurately and completely expressed in another language.” Translation theorist Barr Hudarov also wrote: &quot;Translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content and meaning.&quot; To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect. In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived, of which literal translation and free translation are the most commonly used.<br /> <br /> Russian idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of the wisdom of the Russian nation and the immortal fossils in the Russian language, are one of the best materials for the Chinese to understand and learn Russian history, culture, and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, the Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have formed different cultural backgrounds. These distinctive backgrounds and characteristics have caused great difficulties for Chinese learning Russian to further understand Russia. This essay studies the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their respective advantages and disadvantages and their mutual relations, and strive to solve how to use the translation methods of literal and free translation to properly translate Russian idioms and proverbs, and how to reflect the cultural background and language characteristics of Russian idioms and proverbs in the translation .<br /> <br /> '''2.Different views of &quot;literal translation&quot; and &quot;free translation&quot;'''<br /> <br /> In different periods and different countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate about literal translation and free translation has always existed.<br /> <br /> In China, the contradiction between literal translation and free translation may initially be due to the different understanding of these two translation methods. The translator Sun Guiding believes that: literal translation is stuck to the structure of the original text and does not consider whether the Chinese is fluent and natural; while free translation is to use the inherent Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as much as possible to achieve the effect of conveying the meaning of the original text. Former President of Wuhan University, Du Zuozhou, believes that literal translation means translating word by word according to the original text; free translation means translating according to the meaning of the original text, and the translation is more suitable for the common grammar of the translated language. The educator Meng Xiancheng believes that literal translation is a translation technology with different degrees of correctness. Literal translation is a translation that is faithful and correct according to the original text; free translation is a translation that summarizes the original meaning. Zhu Guangqian said: &quot;The so-called 'literal translation' refers to the literal translation based on the original text. Every word and sentence are translated word by word, and the order of the words and sentences is not changed. The so-called ‘paraphrasing’ is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, and it does not have to be completely based on the literal and order of the original text. &quot; The principle of &quot;faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance&quot; put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard &quot;faithfulness and expressiveness&quot; as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. In addition, there are many differences between the original language and the target language in the word order, grammar, variants and rhetoric in the translation process. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. This requires the translator to consider the actual semantics, background and other factors. On the basis of the original meaning of the sentence, use an appropriate method to convey the content of the original work and reproduce the language style of the original work.<br /> <br /> In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, Western translation theories could not be widely disseminated, but within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to Western translation theories have been formed and developed, and two main schools of translation theory have been further differentiated — Linguistic Translation School and Literary Translation School. To a certain extent, the dispute between these two schools also reflects the debate on literal translation and free translation among translators' groups. In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work &quot;Summary of Translation Theory&quot;, which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. Fedorov’s view was refuted by the literary translation school represented by Ivan Alexandrovich Kashikin. The literary translation school believes that aesthetic issues are the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. In fact, the literary translation school emphasizes the translation of literary and artistic works, which belongs to the specific translation theory; while the research of the linguistic translation school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of all thematic works including literary works. The dispute between the two major translation theory schools of Russia and the Soviet Union provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''3.The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms'''<br /> <br /> The idioms of different nationalities are the most dynamic and expressive units at the lexical level in different languages, and they are also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture in languages. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, it records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life. Due to the great differences in geographical locations and living customs between China and Russia, the national cultures reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its imagery. When translating idioms, both the meaning and the image must be considered. Although the Chinese and Russian cultures are very different, many of the commonalities of mankind, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''3.1 Literal translation'''<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, the literal translation method refers to a translation method that directly translates the original text without changing the language characteristics and style of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. Chinese translation of Russian idioms by literal translation method has the advantage of being able to intuitively and faithfully express the meaning of the idiom, maintaining the unique style and imagery of the original text: the disadvantage is that the translated idiom may not be understood by the Chinese because of China and Russia have different historical, cultural backgrounds, grammatical structures, and language world landscapes, which can easily form obstacles in the process of understanding.<br /> <br /> Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.<br /> <br /> Literal translation of Russian idioms into Chinese idioms is suitable for the translation of Russian and Chinese idioms that are completely equivalent in image, structure, and meaning. The advantage is that it is easy to understand, and the translation is simple and fast. E.g:<br /> <br /> (1)домашнего (своего) вора не убережешься. 家贼难防<br /> <br /> (2)знать как свои пять пальцев (видно, как на ладони) 了如指掌<br /> <br /> (3)подлить масла в огонь 火上浇油<br /> <br /> (4)как рыба в воде 如鱼得水<br /> <br /> (5)как ножом по сердцу 心如刀割<br /> <br /> (6)как гром среди ясного неба 晴天霹雳<br /> <br /> (7)на добро отвечают добром 善有善报<br /> <br /> (8)копейка рубль бережет 财从细起<br /> <br /> (9)мечты сбываются 梦想成真<br /> <br /> (10)курица всегда следует за петухом 嫁鸡随鸡<br /> <br /> (11)чего мало, того и дорого (дорого то, что мало) 物以稀为贵(12)<br /> <br /> (12)изгонять яд с помощью яда 以毒攻毒<br /> <br /> (13)сидеть как на иголках 如坐针毡<br /> <br /> (14)действия громче слов 事实胜于雄辩<br /> <br /> (15)зарыть талант в землю 埋没人才<br /> <br /> (16)висеть на волоске 千钧一发<br /> <br /> (17)лить как из ведра 倾盆大雨<br /> <br /> The idioms in the above examples are completely equivalent in image, structure or meaning in Russian and Chinese, so Chinese idioms can be used for literal translation. <br /> <br /> In fact, in the two languages, idioms with the same image, structure, and meaning are still in the minority, so it is more common to translate Russian idioms into non-Chinese idiom sentences or vocabulary. E.g: <br /> <br /> настоять на своем 坚持自己<br /> <br /> камень с души свалился 心里的一块石头落地<br /> <br /> связать свою судьбу 把自己的命运与……相连<br /> <br /> быть на голову 高出一头<br /> <br /> вбивать в голову 往脑子里灌<br /> <br /> блеснуть метеором 像流星一样一闪而过<br /> <br /> с мизинец 小拇指这么大<br /> <br /> It is not difficult to find that the literal translation method can completely retain the original appearance of the idiom, show the common concept of human understanding of the world, and be beneficial to the cultural exchange between China and Russia.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''3.2 Free translation'''<br /> <br /> Another method commonly used in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. Free translation is to readjust the structure of the original text on the basis of keeping the original meaning of the idiom unchanged, and then reconstruct the Russian idiom with the way of thinking and expression in Chinese. This is because the figurative images used in many Russian idioms are inconsistent with those used in Chinese. If the original image is used in translation, it will cause a barrier to understanding. The advantage of free translation of Russian idioms is that it eliminates obstacles to understanding, but the disadvantage is that it cannot completely retain the original style and cultural characteristics. E.g:<br /> <br /> (1)В Тулу со свим самоваром не ездят.<br /> 直译：去图拉不用带自己的茶炊。<br /> 意译：多此一举<br /> <br /> (2)Честь лучше бесчестья.<br /> 直译：尊重比不尊重好。<br /> 意译：礼多人不怪。<br /> <br /> (3)словно горя с плеч<br /> 直译：把山从肩膀下卸下<br /> 意译：如释重负<br /> <br /> (4)выеденного яйца не стоит<br /> 直译：一个空蛋壳不值钱<br /> 意译：鸡毛蒜皮，一文不值<br /> <br /> (5)чужими руками жар загребать<br /> 直译：用别人的手将红炭火拨成一堆<br /> 意译：坐享其成，不劳而获<br /> <br /> (6)ни рыба, ни мясо<br /> 直译：没有鱼也没有肉<br /> 意译：不三不四，不伦不类<br /> <br /> (7)лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе<br /> 直译：天上的仙鹤不如手中的山雀<br /> 意译：远亲不如近邻<br /> <br /> (8)На языке мед, а под лед<br /> 直译：嘴上甜得像蜂蜜，心里冷得像冰<br /> 意译：笑里藏刀<br /> <br /> (9)И на солнце есть пятна<br /> 直译：太阳上也有黑点<br /> 意译：人无完人<br /> <br /> (10)семь раз отмерь, один раз отрежь<br /> 直译：测量了七次后再剪裁<br /> 意译：三思而后行<br /> <br /> Using free translation to translate Russian idioms requires the translator to accurately understand the meaning of the original text, because cultural differences make it impossible to literally translate. Only through the translator can an unobstructed bridge between Russian idioms and Chinese idioms be built.<br /> <br /> '''4.The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs'''<br /> <br /> There are often multiple translations of the same Russian proverb in Russian-Chinese dictionaries. On the one hand, because the translator uses different translation methods; on the other hand, because Russian proverbs have very rich connotations, a translation cannot perfectly interpret the inner meaning of the proverb. According to the context and the connotation of the proverbs, the most commonly used methods of Chinese translation of Russian proverbs are literal translation and free translation.<br /> <br /> '''4.1 Literal translation'''<br /> <br /> In Russian and Chinese languages, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implicit meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express a certain kind of the same semantics, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of synonymous Chinese proverbs can convey the information contained in the original image, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables the reader to perfectly understand the original text. E.g:<br /> <br /> (1)Куй железо, пока горячо. 趁热打铁。<br /> <br /> (2)Беда не приходит одна. 祸不单行。<br /> <br /> (3)Сытый голодного не разумеет. 饱汉不知饿汉饥。<br /> <br /> (4)Век живи, век учись. 活到老，学到老。<br /> <br /> (5)Выше встанешь, дальше увидишь. 站得高，看得远。<br /> <br /> (6)Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. 百闻不如一见。<br /> <br /> (7)Нет дыма без огня. 无火不生烟。<br /> <br /> (8)Шила в мешке не утаишь. 口袋藏不住锥子。<br /> <br /> (9)Береги платье снову, а честь смолоду. 衣服要从新的时候爱惜，荣誉要从年轻时珍惜。<br /> <br /> (10)Выше лба уши не растут. 耳朵高不过额头。<br /> <br /> (11)Для милого друга семь верст не околица. 为了好友，多绕七里也不嫌远。<br /> <br /> (12)Как Новый год встретишь, так его и проведешь. 怎么迎新年，就怎么过一年。<br /> <br /> (13)Лучше умереть стоя, чем жить на коленях. 宁愿站着死，绝不站着生。<br /> <br /> (14)Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей. 宁要一百个朋友，不要一百个卢布。<br /> <br /> По одежке встречают, по уму провожают. 迎客时看衣，送客时看才智。<br /> <br /> ==Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and excessive free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also the profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:46, 10 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> literal translation, free translation, word-for-word translation, over free translation, unity of opposites<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 作为翻译方法，直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)怎样使用的问题一直是一个争论中西方翻译界不休的焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在概念定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中。所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 07:50, 10 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===关键字===<br /> 直译； 意译； 死译； 过度意译； 对立统一<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.<br /> <br /> ===1.Dialectic thinking of the Unity of opposites===<br /> ===2.Word-for-word translation===<br /> ===3.Over free translation===<br /> ===4.Eclectic translation===<br /> ===5.Opposition and unity between literal translatiuon and free translation===<br /> <br /> ===5.1 Opposition===<br /> <br /> ===5.1.1 Opposition in definition===<br /> <br /> ===5.1.2 Opposition in application fileld===<br /> <br /> ===5.2 Unity===<br /> ===5.2.1 Unity in translation goal===<br /> ===5.2.2 Unity in translation procedure===<br /> ===5.2.3 Unity in translation standard===<br /> ===6.Conclusion===<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> == Peter Newmark’s Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation 赵茜 Zhao Xi==<br /> <br /> ='''Document Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai==<br /> <br /> On Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County<br /> <br /> Japanese Language and Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Hunan Normal University, Wu Kai--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> As one of the forefronts of Zhejiang’s opening-up cause, Cangnan County in Zhejiang Province has been enjoying a rapid development and an ever-growing degree of opening-up with lasting vitality as it’s supported by national policies and nourished by the dividends of economic globalization since China's reform and opening-up. As China has ushered in a period of major changes rarely seen in a century, Cangnan County is also facing new opportunities and challenges. Under the background of this era, Cangnan County is expected to make good use of its own advantages, especially the geographical ones—it is close to countries and regions including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—and should spare no efforts to achieve a higher level of opening-up, and, in turn, further promote its development. As an embodiment of the collective will of the people of Cangnan County, the official document is one of the best manifestations of its governance and stability control capabilities. For this reason, the research on how to translate official documents is of great significance for that it offers a great opportunity for Cangnan County to re-examine itself and to show the rest of the world its achievement in building a culture-enriched county.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> official document translation, Cangnan County, opening-up, Japan, South Korea<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 自中国改革开放以来，浙江省苍南县作为全浙江对外开放的前沿阵地之一，得到了国家政策支持和经济全球化红利的滋润，苍南县发展水平与对外开放程度日新月异，全县活力持久带劲。随着中国迎来“百年未有之大变局”，苍南县也面临着新的机遇和挑战，在此时代背景下，苍南县应该利用好自身优势，特别是临近日本、韩国、台湾等国家与地区的地理优势，努力开展更高层次、更高水平的对外开放事业，促进苍南更好的发展。为此，作为苍南县人民集体意志的体现，苍南县的公文就是对外展示其治理水平、稳控能力的最好的体现之一。而对于苍南县公文的如何翻译的研究，是促使苍南县重新审视自己、推进苍南人文县情传播海外的良机，意义重大。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> 公文翻译 苍南县 对外开放 日本 韩国<br /> <br /> ==='''I. System and Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County'''===<br /> <br /> The unique official document system adopted by Chinese government agencies is a special integration of the thousands-of-years excellent political traditions in China and the essence of the organizational structure of the socialist regime. As a county-level unit in China's local administrative structure, Cangnan County has an official document system that is consistent with the national ones in general while has its own features. Official documents of Cangnan County can be basically divided into the following types of writing: resolutions, decisions, orders, bulletins, announcements, notifications, opinions, notices, reports, requests for instructions, approvals, proposals, letters, and minutes. Above-mentioned categories are collectively known as official documents. Besides, there are also some types of practical writing, including summaries, plans, notes, memos, briefings, speeches, manuals and so on, that are often used in our day-to-day work.<br /> <br /> In addition to those characteristics of the official documents that are commonly seen in China, official documents of Cangnan County also have its own features, which is mainly reflected in the aspect of proprietary terminology. Cangnan County, which used to be a part of Pingyang County in Zhejiang Province, was officially designated as a county in 1981 with the approval of the Central Government. It takes its name Cangnan, which means “on the south of the Yucang Mountain”, from its geographical location. As a relatively young county-level administrative unit in China’s administrative divisions, Cangnan County has a complex natural endowment and cultural environment, which is the reason why there are many special proprietary terms used in the official documents of Cangnan County, such as “Beautiful South Gate of Zhejiang Province”, “Southern Ouyue (an ancient kingdom in modern Wenzhou and Taizhou)” , “South Gate of Jiangsu-Zhejiang Region” and so on. Moreover, Cangnan is also the birthplace of the “Wenzhou Model”. Since the implementation of policy for the exchange of production materials and commercial grains in 1984, Cangnan has become an important base for the experiments and development of Wenzhou's private economy and market economy, and, thus, has made a significant contribution to the great cause of China's reform and opening-up.<br /> <br /> To conclude, the unity of the official document system viewed from the national scope of China and the uniqueness of the official document system viewed from the local scope of Cangnan area are both reflections of the integration of economic, political, and cultural elements. Therefore, when translating the terms and sentences in these official documents, obviously, it is almost impossible to follow general translation theories, such as Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” theory which applies to literature translation, and Christiane Nord’ Skopos theory which emphasizes schematic analysis. Due to the features of the official documents of Cangnan County, it is hard to imagine the consequence it will cause if those Cangnan and Chinese elements they contain are missed when translating them. Therefore, the starting point for the translation and research of Cangnan official documents should be analyzing the official document itself, but not choosing which translation theory to apply.<br /> <br /> The translation method focusing on the official documents themselves is undoubtably the one that emphasizes the content while manages to achieve a similarity in form. Thus, the translation theory that meets the requirements of official document translation in Cangnan County shall be the functional equivalence theory of the American linguist Eugene A. Nida. Eugene A. Nida argued in his theory that translation is to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language to reproduce the informational function of the source language both semantically and stylistically. Nida’s definition of translation specified that translation is seeking equivalence not only in lexical meaning, but also in semantics, style and literary form. Translation should convey both the denotative and connotative meaning of a message. Regarding the equivalence of translation, he believed that the equivalence consists of four parts: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. Among the four aspects, he emphasized that the meaning the core and most important part, followed by the form. The form of a text is likely to conceal the cultural connotation of the source language and may, therefore, hinder cultural exchanges. Based on the above, the reasons why the functional equivalence theory is applicable to official document translation in Cangnan County can be concluded as follows:<br /> <br /> First, the functional equivalence theory advocates that the target text should be equivalent to the source text both semantically and culturally. Official documents of Cangnan County are carriers of profound political culture with Chinese characteristics and the cultural environment in Cangnan. When translating them, in addition to showing the political consciousness and judicial authority of Cangnan government agencies, the local culture of Cangnan must also be reflected in the translations.<br /> <br /> Second, the functional equivalence theory suggests that if the lexical meanings and cultural elements cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator then may give up the equivalence in form and try to reproduce the semantic and cultural meaning of the source text by changing the form of the sentence. There are many specialized terms with Chinese characteristics and Cangnan’s characteristics in official documents of Cangnan County. When translating them, once there is no corresponding expression in the target language, other forms of expression must be adopted to retain the meanings of those specialized terms as much as possible.<br /> <br /> Third, the functional equivalence theory proposes that if the change in form is still not enough to express the semantic and cultural meaning of the expression in the source language, the translation technique of “heavy damage” can be adopted to resolve cultural differences , so that the source language and the target language can achieve equivalence in semantic meaning. “Heavy damage” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, expressing the cultural connotation of the source text with expressions of the target language. It cannot be ruled out that there are words and sentences in the official document of Cangnan County that cannot be translated, and when this happens, the translator can only rely on his translation techniques and understanding ability to process them creatively.<br /> Above are simply macro analyses of the official document system in Cangnan County, and when it comes to specific analyses, challenges we face will only be severer.<br /> <br /> ==='''II. Stylistic Features and Translation of Official Documents in Cangnan County'''===<br /> <br /> Looking at the official documents of Cangnan County from the micro level, we can work on the study of its translation based on the following characteristics.<br /> <br /> '''1. Details and Accurate'''<br /> <br /> As an officially-written document geared for the needs of our people, wording of the official documents of Cangnan County has a very specific orientation. Almost all content words have very clear meanings and connotations.<br /> <br /> For example, the sentence “经研究，县政府决定召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会，现将有关事宜通知如下。(As discussed, the county government decided to convene a feedback meeting on city-to-county inspections of production safety and a meeting for education and warning on outstanding issues. The relevant matters are hereby notified as follows.)” in the document 《苍南县人民政府办公室关于召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会的通知》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Convening a Feedback Meeting on City-to-County Inspections of Production Safety and A Meeting For Education and Warning On Outstanding Issues”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on June 8th, 2020) conveys several points very accurately and clearly, including the decision maker, the type, content and theme of the meeting. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the integrity of the information delivered when translating this sentence. For example, it is translated into Japanese as “討議を通じて、県政府は県の安全生産状況に対する市政府の巡査結果反映会及び顕著問題教育警告会を開催することが決定した。関連事項を以下のようにお知らせする。”<br /> <br /> '''2. Precise and Compact'''<br /> <br /> The role of official documents is to exchange formal information between the upper and the lower, the people and the officials, and the relevant departments. Therefore, the wording of the official documents must be rigorous. No slang and loose sentences should be used, and excessive use of parentheses and descriptive modifiers should be avoided. Official documents of Cangnan County follow this rule as well, in which there will never be informal expressions like daily spoken words.<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “三、决策目录施行动态管理，因工作需要增减或变更重大行政决策事项的，承办单位应按照相关规定程序提请调整。(Third, the decision catalogue shall be managed in a dynamic way, the undertaker shall submit application for adjustments in accordance with the relevant regulations if any increase/decrease or change shall be made to the major administrative decision-making matters because of the need of actual work.)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) When translating this sentence into Japanese, the translator shall fully considers the preciseness of the original expression, and translate it as “三つ目、戦略目録動的管理施行、仕事需要によっての増減または変更が必要な場合、請負機構は関連規定の手順に従って調整を提出しなければならない。”<br /> <br /> '''3. Programmed and Standardized'''<br /> <br /> The purpose of official documents requires a stable and routine writing program so that the official business can be conducted in an orderly manner. It is essential that the document writing is reasonably programmed. It allows the officer to know what it is and what to do at a glance if a standardized official document program is followed. The standardization of the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as a tricky feature in their translation.<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “各乡镇人民政府，县政府直属各单位 (the people's government of all townships and towns and all directly affiliated institutions of the people’s government of Cangnan County)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) is obviously a standardized addressing of the receiving units of an official document, and it should be translated into Japanese as “各郷鎮人民政府、県政府直属の各部門”.<br /> Viewing from a micro perspective, we may find that special attention should be paid to many precise details when translating those official documents. It is of great significance that, during the cause of reform and opening-up, we strike a balance between the macro level and the micro level in official document translation, which will serve as a stage for Cangnan County to show itself to Japan, South Korea and other East Asian countries and regions.<br /> <br /> ==='''III. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Japanese Language'''===<br /> <br /> Cangnan County is one of the nearest administrative units to Japan in China, and Okinawa Prefecture in Japan and Cangnan County are neighbors facing each other across the sea. Furthermore, Cangnan County itself has ports in Xiaguan, Pacao, Yanting, Dayu and other places, and has the basic conditions for conducting small transactions of freights with Okinawa. However, due to the inadequacy policies, laws and regulations, a large portion of Japan’s trade with China, especially with Zhejiang Province, is still conducted in the three port cities, namely Ningbo, Zhoushan, and Hangzhou. Cangnan’s geographical advantages have never been given to full play. To Japan, Cangnan is not a total stranger. Wenzhou City has a great influence upon Japanese culture and history. Special local products such as Wenzhou green tea and Wenzhou satsuma orange are very attractive to Japanese people. Many of the business exchanges during the Kamakura Bakufu in Japan were happened between Hakata merchants and Wenzhou people. As an important subordinate region of Wenzhou City, Cangnan County naturally has left an impression on Japanese people when it comes to China.<br /> <br /> If Cangnan hopes to lay a foundation for the future cooperation with Japan through its cause of opening up to the outside world, it is of great importance that we study the methods and techniques to make the translation of Cangnan’s official documents to meet the specific context of the Japanese language, which is also a part of the cultural exchanges that will facilitate economic and trade cooperation between Japan and China. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of regular cities and special wards in Japan, but this does not mean that the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as equivalents to the official documents released by the governments of the regular cities and special wards in Japan, and there are huge differences between their respective official documents in form, wording, Cultural connotation and etc. To better translate Cangnan official documents under the context of Japanese language, the following aspects must be paid attention to:<br /> <br /> 1. Detailed Comparison of Types<br /> <br /> In the Japanese official document system, the word “公文” is different in meaning from the word “公文” in Chinese official document system. In Chinese “公文” means government official documents, while in Japanese “公文” generally refer to legal documents that have the force of law and the term “公文書” is the one that refers to government official documents, which roughly includes “外交文書” and “起案文”, “通達” , “命令”, “許可”, “通知書” and so on . When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, attention should be paid to the transformation of the types of the official documents. The classifications of official documents in China and Japan are different from each other.<br /> For example, when translating documents such as “proposal letter”, “report” and the like into Japanese, the title should be translated as “建言書” and “報告書”, while “命令(order)”, “通知(notice)”, “提案(Proposal)” and etc. need no translation and can be titled with the original characters directly as “命令”, “通知”, “提案”, and can also be further translated into “命令状”, “通知書”, “提案書”. Those reflect the characteristics of the division of the types of the official document system in Japan.<br /> <br /> 2. Careful Consideration of the Translation of Chinese Characters<br /> <br /> There are a large number of Chinese characters in Japanese. This will for sure be an advantage when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, however, at the same time, this is also a huge disadvantage. After all, those Chinese characters are Japanized Chinese characters, and their meanings and usages are more or less different from the original ones in Chinese.<br /> <br /> For example, the expression “设定全县森林防火期(setting the season of forest fire prevention)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于&lt;苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告&gt;的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”) in could be translated character by character into Japanese as “全県域森林防火期間設定”. However, expressions such as “野外火源如何管理” cannot be translated in the same way, and must be processed accordingly and translated into Japanese as “野外の火の元が如何に処理すること”. When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, the translators must reject the preconceived thinking and native Chinese thinking, or it will lead to irreversible misunderstandings and mistakes.<br /> <br /> 3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning<br /> <br /> Chinese is an isolating language, in which the grammatical meaning is reflected by the order of words, while Japanese is an agglutinative language, in which auxiliary words and flexible usages of vocabulary are adopted to reflect the grammatical meaning. This requires the translators to have mastery of the equivalence of semantic meanings when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese and try to achieve perfect equivalence in official document translation.<br /> <br /> For example, there is a expression as “全体公民必须认真贯彻‘以人为本、预防为主、积极扑救、有效消灾’的森林防灭火工作方针，一旦发现森林火灾，要立即向当地人民政府或森林防灭火指挥部办公室报告(all citizens must seriously implement the working policy of forest fire prevention and firefighting ‘people-oriented, prevention-focused, active in firefighting, effective in disaster relief’, once a forest fire is detected, it must be reported to the local people’s government or the forest fire prevention and firefighting headquarters office immediately)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于&lt;苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告&gt;的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”). When dealing with long and complex sentences, the translator must be flexible in using translation techniques to decompose the sentences and translate them step by step, focusing on the balance between the form of the sentence and its semantic meaning. Based on this principle, the abovementioned sentence could be translated into Japanese as “人間本位、予防軸化、積極救助、有効消災という森林防火作業方針は全県民が必ず強固に守らなければならない。林に火事が発見された際、直ちに所轄人民政府や森林防火指揮部執務室に報告すること。”<br /> <br /> There is no doubt that, in terms of four-character idioms, allusions, new words of the era and etc., the translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context of the Japanese language still has a long way to go, but the part that we should pay most attention to in translation is always the differences in culture between the source language and the target language. Only by keeping this basic point in mind at all times, will there be no huge mistakes being made when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese.<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅳ. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Korean Language'''===<br /> <br /> Zhejiang Province and South Korea have laid a good foundation for economic and trade cooperation projects, and a framework that is comprehensive, wide-ranging, and multi-level has been established for Zhejiang-South Korea cooperation. The advantages of the two regions are obviously complementary and the development potential for both sides and in between is huge. In September 2016, the Zhejiang China-Korea (Quzhou) Industrial Cooperation Park was approved as the first batch of “Zhejiang International Industrial Cooperation Parks” in Zhejiang Province. The total planned area is about 3,000 acres and the total planned investment is 12 billion yuan. Represented by the Zhejiang China-Korea Industrial Cooperation Park, a large number of economic and trade cooperation projects has been carried out with South Korea by Zhejiang Province. As an indispensable part of Zhejiang Province, Cangnan County is facing a huge gap in the cultural exchanges and economic cooperation with South Korea. How to elevate the level of Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world and advancing Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea is a question that is well worth exploring. Although Cangnan is further away from South Korea compared with regions in the north of Zhejiang, geographic location should never be a factor that hindering Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. In an era of ever-deepening globalization, it is of great significance that we think about how to develop and promote the economic and trade and cultural cooperation between Cangnan and South Korea.<br /> <br /> Northern Zhejiang is a key area for economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. As the south gate of Zhejiang Province, if Cangnan County could open the door of economic, trade and cultural cooperation to South Korea, then this will inevitably bring extraordinary development opportunities to southern Zhejiang and make the pattern of Zhejiang and South Korea’s economic and cultural cooperation more balanced and healthy. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of si(city), gu (district), and gun(county) in South Korea. Because of some historical reasons, South Korea is greatly influenced by Chinese culture. From the Three Kingdoms era of Joseon, to the Unified Silla Dynasty, the Wang’s Goryeo Dynasty, and the Yi’s Joseon Dynasty, the basic system of administrative divisions in South Korea is almost the same as the one in China, so the official document system of cities, districts, and counties in South Korea can be regarded as basically equivalent to the official document system of Cangnan County with only slight differences originated from the localized political and cultural traditions and the basic social condition of South Korea. Therefore, there are relatively fewer difficulties of translation when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Korean, aside from the barriers caused by Korean Hangul words. The translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context Korean language requires attention to the following aspects:<br /> <br /> 1. The Combination of Chinese characters and Hangul<br /> <br /> Modern Korean uses Hangul as the main written characters, but this does not mean that there is no place for Chinese characters in the Korean system. Since the launch of the abolition of Chinese characters movement in South Korea in the 1970s, Hangul did exactly achieved an overall penetration of every aspect of their daily life, but when it comes to important documents, Chinese characters still reserve a seat in the arena of South Korea’s history. Furthermore, a higher level of talent training is required now to meet the need of South Korea’s economic and social development, and the mastery of sinology has become, among all the necessary skills, one of the most straightforward evaluation criteria to access the qualified personnel. Thus, South Korea has restarted the Chinese character teaching movement. Nowadays, the official document system in South Korea has become one in which Hangul serves as the main language and the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul serves as a supplement. Just as how the mixed use of kana and Chinese characters in Japanese official documents may help in its translation, the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul also greatly facilitate the translation of official documents of Cangnan County into Korean. However, because Chinese characters used in Korea are composed of traditional Chinese characters and a small number of Korean self-made Chinese characters, we can not take it for granted that it is advisable to translate them word by word.<br /> <br /> For example, the title of the document《苍干任〔2020〕18号 王再忠等同志的任命》(“Cangnan Cadre Appointment [2020] No. 18: Appointment of Wang Zaizhong and etc.”) (the Office of CPC Cangnan Party Committee on March 27th, 2020) can be translated with the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul into Korean as《蒼南縣의 幹部任命〔2020〕18號 王再忠등 同志의任命》. Also, it be translated into Korean with Hangul alone as《참남현의 간부임명〔2020〕18호 왕재충등 동지의임명》.<br /> <br /> 2. The Usage of Refined Language<br /> <br /> In recent years, South Korea has carried out reforms of the official document system, urging that the South Korean government agencies at all levels should use “refined(or purified) language”, that is, to write and publish official documents with words that are easy for the public to understand and have explicit meanings, reducing the cost of communication between the government and the public and, in this way, building a closer relationship between the government and the people, so that civil servants can communicate with the people more effectively. Refined language is a kind of common vernacular that differs from the official language. Although this trend of the wording of Korean official documents is not unconditional, but when compared with official documents of Cangnan County, which emphasize the solemnity and formality of official documents, this trend is the part that the translator has to pay his attention to.<br /> <br /> For example, when translating the expression “为加强行政规范性文件管理，切实推进依法行政，加快法治政府建设 (To strengthen the management of administrative normative documents, promote the administration in accordance with law, and accelerate the construction of a government ruled by law)” in the document《苍南县人民政府关于公布县政府及县政府办公室行政规范性文件清理结果的通知（有效）》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on the Announcement of the Results of the Cleanup of the Administrative Normative Documents of the County Government and the County Government Offices (Effective)”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on October 23th, 2020) , blunt expressions may not be that applicable and this expression translated into Korean in a more public-friendly way as “행정 규범적인 문서관리를 강화하기 위해, 법에따라 행정을 철저히 추진하고 법치정부의 건설을 가속화시킨다.”<br /> <br /> 3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning<br /> <br /> Like Japanese, Korean is also a typical agglutinative language. A sentence is formed by connecting independent words with various auxiliary words, and with a subordinating conjunction at the end of the sentence. Auxiliary words are just like glues, they exist after every subject, predicate, and object component of a Korean sentence to them together. For that these auxiliary words have no substantial meaning themselves, they must stay close to the main body in front, and a space must be put after. Therefore, when translating Chinese, which is an isolated language, into Korean, which is an agglutinative language, it is necessary to have mastery of the equivalence of the semantic meaning of the expression.<br /> <br /> For example, when translating the expression “全面实施全民参保计划，做好参保情况清查，提升参保信息质量，清理重复参保，稳定持续参保，减少漏保断保，实现应保尽保。(Fully implement the national social security plan, do a good job in checking the coverage of the social security, improve the quality of the collection of the information of the insured, clean up repeated insureds, stabilize the renewal of the social security, reduce the interruption of the social security, and achieve full social security coverage.)” in the document《关于做好2021年度城乡居民基本医疗保障工作的通知》(“Notice on Doing a Good Job in Basic Medical Security for Urban and Rural Residents in 2021”)( the Office of Medical Security Bureau of Cangnan County on November 5th, 2020), the translator should pay attention to the equivalence of semantic meaning of this long sentence and translated it into Korean as “전국민기본의료보험가입계획을 전면적으로 실시하고 기본의료보험가입상황을 철저히 조사하며 기본의료보험가입 정보의 질을 향상시키고 중복기본의료보험가입을 청산하며 안정적이고 지속적인 기본의료보험가입을 하며 보험누락을 줄이고 기본의료보험가입 을 실현해야 한다.”<br /> <br /> ==='''Ⅴ. Studies of Official Document Translation and the Cause of Opening-up in Cangnan County'''===<br /> <br /> Based on the abovementioned basic characteristics of the official document system of Cangnan County, the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Japanese language and the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Korean language, we can see that official documents of Cangnan County is not as difficult to handle as something untranslatable. Cangnan County enjoys a good geographic location: it is located in the coast of the East China Sea, and is close to both Japan and South Korea, two strong economies in East Asia. However, Cangnan County has not yet made use of these favorable conditions to the fullest to promote cultural cooperation and trade with the two countries. Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world requires innovative thinking and an elaborate layout. Studies on the translation of official documents of Cangnan County, especially the translation of official documents under the context of the Japanese and Korean language, will help to explore the cultural spirit of the government institutions, and play an important role in building a good image of Cangnan County in East Asia and laying a foundation for Cangnan's cooperation with major countries and regions in East Asia .<br /> <br /> The world today is undergoing profound changes rarely in a century, and so is China. The tide of history moves on and Cangnan shall not stay out of the matter, but must follow it courageously and strive to open new doors for Cangnan's opening up to the outside world through the study of the official document translation of its own.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Ziqi LIU. The Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Scientific Translation：A Case Study of the Translation of Shipbuilding English[J]. CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION,2019,1(3).<br /> <br /> [2]Mu Dan. Discussion on Translation Activities Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory[J]. International Journal of Education and Management,2018,3(2).<br /> <br /> [3]李琳琳. 功能对等翻译理论与关联翻译理论比较研究[D].辽宁师范大学,2006.<br /> <br /> [4]赵娟廷. 汉韩公文语体对比研究[D].复旦大学,2003. <br /> <br /> [5]周萱. 《中国共产党怎样解决民族问题》（节选）中韩翻译报告[D].青岛大学,2017.<br /> <br /> [6]张利军. 《教学的游戏性研究》的汉日翻译实践报告[D].广西师范大学,2019.<br /> <br /> [7]栾亚琼. 《2015年山东省政府工作报告》汉日翻译实践报告[D].曲阜师范大学,2016.<br /> <br /> [8]占丽华. 源流与演变—日本地方公文书馆发展路径研究[D].山东大学,2020.<br /> <br /> [9]任清萍. 功能翻译理论视角下政府工作报告日译研究[D].外交学院,2020.<br /> <br /> [10]孙慧. 产业竞争力与区域经济增长[D].苏州大学,2006.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==The Translation Process and Methods of Translating English Long Sentences 周艺文 Zhou Yiwen==<br /> <br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> ===Key words===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> ===关键词===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ==Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''key words'''===<br /> <br /> News headlines; Skopos theory; translation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> 社会的飞速发展使得人们的阅读方式发生了巨大的改变, 通过阅 读新闻标题来获取消息和了解事实, 成为大多数人的不二之选, 新闻标题 翻译也就越来越具有其必要性。 新闻标题的重要性堪比一部使人印象深刻 的电影名, 一则响亮的广告语, 一本撩人心弦的书名。 较之娱乐新闻, 时 政新闻略显严肃客观, 又因当今科技物质的飞速发展, 时政新闻的点阅数 量明显少于以消遣娱乐为目的的娱乐新闻。 怎样提高时政新闻的阅读量, 怎样使得时政新闻如同娱乐新闻一般深受广大人民的喜爱, 这不仅是新闻 编辑者们的挑战, 也是新闻翻译界的难题。 本文以德国功能派翻译目的论 为理论指导, 结合新闻学及编辑学的相关学科知识, 通过对中英时政新闻 标题的对比分析, 旨在对时政新闻标题的汉译英提出翻译策略, 让国外读者正确客观无误的了解中国的时事政策。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键字'''===<br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> ===Skopos Theory===<br /> <br /> ===Features of News Headlines===<br /> <br /> ===Chinese-English Translation Methods of News Headlines from the Skopos Perspective===<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion===<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study on Nida’s Functional Equivalence and Skop 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling==<br /> <br /> '''Abstract:''' Nida and Cartford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence as two methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(芒迪，42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(奈达，12). The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Cartford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore proposed the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Cartford,1). The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Cartford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> '''Key words:''' Nida, Cartford, equivalence theory, nature of translation<br /> <br /> '''摘要：'''<br /> <br /> '''关键词：'''<br /> <br /> '''1.Introduction'''<br /> <br /> '''1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence'''<br /> <br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the Bible. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(芒迪，42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(芒迪，42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> '''1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence'''<br /> <br /> Cartford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Cartford stated in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Cartford, 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Cartford, 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Cardford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Cartford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies. <br /> <br /> '''2.Similarities and Differences'''<br /> <br /> 2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories<br /> <br /> 2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories<br /> <br /> 3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories<br /> <br /> 4.Conclusion<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between Lun Xun’s View of Translation and Venuti’s Translation Theory 司妤 Si Yu==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> ===Key Words===<br /> ===摘要===<br /> ===关键词===<br /> ===Introduction===<br /> ====Lun Xun’s View of Translation====<br /> ====Venuti’s Translation Theory====<br /> ===Similarities and Differences===<br /> ====The Similarities Between Lun Xun’s View of Translation and Venuti’s Translation Theory====<br /> ====The Differences Between Lun Xun’s View of Translation and Venuti’s Translation Theory====<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Translation Thoery 吴一露 Wu Yilu==<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及“信达雅”的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 Skopos Theory'''====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances (Vermeer, Hans J.1987a). This new-born theory breaks the limited and conventional translation studies of source-text oriented views and provides a new perspective for translation studies. Translators pay more attention to the translation, the readers, the social effect of the translation and communication function. <br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory'''=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. In skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as the target text. The source is an &quot;offer of information&quot;(Vermeer, Hans J. 1982.). According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.<br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translational action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. <br /> <br /> ====='''2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory'''=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> “The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’ (Vermeer), which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation (Christiane Nord, 1997). The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. <br /> <br /> Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz, 1995). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, as well as their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations.<br /> <br /> The last rule concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. It means the skopos of target text should share identical views with the intention of original author. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both the translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory'''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Similiarities and Differences'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance'''=====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories'''====<br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.1 Different Theory Systems'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.2 Different Translation Standards'''=====<br /> <br /> ====='''3.2.3 Different Translator Status'''=====<br /> <br /> ==='''4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories'''====<br /> <br /> ==='''5. Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:53, 30 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> ==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> Key words<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Bibliography<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s ManipulationTheory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei==<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=110217 2020-12-11T13:14:02Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12)<br /> <br /> At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. The mode of thinking is closely related to the worldview. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. Conversely, a person’s established mode of thinking conditions and even determines his/ her formation of judgement and pattern of behavior in a certain situation.<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> ===摘要=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> <br /> 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===Abstract=== <br /> <br /> As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words=== <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation, numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ People who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of Jin Suo Ji (The Golden Cangue) and conventional translation of The Old Man and The Sea.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:33, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Ⅰ Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “Men can adopt the rules of feminist translation theory, and women can successfully translate men’ s works...Another interesting area for study is how gender identity can be disguised through translation” (1996: 168), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This thesis, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Ⅱ The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A Case study of the English translation of ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, Jin Suo Ji was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature” by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”. In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It took her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate Jin Suo Ji, including four different versions: Pink Tears, The Rouge of The North, Yuan Nv and The Golden Cangue. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions did not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====1. Translator’ s female identity used to show the emotional resonance to female characters====<br /> <br /> In Jin Suo Ji, Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang made three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully revealed Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, It can be seen that Qiqiao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Jiang Jize, the affection with Ch’ i-ch’ iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarified Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s emotion in the translation and revealed Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion in the later text, which could show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====2. The Translator’ s Male Identity Used to Show the Passive Position of Women====<br /> <br /> In Jin Suo Ji, the author used a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women’ s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tried her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou’ s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch’ ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang used the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expressed herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch’ ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch’ ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch’ ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch’ ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal familyof China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3. The translator reveals the reality objectively under the disguise of gender identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only used the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately concealed her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families.In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang did not make too many adjustments, but only abstracted the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings.Firstly, the survivors were indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” conveyed the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang’ s eyes, both men and women were struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she used the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===Ⅲ. Eileen Chang’ s Gender Identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of The Old Man and the Sea as an example===<br /> <br /> The Old Man and the Sea is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of The Old Man and the Sea. Invited by the press Office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including The Old Man and the Sea.<br /> <br /> When it comes to The Old Man and the Sea, in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expressed her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang was more faithful to the original, and only presented her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expressed her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translated the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====1. The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work’ s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====2. The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, this way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang adopted the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(海观译) <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(吴劳译) <br /> 活总是要干的。(张爱玲译) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translated “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoided using such words in translation. Here she translated the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omitted the subject with gender description, and in fact blurred the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====3. The translator’ s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（张爱玲译）<br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（海观译）<br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（吴劳译）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translated “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translated “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai and Wu's translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (Jin Suo Ji) or in the text expressing the male discourse power (The Old Man and the Sea). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===Ⅳ. Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====1. The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator's gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divided context into cultural context and situational context. Here the author mainly expounds the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works Jin Suo Ji and The Old Man and the Sea. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of Jin Suo ji is different from that of The Old Man and the Sea, and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.For example, Eileen Chang’ s work Jin Suo Ji reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women’ s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is take into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch’ ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won’ t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context.Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====2. The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang’ s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang's adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of Jin Suo Ji, Eileen Chang translated from the perspective of her own or the gender identity of the opposite sex, with the ultimate purpose of expressing the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang expressed her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman showed astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.”Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion:===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang’ s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this thesis provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator's gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang's translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M]. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> 张爱玲. 金锁记[M]. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> Key words<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=110215 2020-12-11T13:11:02Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12)<br /> <br /> At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. The mode of thinking is closely related to the worldview. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. Conversely, a person’s established mode of thinking conditions and even determines his/ her formation of judgement and pattern of behavior in a certain situation.<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. 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A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. 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Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> ===摘要：=== 张爱玲作为中国女性主义文学的代表人物，在她的创作过程中，女性主义思想、性别意识得到了充分的体现。张爱玲本人除了是一个作家外，也身兼译者的身份，从性别视角研究其自译与他译文本中所采取的翻译策略及其体现出来的性别意识，有助于张爱玲翻译研究的进一步发展，弥补中国翻译史中女性翻译史的欠缺，也有利于性别研究在中国语境下的进一步发展。<br /> <br /> ===关键词：=== 张爱玲，性别，自译，他译<br /> <br /> ===Abstract:=== As a representative figure of Chinese feminist literature, Eileen Chang’s feminist thoughts and gender consciousness have been fully reflected in her creation process. Besides, she is not only a writer, but also a translator. Studying her translation strategies in self-translation and conventional translation and exploring the gender consciousness reflected in her process of translation can help to the further development of translation studies of Chang, make up for the lack of translation evaluation of Chinese women and it also conducive to the further development of gender study in the context of China.<br /> <br /> ===Key words:=== Eileen Chang, gender, self-translation, conventional translation <br /> <br /> ===Introduction===<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a Chinese well-known female writer in the 20th century, her novels and prose have attracted much attention, so that many scholars focus on her literary creation achievement but ignore her translation, numerous books aiming to introduce the Chinese translation history make no mention of Eileen Chang's identity as a translator. In fact, Eileen Chang should be reckoned with in the translation field in that she has also made significant contributions in translation. Mao Dun has pointed out that “ People who can translate literature books must be someone has talent in creation”, looking through the Chinese history, we can find that there are not so much Chinese writers who can also translate, but Eileen Chang is one of them. She, with her powerful creative talent and bilingual skills, has translated diverse works, including a variety of novels, prose and poems, at the same time, she has also made her contributions in compiling movie scripts. Here, the translations will be talked about are her self-translation of Jin Suo Ji (The Golden Cangue) and conventional translation of The Old Man and The Sea.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang, as a leader of feminist literature in China, the feminism thought profoundly embodied in her literary creation and translation, however, speaking up for women has not limited her exploration of male identity,in the process of depicting the typical characters with different genders, Eileen Chang, as the author or the translator, represents different gender identities.--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 12:33, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ===Ⅰ Gender and Translation===<br /> <br /> Since the rise of feminism in the western continent in the 20th century, the topic of gender has always been placed at the core of its theoretical development. Feminist translation theory thought that between women and translation there was some kind of similarity - both of them were placed in the inferior position. So they combined feminism and translation, advocating from the feminist standpoint, using language to create positive intervention to change women’ s weak position in translation, so that it can criticize the traditional translation theories which degrade women and translation to the bottom of the society or literature phenomenon. During this period, the research on the relationship between gender and translation has seen the influence of gender identity on translation, which is a big development. However, the over-emphasis on the opposition between the two sexes has its limitations.<br /> <br /> As Sherry Simon has pointed out, “Men can adopt the rules of feminist translation theory, and women can successfully translate men’ s works...Another interesting area for study is how gender identity can be disguised through translation” (1996: 168), that is, gender identity can be disguised during translation, or the identity represented by the translator is not a single fixed one.With the development and innovation of various theories, translation studies from the perspective of gender, when developed into the 1980s, under the influence of post-structuralism theory, its focus has shifted from the over-emphasis on the opposition between men and women to the exploration of meaning and gender fluidity.<br /> <br /> This thesis, facing such a change of gender translation studies, aims to study Eileen Chang’ s translations from the perspective of gender liquidity. To some extent, this thesis breaks the status quo that the study on Eileen Chang is onefold about feminism and explores her gender identity transformation in translation to dig out the influences different gender identities make to the translation.<br /> <br /> ===Ⅱ The Gender Identities in Eileen Chang’ s self-translation -- A Case study of the English translation of ''Jinsuo Ji''===<br /> <br /> As one of the most representative works of Eileen Chang, Jin Suo Ji was once honored as “the greatest novella in the history of Chinese literature” by Xia Zhiqing, while Fu Lei also gave a high evaluation of this work, and he said that it was “one of the most great achievements in our literary world”. In order to perfectly present the culture and thought of the original work, Eileen Chang chose to translate it herself. It took her nearly 10 years to rewrite or self-translate Jin Suo Ji, including four different versions: Pink Tears, The Rouge of The North, Yuan Nv and The Golden Cangue. However, due to the cultural differences between English and Chinese contexts, the English version is far less successful than the Chinese version especially the first two English versions did not receive much attention. It was not until 1971 that her fourth English version was produced and chosen into Twentieth - Century Chinese Stories.<br /> <br /> Eileen Chang’ s works overturns the traditional patriarchal discourse, turning to the female as the center of her literature creation, and in her works, the main objects are those ordinary women who live a tragic life. These works fully show her sympathy to the fate of women, and reflect her intense gender consciousness which is also reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ====1. Translator’ s female identity used to show the emotional resonance to female characters====<br /> <br /> In Jin Suo Ji, Ch’ i-ch’ iao is definitely a beautiful and healthy girl. However, due to the economic reasons and family pressure, she has to marry a disabled husband with an ugly appearance. In the face of such a marriage, Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s sorrow is obvious, and hoping for love, she turns her eyes to Jiang Jize. However, the reality proves to her that Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion is just a use. Eileen Chang, as a female translator, is full of sympathy for Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s situation, and this sympathy is fully reflected in her translation.<br /> <br /> ST： <br /> （七巧的手直打颤，扇柄上的杏黄须子在她额上苏苏摩擦着......）七巧低着头，沐浴在光辉里，细细的音乐，细细的喜悦.....这些年了，她跟他捉迷藏似的，只是近不得身，原来还有今天！<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> ( Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s hands trembled until the yellow tassel on the fan handle rustled against her forehead...) Ch’ i-ch’ iao bowed her head, basking in glory, in the soft music of his voice and the delicate pleasure of this occasion. So many years now, she had been playing hide-and-seek with him and never could get close, and there had still been a day like this in store for her. <br /> <br /> Comparing the source text with the target text, it can be found that Eileen Chang made three main additions here: “of his voice”, “of this occasion” and “in store” to explicate the implied information in the source text, which more powerfully revealed Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s strong feelings of love and uneasiness for Jiang Jize all the time. From then on, It can be seen that Qiqiao once placed her hope in Jiang Jize for love. However, from the description in the following text, we can find that for Jiang Jize, the affection with Ch’ i-ch’ iao is just for regulating his life. Eileen Chang clarified Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s emotion in the translation and revealed Jiang Jize’ s so-called emotion in the later text, which could show the tragic color of Ch’ i-ch’ iao to express the translator’ s sympathy for the character.<br /> <br /> ====2. The Translator’ s Male Identity Used to Show the Passive Position of Women====<br /> <br /> In Jin Suo Ji, the author used a large number of metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women’ s survival condition. In order to more intuitively present such a state to the readers, Eileen Chang tried her best to translate from the male identity, which to a certain extent derogates the female consciousness of the text, to show the passive and helpless of female characters under a specific era background.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 娟姑娘扶了正，做了芝寿的替身。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Miss Chuan was made a wife and became Chih-shou’ s substitute. <br /> <br /> The source text describes that after the death of Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s daughter-in-law Chih-shou, Chuan, as a concubine of Ch’ ang - pai, was supported as his wife. The expression of “扶了正” is full of metaphorical color, “正” is a metaphor for the official wife, and “扶” indicates that Chuan is a passive object controlled by the feudal family. In the translation, Eileen Chang used the passive voice to translate “扶了正” into “was made a wife” to convey the manipulated situation implied in the source text. In addition, here Chang uses the article “a” instead of “the”, just as there will be others to take the place of Chih-shou after her death, the position of the official wife is also low in the feudal family.<br /> <br /> Another typical example in which the translator expressed herself as a male to show the passive position of the female is reflected in the translation of Ch’ ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai’ s separation scene:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> 长安和长白分了家搬出来住。<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch’ ang - pai and moved out of the house. <br /> <br /> The original describes the scene in which Ch’ ang-an and Ch’ ang - pai split up after Ch’ i-ch’ iao’ s death. Here “分家” is a phrase with metaphorical color, instead of translating it directly into “divide the property”, Eileen Chang, from the perspective of male identity, conceals the hidden information of the original in the translation. She translates the sentence “长安和长白分了家” into “Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch’ ang-pai”, which reveals the fact that in the feudal familyof China, men had the right to inherit the family while women were subordinated.<br /> <br /> ====3. The translator reveals the reality objectively under the disguise of gender identity====<br /> <br /> In the process of translation, Eileen Chang not only used the identity of male or female to flexibly express the meaning of the original text, but also appropriately concealed her gender identity in some situations to reveal the reality of all characters including both sexes.<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> （去年她戴了丈夫的孝，今年婆婆又过世了。）现在正式挽了叔公九老太爷出来为他们分家。<br /> TT：<br /> （Last year, she wore mournings for her husband and this year, her mother - in - law had passed away.）Now her husband’ s uncle, Ninth Old Master, was formerly invited to come and divide the property among the survivors. <br /> <br /> The source text shows us that after the death of the old woman in power of Jiang Mansion, a group of men and women gathered to separate their families.In the translation of the text, Eileen Chang did not make too many adjustments, but only abstracted the word “他们” which indicates “them” into “survivors”, a word with multiple meanings.Firstly, the survivors were indeed “alive” relative to the old woman who died, so the “survivors” conveyed the meaning of the original text. Secondly, to some extent, in Eileen Chang’ s eyes, both men and women were struggling in the mud in this turbulent era shrouded by feudal ideology, “everyone is a survivor of suffering”. Therefore, she used the word “survivors” to reveal the abuses of the era and sigh over life.<br /> <br /> Due to the work itself has strong female consciousness, therefore, as a translator, Eileen Chang inevitably translates from female perspective most of the time, but this does not mean that female translators do not have the male consciousness, from the second case, we can see that the identity of the translator can be transformed. In addition, the fluidity of the translator's gender identity is not only reflected in Eileen Chang's translation of female texts, but also reflected in her translation of male texts.<br /> <br /> ===Ⅲ. Eileen Chang’ s Gender Identity in her conventional translation -- Taking the Chinese translation of The Old Man and the Sea as an example===<br /> <br /> The Old Man and the Sea is an outstanding masterpiece of the famous American writer Ernest Miller Hemingway. It was published in 1952 and won the Pulitzer Prize in the second year. In 1954, Hemingway won the Nobel Prize of Literature by virtue of this work. Eileen Chang left Shanghai and arrived in Hong Kong in 1952, just after the publication of The Old Man and the Sea. Invited by the press Office of the U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong, Eileen Chang began to participate in a large-scale Chinese-translation project of American literary works, including The Old Man and the Sea.<br /> <br /> When it comes to The Old Man and the Sea, in the prologue of its Chinese version, Eileen Chang expressed her affection of this work many times and different from the self-translation in which she has taken a bold rewriting, in the translation of The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang was more faithful to the original, and only presented her subjectivity in the choice of the gender identity. Eileen Chang expressed her understanding of the gender of the source text in the prologue, and then creatively translated the gender-loaded words in the text accordingly.<br /> <br /> ====1. The translator' s female identity used to deepen the work’ s emotion====<br /> <br /> It is undeniable that female translators depict emotions more deeply and delicately than male translators. Therefore, in the process of translating The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang, as a female herself, is particularly adept in showing the emotional characteristics of Sandiego. “...In her translations, she uses rephrasing, color words and onomatopoeia words which are full of feminine characteristics. Those words hint about her feminist thoughts and subtly reveal her identity as a female translator.” (Mao Pingping, 2018)<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “Come on.” the old man said aloud. “Make another turn. Just smell them. Aren’ t they lovely? Eat them good now and there is the tuna. Hard and cold and lovely.” <br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “再兜一个圈子。你闻闻看。这沙丁鱼可爱不可爱?好好地吃它们吧，不时还可以吃吃那鳍鱼。硬硬的，冷的，可爱的。”<br /> <br /> Here Eileen Chang uses a number of reduplicated words “闻闻”, “可爱不可爱”, “好好地”, “吃吃” and “硬硬的” to translate the dialogue between the old man and the fish, or in other words, the old man’ s self-talk to soften the whole image of Sandiac and also show his loneliness.<br /> <br /> ====2. The translator concealed gender identity to break the arbitrary male discourse====<br /> <br /> As a work of men power, the word “man” can be found throughout the whole novel, and translation of this word has mainly two kinds of different ways, one is to follow the novel emotional qualitative, translating it into “男子汉” or some words having the similar meaning, and this way is often taken by many male translators. The second way is to expand the scope of objects, translating it into “人” or “人类” which includes both men and women. To some extent, this way blurs gender identity or conceals gender identity to achieve gender balance in the meaning. Eileen Chang adopted the second method in her translation:<br /> <br /> ST: <br /> It is what a man must do．<br /> <br /> TT: <br /> 男子汉就应该这样。(海观译) <br /> 男子汉就该这么干。(吴劳译) <br /> 活总是要干的。(张爱玲译) <br /> <br /> Wu Lao and Hai Guan both translated “man” into the concept of “male”, while Eileen Chang avoided using such words in translation. Here she translated the original text into a sentence pattern without subject, omitted the subject with gender description, and in fact blurred the gender boundary of the words, thus breaking the arbitrary power of male discourse.<br /> <br /> ====3. The translator’ s male identity used to recognize the limitation of male power====<br /> <br /> For the translation of “man”, Eileen Chang also adopted another translation method:<br /> <br /> ST：<br /> “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.”<br /> <br /> TT：<br /> “但是人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个男子汉可以被消灭，但是不能被打败。”（张爱玲译）<br /> “可是一个人并不是生来要给打败的，”他说。“你尽可把他消灭掉，可就是打不败他。”（海观译）<br /> “不过人不是为失败而生的，”他说。“一个人可以被毁灭，但不能给打败。”（吴劳译）<br /> <br /> Here, contrary to the previous example, Hai Guan and Wu Lao translated “man” into “人”, while Eileen Chang translated “man” into “男子汉”which means male, pointing out that “a male can be destroyed”. Compared with Hai and Wu's translation, Chang’ s translation, though excluding the female crowd, emphasizes the limitation of male power.<br /> Eileen Chang's translation is very characteristic. By taking advantage of different gender identities to give play to her translator's subjectivity, Eileen Chang transformed the image of Santiago, a tough man who fought bravely against nature created by Ernest Hemingway in the original text, into the image of a fisherman, a symbol of gender equality and a representative of all mankind.<br /> <br /> Through the self-translation and conventional translation of Eileen Chang, we can see that the gender identity of the translator is not unchangeable, either in the feminist text (Jin Suo Ji) or in the text expressing the male discourse power (The Old Man and the Sea). The translator can adjust his/her gender identity to represent different genders and thus achieve his/her translation purpose.<br /> <br /> ===Ⅳ. Reasons for the change of gender identity in Eileen Chang’ s Self-translation and conventional translation===<br /> <br /> ====1. The influence of cultural context on the transformation of translator's gender identity====<br /> <br /> Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, first put forward the concept of “context” and he divided context into cultural context and situational context. Here the author mainly expounds the influence of the cultural context on the transformation of the translator’ s gender identity in the two literary works Jin Suo Ji and The Old Man and the Sea. “The literary creation of any country or region cannot be separated from the rendering of the corresponding cultural context...A good translation cannot be achieved without a profound understanding of the context of the text.” (Xi Peihua, 2017)<br /> <br /> The creation context of Jin Suo ji is different from that of The Old Man and the Sea, and the social background of the readers of the target language and the source language is also different, which all affect the choice of the translator’ s gender identity.For example, Eileen Chang’ s work Jin Suo Ji reflects the difficult survival of Chinese women in the feudal family under the background of the 20th century. The original text uses many metaphors and suggestive words to describe the traditional women’ s survival, and it’ s not difficult for the source language readers who are in the same social background to understand the indicating meaning of those words, however, when the text is take into a different context while the text content is presented in the same way, it is not easy for the target language readers to understand, just as the expression “分家” in the sentence “长安和长白分了家搬出来住” has not only the surface meaning of “separation” but the implied cultural meaning that “Ch’ ang-an got her share of property from Ch’ ang-pai” which is the hidden information the target language readers won’ t get if the translator did not take appropriate measures to make up for the difference of context.Therefore, in her translation process, Eileen Chang clarifies the cultural characteristics of the source language through the transformation of gender identity.<br /> <br /> ====2. The gender of the translator and the purpose of translation====<br /> <br /> As a female translator, Eileen Chang’ s female thought is inevitably reflected in her process of translation. And in addition to some potential unconscious female thinking, it is believed that Eileen Chang's adoption of different gender identities is more consciously chosen according to her translation purpose. For example, in the translation of Jin Suo Ji, Eileen Chang translated from the perspective of her own or the gender identity of the opposite sex, with the ultimate purpose of expressing the struggle and survival of the female characters in the patriarchal society and expressing her lament for that era.<br /> <br /> On the other hand, in The Old Man and the Sea, Eileen Chang expressed her different understanding of this work in her translation preface: “The old fisherman showed astonishing perseverance in his struggle with the sea -- not superhuman, but a kind of grace and spirit due to all human beings.”Therefore, Eileen Chang, based on her understanding of the work, attempts to abstract the image of “old fisherman” into all mankind through her translation, and either from a female identity perspective, from a male perspective or conceal her gender identity in her translation the purpose is to soft the male discourse in the original text.<br /> <br /> ===Conclusion:===<br /> <br /> Through this comparative study on Eileen Chang’ s self-translation and conventional translation, we can see that Eileen Chang, as a female translator, can not only translate feminine literature from a female perspective, but translate male literature from heterosexual gender perspective. On the other hand, in the same literary work’s translation, her gender identity is not fixed, for example, in translating the female literary, in order to better achieve the purpose of translation, the translator can translate from a male perspective. In a word, this thesis provides the corresponding empirical evidence for the fluidity of translator's gender identity, breaking the current situation that the research on Eileen Chang's translation mainly focuses on her feminism.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Chang Eileen, trans. The Golden Cangue. Twentieth-century Chinese Stories[M]. NY: Columbia University Press. 1971.<br /> <br /> Simon, Sherry. Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission[M]. London: Routledge, 1996.<br /> <br /> 马悦, 穆雷. 译者性别身份流动性 :女性主义翻译研究的新视角[J]. 解放军外国语学院学报. 2010(6): 66-70.<br /> <br /> 毛萍萍. 张爱玲《老人与海》译作中女性主义的东方色彩[J].大众文艺. 2018：171-173.<br /> <br /> 欧内斯特· 海明威. 老人与海[M]. 张爱玲译, 香港: 香港今日世界出版社. 1979.<br /> <br /> 王璟. 性别意识与文学翻译——张爱玲翻译个案研究[J]. 中国外语. 2011(8): 102-106.<br /> <br /> 王晓莺. 离散译者张爱玲的中英翻译——一个后殖民女性主义的解读[M]. 广州:中山大学出版社. 2015.<br /> <br /> 席培华. 浅谈语境文化对英美文学翻译的影响[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报. 2017(10): 121-123.<br /> <br /> 张爱玲. 金锁记[M]. 上海印书馆. 1955.<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> Key words<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9&diff=110204 2020-12-11T13:01:58Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610 */</p> <hr /> <div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第九部分(Part 9)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br /> <br /> 学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br /> <br /> *Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br /> *Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br /> *Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br /> <br /> ='''Comparative Studies'''=<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Modes of Expression and Ways of Thinking between English and Chinese Language in Cultural Perspective 易欢 Yi Huan==<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> The English language and Chinese language,with their own characteristics, embody their own cultural heritage and manifest different modes of thinking. Conspicuously, among language, culture and mode of thinking, there exists a closely related interaction. The culture affects thought, conversely, thought can reflect the culture. While language is under the impact of the both, presents the thinking and cultural differences in a most direct way. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of culture, takes the relationship beween language and thought as the entry point to make a comparative study of English and Chinese language forms and ways of thinking. It is quite significant for the development of translation in cross-cultural communication.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> language form; mode of thinking; English and Chinese language; culture<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 英汉语言各具特色，蕴含各自历史文化底蕴，彰显不同的思维模式。显而易见，语言，文化与思维模式之间形成了某种紧密联系的互动关系。文化影响思维，反之，思维也会体现文化，而语言受两者的影响，亦是阐明思维与文化差异的最直接的方式。因此，本文将从文化视域下，以语言和思维关系为切入口，对比探究英汉语言形式与思维方式，这对于跨文化交际下翻译发展来说至关重要。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> 语言形式；思维模式；英汉语言；文化<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction ===<br /> The relationship between language and thought is widely discussed among scholars at home and abroad. Karl Marx once remarks that language is a tool, carrier, shell, and a “dress” of thought. Language by nature is the embodiment of human thoughts and thoughts in turn is the mental reflection of the world around us. Language is therefore closely related to and supported by human thoughts. That is to say, without thought, language would be nothing sounds with no meaning or content. But thoughts, though accessible by various means, are best represented in language and can thus best fulfill its obligations to the speakers by such means. Also thought will further facilitate the development of language, Sapir once states, “ Thought processes set in, as a kind of psychic overflow, almost at the beginning of linguistic expression; further, that the concept once defined, necessarily reacted on the life of its linguistic symbols, encouraging further linguistic growth.”(1921: 12)<br /> <br /> At the same time, Language is part of culture. Such as Chinese language is a part of Chinese culture. Each country has its own language in a specific culture. However, their relationship is not just between part and whole. Language is the carrier and the representation of culture, while, as a mirror of culture, language is strongly influenced and shaped by culture.<br /> <br /> Moreover, the thought also is largely influenced by its culture. Human thinking mainly consists of such elements as knowledge, ideology, methodology, intelligence, emotion, willpower, language and habits. The inter-relationship and interaction of these elements from a dynamic complex system is known as the mode of thinking. The mode of thinking is closely related to the worldview. It is the concentrated embodiment of all cultural and psychological properities and is shaped in a certain historical, social and geographical environment. Conversely, a person’s established mode of thinking conditions and even determines his/ her formation of judgement and pattern of behavior in a certain situation.<br /> <br /> In general, different culture leads to different mode of thinking which is demonstrated most in their own language. That is to say, the relationship among culture, mode of thinking and language is closely related to each other and they can be viewed as three parts of a whole. And in this paper, it is going to compare different mode of thinking and ways of expression between Chinese and English in cultural perspective, so as to better understand cross-culture communication.<br /> <br /> === 2. The comparison of modes of thinking with the representation of ways of expression in English and Chinese ===<br /> The language, thought and culture are independent but closely interrelated as we have discussed before. While in different countries, there exist vast differences in their thinking patterns, then this paper is going to illustrate four groups of opposite Chinese and Occidental thinking ways and present how these thinking patterns are reflected upon their language, and trace back to the cultural and historical foundations for these phenomena. While it just compares these modes of thought in a general way, and they are not simply manifested as opposite to each other, but intermingled to some extent with the exchange of culture and the common ground imparted in all human beings. All of the opposition between Chinese thinking and occidental thinking that I present is just a matter of degree, and we have to view it critically.<br /> === 2.1 Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, human thought can be divided into two types: analytical thinking and holistic thinking. To some extent, Chinese emphasizes synthesis and English tends to be analytical.<br /> Holistic thinking puts emphasis on the integral concepts and the universal connection of objects. It regard man, nature and society as an unalienable organic whole. While analytical thinking will tend to focus more on labeling and analyzing different parts that eventually make up the whole. Actually, there must be some certain cultural background to the formation of western and Chinese mode of thinking. The formation of Chinese thinking mode can derive from Chinese people’s perspectives towards the nature. In Chinese classical philosophy, the conception of “One” better demonstrates the holistic view. According to Taoism, “All things obtained the One and became alive and kept growing.”(Tao Te Ching, chapter 36). Chuang Tzu promotes the concept of “One” to the state of the “unity of heaven and human”, and believes that the heaven and man, and the thing and self can all merge into one organically connected whole. Moreover, the essence that Chinese philosophy stresses the holistic view lies in the systematic evaluation and comprehensive grasp of all things, aiming to have a comprehensive and accurate understanding towards everything. After accumulated, condensed and sublimated through time, such philosophy facilitates Chinese people develop holistic thinking which is good at integrating, drawing up the guidelines and commanding the overall situation. While, in western culture, Plato firstly advocates “subject-object dichotomy” and then explain the world from a dualistic angle. In addition, the people can also be influenced by Aristotle’s syllogism, and always emphasize reasonable thinking in accordance with certain procedures, just like analysizing geometric problems in which one should derive the unknown, then demonstrate the process meticulously and finally draw a logic conclusion. It is exactly the characteristic of analytic thinking in which the object is divided into parts and one should investigate them respectively<br /> <br /> Undeniably, thinking patterns can best be demonstrated in their language. In a word, Analytical thinking involves detachment of the object from its context, a tendency to focus on attributes of the object in order to assign it to categories, and a preface for using rules about the categories to explain and predict the object’s behavior. Holistic thinking involves an orientation to the context or field as a whole, including attention to relationship between a focal object and the field, and a preference for explaining and predicting events on the basis of such relationships. And parataxis and hypotaxis are exactly the concrete manifestations of holistic thinking and analytical thinking. In the field of linguistics and translation studies, parataxis, as opposed to hypotaxis , is the single most important feature distinguishing the Chinese language from English, with Chinese showing paratactic prominence and English hypotactic prominence. Nida once stated, “ So far as English and Chinese are concerned, the most important difference linguistically is the contrast between hypotaxis and parataxis.” (1982, 16) Liu Miqing believes that hypotaxis and parataxis can be viewed as the heterogeneous characteristics.(1992: 18). Zhang Li proposes that Chinese, in terms of grammar, belongs to parataxis, one of whose overall features lies in conciseness and economy. Hence, English uses many conjunctions, prepositions and other connective means to make links between phrases and words, because of which the language is more logical and better organized. on the other hand, in Chinese, the arranging of clauses is one after the other without connectives showing the relations between them. Hypotaxis can be viewed as the external logic forms of composing words into sentences, and parataxis the internal cognition of wording and phrasing. From the comparisons, we may see that the differences between hypotaxis and parataxis have resulted in the different sentence structures and language expression forms. Here are some examples:<br /> <br /> (1) The thirty-two chapters of a novel — if we consider how to read a novel first —are an attempt to make something as formed and controlled as a building: but words are more impalpable than bricks; reading is a longer and more complicated process than seeing.(Virginal Woolf, How Should One Read a Book?)<br /> 我们先来讨论一下小说的读法。一部三十二章的小说，作者努力把它塑造成像建筑物一样有形态、受制约的东西。然而，字句之比于砖瓦，更加触摸不到；阅读比之于观看，是个更为长久而复杂的过程。(Selected from the Anthology of Chinese and English Prose)<br /> <br /> （2）门铃一声响，来了客人。从不谢客，礼当接待。忙把袜子穿上，整冠而出。来客红光满面，一开口就知道是远客。（楼适夷，《夜间来客——“名人”被访实录》）<br /> Suddenly the doorbell rang，announcing the arrival of a visitor. As Mr. Huang had never refused any visitor before, this one should be received with courtesy too. Quickly putting his socks back on and smoothing his hair，he hurried to the door，and there he was encountered by a man with a fat glowing face. (Lou Shiyi, A Night Visitor— A True Story a ‘Celebrity’ Being Interviewed. Translated by Zhang Peiji)<br /> <br /> From the two examples above，we can percept that English is of very hypotaxis. In the first example, one preminent feature is the aboundant conjunctions, like “if”, “how”, “but” and “than”. And the sentence structures are tightly knitted with distinct subject-predicate. While in the Chinese version, it is in lack of these overt conjunctive devices. In the second example, in the source language, it uses more than ten verbs in succession, and narrates chronologically. Although it is loosely organized, all of these verbs are arranged in order and present with a clear clue. Therefore, when translating, the translator must demonstrate the hidden logical structure. But it is not absolute to confine English to hypotaxis and Chinese to parataxis, they just differentiate each other in the degree. Actually in English, Julius Caesar also famously said, “I came, I saw, I conquer.” And in some of Chinese works, some writers also tend to use the logical and connective sentences. That is to say, it is just the matter of degree, there are also hypotaxis in Chinese and parataxis in English. Moreover, as the exchanges in the world extend, the Chinese and English thinking modes can also be influenced respectively.<br /> <br /> 2.2 subject-oriented thinking and object-targeted thinking<br /> It is well know that Chinese culture and Occidental Culture are quite different, Chinese culture stress the subject, while Occidental people prefer the objective way of thinking.<br /> As China has confronted the sever natural and geographic condition, since the pre-Qin Dynasty, the governor would never think the outside world as the oppositt side of human beings. And Chinese people also advocate the harmony between men and nature, which has been retained till now. Moreover, Chinese Confucian school, Taoism and Buddhism all stress the subject. Lao Tsu said: “ Man models himself after the Earth; the Earth models itself after the Heaven; the Heaven models itself after Tao；Tao models itself after the Nature. ” Mencius also stated, “All things under heaven are being prepared for me.” Hence, since ancient times, the Chinese people have tended to consider all things from an anthropocentric standpoint. The outstanding scholar Qian Mu states that “In short, Chinese culture takes human and human affairs as a core. Human and human affairs refer to all reality and ideal when human are getting along with each other. The manifestation and achievement of Chinese culture is around the core. The reason why Chinese culture can be fused into a whole is that Chinese culture shows its value through its core-human and human affairs.” (1977: 331) Hence, Chinese culture is human-centered. It is, essentially, a kind of humanistic culture, under the deep influence of which the subjective thought-pattern has come into being. The subjective thought pattern refers to observing, analyzing, learning and studying objects anthropocentrically and view human beings as the part of a whole nature.<br /> On the contrary, the occidental objective thinking takes objects and nature as core, and pay more attention to the observation and research of the objects. The occidental culture originated in Greek peninsular and its coastal areas, where the sages in Ancient Greece has looked upon at the cosmos and nature, and always investigated the natural mystery. And based on the dichotomy and antithesis, gradually, the spirit of occidental culture is to separate subjective from objective and to conqure nature. Hence the occidental tradition takes nature as cognitive object. Unlike Chinese culture and tradition, the occidental rationalism adovacates objective attitudes. Francis Bacon once remarked, “Authority, habit, prejudice and exaggeration eration are barriers to truth. To seek truth, one should overcome these obstacles. ” Owing to English people’s objective thinking, they often use impersonal to account the events, and try to be objective. G. Leech and J. Svartvik point out: “Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style; i.e. one which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or readers, but avoids the pronouns I, you, we. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives, sentences beginning with introductory it, and abstract nouns.”(1974:25) While Chinese people’s subjective thinking pattern demonstrates itself in Chinese in two notable ways: animate subjects and the majority used of active voice. Actually, according to Shen Xiaolong, the configuration of Chinese character demonstrates the subject-oriented thinking pattern. Based on the pictographs, the Chinese characters refer to the object and its ideographs are people-oriented. Hence in English-Chinese translation, the translator should transform from subjective thinking to objective thinking, for instance: <br /> <br /> The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood. (连淑能) <br /> 一看见那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。 <br /> <br /> A good idea suddenly occur on me.<br /> 我突然想出了一个好主意。<br /> <br /> The two English sentences, with the abstract subjects: “The sight of the big tree” and “ A good idea” are quite natural to English readers, while in Chinese it is quite queer and none of Chinese people are accustomed to use them in such way. Hence, in Chinese version, it begins with the personal subject “我” and sounds quite smooth and comprehensible to the Chinese readers. <br /> <br /> Moreover, in English, the two expletive words (it and there) are frequently used show its objectivity in the text. At the same time, in Chinese, there are many no-subject sentences, like “下雪了” “该去学校啦” “太冷了”. While such kind of expression are not allowed in English, for it appears to be complete with a subject in English grammar. Hence, in English, they can be expressed in this way: “it snows”, “It is time to go to school” and “It is too cold”. And owing to English objective thinking, the English passive voice, especially the impersonal passive of “it” is used as the subject, such as “it is believed”, “it is said”, “it is reported”, etc., expresses the facts or ideas in an objective, indirect and roundabout way. It is obvious that the English passive sentences should be converted into the Chinese active sentences. Although the sentence structures are changed, the meanings still remain the same as the original sentences. Also in English “there” and “there be” pattern are impersonal expressions, But in Chinese translation, concrete persons and things are usually used instead. For instance: <br /> <br /> (1) 公交车来了。<br /> There comes the bus.<br /> (2) 我家有五口人。<br /> There are 5 people in my family.<br /> <br /> Clearly, the sentences above reveal that in Chinese there must be certain subjects supplanting the “there” or “there be” pattern. In general, with the influence of the respective modes of thinking, Chinese tends to be subjective and English prefers objection, but it is not necessarily absolute. In English, we can also find numerous personal subjects like “I think”, “I believe”. And in Chinese, it often use the passive tense in the writings in Classical Chinese, such as “受制于人” (be restricted by sb) “为人所骗” (be cheated by sb). Hence, it is also quite common to begin with personal subjects in English and use objective subject and passive tense in Chinese. Clearly, it is a matter of degree.<br /> <br /> ===2.3 Concrete thinking and abstract thinking ===<br /> Generally speaking, Chinese people prefer thinking in images and English people prefer thinking in notions. Conspicuously, there are some cultural and historical factors leading to the formation of different thinking patterns. Actually, the change and development of Chinese characters is the best illustration for the concrete thinking of Chinese people. Chinese language is vivid and full of images. As we all know that the Chinese character is characterized by pictographs, which express the meaning through the outer form. For example, the character “人” (man) is like the two legs of a person; and “从” (follow) looks like that one person is followed by another; the “山” (mountain) is the shape of a mountain. Therefore, from ancient times, Chinese people tend to borrow the images of outside world to form their own hieroglyphs. Following such kind of thought model, concrete thinking is established and reflected in Chinese language. As Nakamura remarks, “The Chinese people had a high regard for particulars, and presented content concretely in accordance with their way of thinking, naturally fond of complex multiplicity expressed in concrete form.” ( 1991, 217) While Occidental people prefer abstract thinking which takes concept, judgement and reasoning as form of thinking, and expresses ideas and emotions through logical sentences. Since the English letters are based on the Greek alphabet, and it is hard to form a pictograph to express the meaning of the word which can only come from the object description of the nature. Also in the process of learning and analyzing the objective world, the occidental aim at exploring the essence and origin of the world. By means of classification and analysis, they try to find the universals of the same kind of objects and combine them together to form a so-called “the World of form” or “the ideal world”. Moreover, they are fairly interested in the properties of things, and examine them carefully and thoroughly. Their explorations about mathematics, geometry and astronomy contribute to abstract thinking. In the aspect of linguistic expression, the English language tend to be more abstract or logical. Abstract language refers to the language that uses method of abstract diction to express the complex ideas which lie mainly in abstract nouns. G. M. Young once pointed that an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will, in the end，detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done. and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness. While in Chinese language, the concrete, clear and picturesque words are widely used, just as R. Flesch states, “ Chinese dose more to you than just simplify your constructions… They formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors, similes, and all aegis, in short, by every known devices for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.” ( 1946: 15-16)The two different kinds of thinking patterns also can be medonstrated in the artistic design of literary works. For instance, the poem《凉州词》written by Wang Han, and the poem《登高》 writer by Du Fu can fully examplify the concrete and picturesque Chinese language, and both of them are translated by Xu Yuanchong.<br /> <br /> 葡萄美酒夜光杯，<br /> 欲饮琵琶马上催。<br /> — 王翰《凉州词》<br /> With wine of grapes the cups of jade would glow at night,<br /> Drinking to pipa songs, we are summoned to fight.<br /> <br /> 无边落木萧萧下，<br /> 不尽长江滚滚来。<br /> —杜甫《登高》<br /> The boundless forest sheds its leaves shower by shower,<br /> The endless river rolls it’s waves hour after hour.<br /> <br /> In the two poems above, the poets use several concrete images like “wine of grapes”, “cups of jade” “boundless forest” and “ endless river”. It is easy to visualize the certain situation that poets depict for us, when we read these lines. While in English there are more abstract nouns to replace the function of verb and express abstract meanings, which sometimes can cause puzzlement for Chinese people. For instance, in Benjamin Franklin’s The Autobiography: <br /> “To help myself live without fault, I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues. These virtues are: 1 Temperance, 2 Self-control, 3 Silence, 4 Order, 5 Firmness of mind, 6 Savings, 7 Industry, 8 Honesty, 9 Justice, 10 Cleanliness, 11, calmness, 12 Morality, 13 Humbleness.”<br /> “为了使自己生活中不犯错误，特别列出我认为应该身体力行的 13 条守则。这些守则<br /> 是：1.节制饮食 2.自我克制 3. 沉默寡言 4. 有条不紊 5. 坚定信念 6.勤俭节约 7. 工作勤奋8. 忠诚老实 9. 办事公正 10. 衣着整洁 11.平心静气 12. 品行高尚 13.谦虚恭顺。” <br /> There are 13 abstract words in English and they are translated into Chinese concretely with the verbs to gover the phrases. So that it would be vividly explained what do these abstract words convey in a specific way.<br /> <br /> Wisdom prepares for the worst; but folly leaves the worst for the day it comes.<br /> 智者防范于未然，愚者临渴掘井。（陈文伯译）<br /> <br /> In the sentence, “wisdom” and “folly” are two abstract nouns, but they actually refer to certain people. The expression in English is quite common and concise, while Chinese people are accustomed to the thinking in images, hence, in the translation, the concept of two abstract nouns is materialized as two people with certain properties. So that Chinese people can better understand the implicit meaning.<br /> <br /> 2.4 circular thinking and linear thinking<br /> According to Robert Kaplan who analynizes different discourses and their different organization in different notions, students from different cultural backgrounds adopt different patterns of writing. The Chinese text, in contrast with the English text which is organized in a linear structure, is usually arranged in circular structure (1966:1-2). <br /> Circular thinking can also be known as inductive thinking in which we infer a conclusion on the basis of facts and draw a conclusion from particular to general. From ancient times, traditional Chinese medicine already sets a model for us. They follow the principles of “inspection”, “inquiry”, “listening” and “smelling” and can finally make a diagnosis. Later in Compendium of Materia Medica writen by Li Shizheng, it collect and summarize a vast of prescription based on his practical experiences and mothods. And underlying the observations, Chinese people will finally draw a conclusion and are not always accustomed to express their opinions directly. Actually, it can derive from the traditional Chinese culture where the Confucianism immensely governs people’s thought. Under the influence of “the doctrine of mean” and the underlined “mutual harmony” in traditional Chinese philosophy, which cultivate Chinese to avoid direct confrontation and conflicts and take a mean course while they are thinking. Hence such kind of circular thinking model can be reflected upon the Chinese language where ideas are often organized and linked in an overall framework, and does not state the topic directly in the opening lines but constantly lays out relevant or even irrelevant information to provide many-sided perspectives for judging. While, on the contrary, the occidental thinking pattern tends to be linear, or we can say it is a kind of deductive thinking model. It starts from general to particular, from abstract to concrete, and from outcome to reason. The occidental prefer to directly talk about the topic at the beginning without reservation. As a matter of fact, it is deeply influenced by the Greek philosophy. The way of thinking is inherited from the Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, especially Aristotlian logical and reasonable thinking. Aristotle puts forward two thought patterns: “ deduction and induction”, while he himself view the deductive method superior to the inductive one. Just as Guo remarks, “ For over 2000 years, syllogism and deduction has been a mainstream for western culture and thought.” And also Aristotle generalizes the discourse into four parts: beginning, poising a question, analysis and expounding, conclusion, which can be viewed as an epitome of occidental linear thinking pattern. In general, English thought pattern is a straight pattern. And so a text is usually centered on a topic in the form of the topic sentence of topic paragraph and then it is developed in a deductive method, directly by many sentences in a sequence. So, the crucial part is usually put at the beginning of an English sentence, but at the end of a Chinese sentence. Here are some examples: <br /> <br /> (1) Soccer is a difficult sport. A player must be able to run steadily without rest. Sometimes a player must hit the ball with his or her head. Players must be willing to bang into or be banged into by others. They must put up with aching feet and sore muscles.<br /> 足球运动员必须不停地奔跑，有时得用头顶球，撞别人或被别人撞，必须忍受双腿和肌肉的疼痛，所以说，足球是一项难度大的运动。<br /> <br /> There is another example to view how Chinese people and American people express their own emotions. The two excerpts are from the Keynote Speech By H.E. Xi Jinping President of the people’s Republic of China At the Opening Ceremony of The third China International Import Expo and President Obama’ speech at Fu Dan University in Shanghai respectively.<br /> (2) 各位来宾，<br /> 女士们，先生们，朋友们：<br /> Distinguished Guests,<br /> Ladies and Gentlemen,<br /> Dear Friends,<br /> 在各方共同努力下，第三届中国国际进口博览会开幕了！首先，我代表中国. 政府和中国人民，并以我个人的名义，向各位嘉宾，表示热烈的欢迎！对各位新老朋友，表示诚挚的问候！<br /> With concerted efforts of all parties, the third China International Import Expo (CIIE) is now open. At the outset, let me extend, on behalf of the government and people of China as well as in my own name, a hearty welcome to all the distinguished guests. To the many old and new friends, I give you my warm greetings and best regards.<br /> <br /> Good afternoon. It is a great honor for me to be here in Shanghai, and to have this opportunity to speak with all of you.<br /> 诸位下午好。 我感到很荣幸能够有机会到上海跟你们交谈。<br /> <br /> Obviously, in the first example, in English versions, the topic sentence is presented first, then it begins to illustrate the topic in a logical way to convince us that soccer is a difficult sport. Then in the second example, we can see that the president Xi and American former President Obama show their delightment in quite different ways. We Chinese people tend to express our joy at the end of discourse, while American people are willing to show their emotions at the beginning, which also vividly presents the Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking. <br /> <br /> Although the distinction between Chinese linear thinking and Occidental circular thinking is widely recognized at home and abroad, it is not categorically clear about the line between Chinese and English. Actually, many ancient writers in China are fond of coming straight to the point and hit the nail on the head in a precise way. Liang Qichao, an excellent ancient scholar in Qing Dynasty, proposes in his the Methodology of composition above middle school, that the most important thing is to make readers get the writer’s purpose at a glance when reading an article, so that it can touch and gain the reader’s interest. And also the “general discussion-sub discussion-conclusion model” is only one certain structure for English writing. Hence it is hard to say that English is Linear and Chinese is circular as Robert Kaplan defines, and we have to critically think about the differences between Chinese and English.<br /> <br /> ===3. Conclusion ===<br /> The discussions of the comparison between Chinese and Occidental thinking models have been carried out for a long time. In this paper, through the comparison on four opposite types of modes of thinking: Holistic thinking vs Analytical thinking, subject-oriented thinking vs object-targeted thinking, concrete thinking vs abstract thinking, and linear thinking vs circular thinking, and presenting how they reflect upon their language, it demonstrates that cultural diversity and different historical origin may dominate the formation of thinking patterns. Since in the sea of the Chinese and Occidental language and thought, the culture is like a mirror which reflects all-embracing phenomena. That is to say, language, thought and culture are essentially associated with each other. While there are also some other types of comparison among modes of thought like “static thinking vs dynamic thinking”, “fuzzy thinking vs accurate thinking” and so on. Moreover, we have to classify the writing style and genre of the articles, which would set up different principles in diction, so we can not lump together under one head and blindly follow that the Chinese and Occidental thinking models must be opposite in certain dimension. Hence this paper just tries to compare them in a general way, so that we can have a relatively overall view about the two language. Since the thought impacts a lot upon the language, we have to firstly understand how people from different nation think about the world and other objects around them, and then better understand why and how they tend to use such kind of ways of expression. Then it is greatly useful to learn a second language well and to better perform in the cross-cultural communication with the extent of cultural exchanges nowadays.<br /> <br /> === Bibliography ===<br /> *连淑能. 论中西思维方式【J】. 大连：外语与外语教学，2002.<br /> Lian Shuneng. On Chinese and Western modes of thinking [J]. Dalian: Foreign language and teaching, 2002.<br /> *刘宓庆. 《汉英对比翻译》【M】. 南昌: 江西教育出版社, 1992. 18.<br /> Lui Miqing. Contrastive Study and Translation between English and Chinese [M]. Nanchang: Jiangxi Education Press, 1992, 18.<br /> *钱穆，《世界局势与中国文化》【M】 台北：台北东大图书公司，1977.<br /> Qian Mu. The World Situation and Chinese Culture [M] Taibei: Taipei Dongda Book Co.LTD, 1977.<br /> *申小龙. 汉字构形的主体思维及其人文精神 . 【J】《学术月刊》 第14期 1994, 74.<br /> Shen Xiaolong. The Subjective thinking and humanistic spirit of Chinese Characters [J]. Academic Monthly, 1994 (74).<br /> *汪德华. 英汉思维方式对其语言、文字的影响 【J】. 外语与外语教学，2003, (3), 36.<br /> Wang Dehua. The influence of Thinking Modes of English and Chinese on Their Language and Character. [J]  Foreign Language and Teaching, 2003 (3), 36.<br /> *徐通锵. 《语言论———语义型语言的结构原理和研究方法》【M】长春：东北师范大学出版社, 1997.<br /> Xu Tongqiang. Linguistics—the Structural principle and research methodology of semantic language, [M] Changchun: Northeast Normal University Press, 1997.<br /> *张 黎. 《文化的深层选择———汉语意合语法论》 【M】长春：吉林教育出版社，1994.<br /> Zhang Li. — on Chinese Parataxis Grammar, [M] Changchun: Jilin Education Press, 1994.<br /> *张思洁, 张柏然. 形合与意合的哲学思维反思【J】 中国翻译，2001 (7), 13.<br /> Zhang Sijie, Zhang Boran. Parataxis versus Hypotaxis— a Reflection on the Relation between Language, Philosophy and modes of Thinking, [J]. Chinese Translation, 2001 (7), 13.<br /> *Flesch, R. The Art of Plain Words. New York: Harper &amp; Brothers Publishers, 1946.<br /> *Kaplan, R. B. “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education in Language Learning”, A Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1966.<br /> *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. A Communicative Grammar of English Longman, 1974. <br /> *Nakamura, Hajime. Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples—Indian, China, Tibet, Japan. London:Kegan Paul International, 1997. <br /> *Nida，Eugene A Translating Meaning [M] San Dimas, California: English Language Institute, 1982. 16.<br /> *Sapir, E. Language, [M]. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1921.<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Functional Equivalence and Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance 曾良 Zeng Liang==<br /> <br /> ==English Translation of 2019 ''Government Work Report'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology 义子楚 Yi Zichu==<br /> <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''=== In recent years, with the deepening of the reform and opening up, the ''Government Work Report'' has become China's foreign political communication hub conducive to a better understanding by the international community of the work of the Chinese government. Therefore, how to effectively write the corresponding English version and how to fully convey the message of the government's work is one of the main problems for translators. Eco-translatology is an ecological paradigm and research field which defines that translation is adaptation and selection and highlights multi-dimension transformation. This thesis analyzes the English translation of the ''2019 Government Work Report'' from three perspectives: linguistic, cultural and communicative dimensions. It is shown that eco-translatology help improve the quality of the English translation of ''2019 Government Work Report'' . <br /> <br /> ==='''Key words'''=== eco-translatology; 2019 Government Work Report; multi-dimension transformation<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===近年来，随着改革开放的不断深入，《政府工作报告》已变成中国对外政治交流的枢纽，有利于加深国际社会对中国政府工作的了解。因此，如何有效地编写《中国政府工作报告》对应的英文版本，从而全面清晰地解释政府工作的内容是政府对外翻译的主要问题之一。生态翻译理论从生态学视角对翻译进行综观的整体性研究，是一个‘翻译即适应与选择’的生态范式和研究领域。本文主要从生态翻译学的多维翻译理论着手，通过语言维、文化维和交际维三个角度对《2019政府工作报告》的英译版本进行分析。分析显示生态翻译理论较好地解决了政府工作报告中翻译难题，提高了英文翻译的质量。<br /> 关键词：生态翻译学，《政府工作报告》，多维转换理论<br /> <br /> ==='''Introduction'''===<br /> ''The Government Work Report'' of the state council is a review of the work within a year, which the ''National People's Congress'' on the prime minister of state court reports to the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, including the task of deployment, and the transmission of the priority tasks. It reflects the national policy, culture, as an important text of national conditions. <br /> Over the past four decades and since reform and opening up, China's overall political, economic, cultural and military strength has grown steadily, and so has its voice in the world. On the one hand, China is recognized and supported by the international community in economic, political and cultural fields. On the other hand, countries hope to have a deeper understanding of China, strengthen ties with China and realize common development. Due to this, the translation of external publicity is particularly important. Let China know more about the world and let the world know more about China. As the latest work report of the year, the 2019 Government Work Report is not only a comprehensive summary of the work of the government in 2018, but also a plan for the work of the government in 2019. It covers the latest political, economic, cultural and diplomatic developments in China. Eco-translatology theory, which originated in China, provides a new and unique perspective for translation studies and has made great progress in the past two decades. Through the interpretation of the core concepts of eco-translatology, this paper interprets the report language from the perspectives of vocabulary and syntax, and proposes corresponding translation strategies based on language dimension, cultural dimension and communicative dimension, so as to provide reference for the translation of external publicity materials.<br /> In order to understand the Government Work Report accurately, we must be combined with the society and culture of China. So, the Chinese-English translation is of great significance. And in recent years, the domestic scholars attach great importance to the translation of political words. Therefore, it has important functions and research values to study on the Chinese-English translation of Government Work Report from the prospective of eco-translatology.<br /> Cheng Zhenqiu(2003）reposed that the translation of political articles should focus on politics. Huang Youyi(2004) proposed The Three Principles of External Publicity Translation. Tong Xiaohua (2014) explores the English translation of the Government Work Report from different perspectives. Wang Gangyi（2014）also pointed out that the former absolute loyalty to the translation of political texts can no longer satisfy the changing society and readers. Linguistics emphasizes the equivalence of texts from different aspects, which is of great guiding significance for texts like the Government Work Report that emphasizes fidelity. Under the guidance of Nida's functional equivalence theory, Zhou Ji studied the economic and political terms in the report at the lexical and textual levels. In 2001, Joan Pinkham (2000:1) published a book and it is The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, in which it explores the Chinglish in political publicity from the angle of lexis and syntax. In her book, she suggested that translators should not only understand the subtle connotations of words and sentences clearly and use more idioms to express the meanings of the source text, but also pay special attention to the tone and short sentences of Chinese, and avoid the use of outdated, rigid terms, slang and colloquialisms. Compared with domestic studies, the number of relevant studies abroad is very small, and there are almost no relevant translation studies. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that foreign countries are more interested in the content of the report, that is, to describe the national policies, culture and social issues. <br /> This thesis focuses on translation of political publicity from the perspective of eco-translatology in order to proves that eco-translation is conductive and practical in the process of translating the Government Work Report and summarizes several useful strategies in translating political texts. Moreover, this thesis analyzes the features of Government Work Report, which provides a clear mind for translators in selecting the proper strategies in translation process of the Government Work Report. This thesis includes three chapters. The first part introduces the research background of the study and the significance of the study, and also illustrates the previous research on the translation of Government Work Report at home and abroad. Chapter two surrounds on the theoretical framework of eco-translatology including adaptation and selection principle and multi-dimensional translation principle. Chapter three, as one of the main chapter of the thesis, analyzes the translation of the 2019 Government Work Report from the perspective of eco-translatology. <br />  <br /> ==='''1.Introduction of Government Work Report'''===<br /> <br /> Government Work Report has the features of com prehension and objection, it using the data and truth to telling the achievements of all aspects and obey the practical and realistic rules to implementing the plan. Government Work Report emphasizes on the key point of works which has plain and innovative writing style. As a typical political text, Government Work Report manifests distinctive features. First, we need to understand the characteristics of the words, phrases, and sentences in the report so that we can translate them naturally and logically.<br /> ===='''1.1 Lexical Level '''====<br /> For Government Work Report has its own features at m any levels, it often uses the formal and concise words, terminology and plain words at lexical level. And the new, popular words and words with Chinese characteristics are also employed. Therefore, it is very necessary to pay attention to the features at lexical level when analyzing the Government Work Report.<br /> ====='''1.1.1Formal and Concise Words'''=====<br /> The expressions like “认真贯彻”(fully implement), “坚定不移纠正”(take stern action against)are quite formal and not common in colloquial conversation. Some expressions like “砥砺奋进”(forged ahead), “攻坚克难”(overcame difficulties) are quite condensed so that the simplest word can explain more meanings. The Chinese four-word structure characteristic can fully satisfy the need of concision, therefore, there are many this kind of structure occurred in the Government Work Report. <br /> ====='''1.1.2 Terms with Chinese Characteristics'''=====<br /> As the Government Work Reports involve many professional fields like politics, economics, livelihood, medicine and technology. Therefore, terms in different fields are inevitable，such as “半拉子”工程 ( Make sure that projects financed by such debts are not stopped half way.); “河长制、湖长制”( river chiefs and lake chiefs ) ; “革命老区” ( old revolutionary base areas ); “民族地区”( areas with large ethnic minority populations ) ; “携号转网”( keep their numbers and switching carriers ); “厕所革命”( the Toilet Revolution ). These words are all unique terms for China ’s national conditions in recent years. If they are translated literally, it will inevitably lead to differences in the understanding of target language readers. In this case, translators must adapt to the ecological environment.<br /> ====='''1.1.3 New and Popular Words'''=====<br /> The new words here refer to the popular expressions of the year. They are widely known by people. The internet and other media are also frequently and widely used, such as “好差评”(government service evaluation system); “互联网+”(Internet Plus); “包干制”(the creation of ceilings in funding that enable the retention of unused funds)”僵尸企业”(zombie enterprises);”大病保险”(serious disease insurance ); “绿色发展”(green development). They are too popular on the Chinese social life to let even the government leaders use them and create new ones.<br /> ===='''1.2 Syntactic Level'''====<br /> In Chinese, the grammatical subject is always absent in a sentence. In Government Work Report, there have lots of this kind of structure frequently. English is a metamorphic language which requires a large number of logical word clauses to build the integrity of language form and meaning. In English grammar, the subject is inevitable so that it can be a complete sentence. <br /> Eg: “困难不容低估，信心不可动摇，干劲不能松懈。” (The difficulties we face must not be underestimated, our confidence must not be weakened, and the energy we bring to our work must not be allowed to wane.)<br /> It is clear that there is no subject in these sentences. However, it adds “we face” and “we bring to work” as subjects to make foreign readers better understand. <br /> ===='''1.3 Rhetorical Level '''====<br /> In terms of the rhetorical devices in Government Work Report, repetition, parataxis, metaphor and personification are the figures of speech most frequently used.<br /> ====='''1.3.1 Repetition and Parataxis'''=====<br /> Repetition and parataxis structure have the reinforcement effect which make the language of Government Work Report vivid and easy to be understood. Although in Chinese, repetition has both the emphasis and coherence effect, in the translation it is not just repeating one word but also keep the similar linguistic structure.<br /> Eg: “进一步稳就业、稳金融、稳外贸、稳外资、稳投资、稳预期”(take further steps to ensure stable employment, a stable financial sector, stable foreign trade, stable foreign investment, stable domestic investment, and stable expectations) [1]<br /> “获得感、幸福感、安全感”(enable people to feel more satisfied, happy, and secure) [1]<br /> “增进稳增长、促改革、调结构、惠民生、防风”(sustain healthy economic development and maintain social stability) [1]'''=====<br /> Metaphor and personification, which seem not fit the formal style of Government Work Report, are actually adopted for certain purpose. A metaphor as a figure of speech identifies something as being the same as some unrelated thing for rhetorical effect, thus highlighting the similarities between the two.<br /> Eg:“我国发展仍处于重要战略机遇期，拥有足够的韧性、巨大的潜力和不断迸发的创新活力” (China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity for development and has ample resilience, enormous potential, and great creativity to unleash. )[1]<br /> “在实际执行中，既要把好货币供给总闸门，不搞 “大水漫灌” (In implementation, we will ensure the valve on aggregate monetary supply is well controlled and refrain from using a deluge of stimulus policies)[1]<br /> “放水养鱼”(an accommodative effect)[1] <br /> <br /> ==='''2.A Brief Introduction to Eco-translatology'''===<br /> <br /> Eco-translatology as a transdisciplinary approach to eco-translatology studies, it is a holistic study of translation using ecological rationality and an ecological perspective. It is considered an ecological paradigm of translation which is adaptation and selection. Translator-centered theory, adaptation and selection, and translation ecological environment are the three core concepts of the theory. The theory requires that the translator's subjective and active role be exerted, and continuous adaptation and choice be made in the translation process to meet the entire translation ecological environment, that is, the harmony between the translator and the original, target, and target language readers. Three-dimensional translation methods such as dimension and communicative dimension to get the original text with higher integration.<br /> ===='''2.1 Evolution of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> Eco-translation was firstly generated in the beginning of 21st century. Before it was initiated by scholars in China, there was no such notion in theory. In this sense, it could be seen as a new school which “was built from ground” (Haggas, 2011). Eco-translation looks into translation from a brand new perspective. Therefore, many new terms and concepts are adopted in the relative studies. Both of confusion and contribution present themselves in the foundation of eco-translation. To better understand the theory, we need to figure out the basis on which it is formed<br /> ====='''2.1.1 Previous Studies on Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> As a translation theory originated in China, eco-translatology has been gradually improved in the past two decades. In 2001, professor Hu Gengshen laid the foundation for the theory of adaptation and selection of translation. Since then, the first decade has been the period of constructing and expanding the theoretical framework. In the second decade, with the holding of the international symposium on eco-translatology and the practice of the theory of eco-translatology of the professors of various universities, the eco-translatology system has gradually become mature. Liu Yafeng wrote adaptation and selection of translators -- a study on the translation process of external publicity, pointing out that translators should play their role of “selection” and “adaptation” as the center in the translation process of external publicity, so as to realize the harmony and unity of the whole translation ecological environment. For three-dimensional adaptation and selection principles, Zhou Li wrote the multi-dimensional integration principle under the care of the political party and government discourse translation to demonstrate the dimensions of language, culture, and communication in the perspective of the Chinese party guiding significance of discourse translation. It further enlightens the translator for the use of a multi-dimensional integration technique and set up a bridge of communication between the original language and target language.<br /> ====='''2.1.2 Application of Eco-translatology '''=====<br /> There are many types of text analysis related to eco-translatology. Specifically, it includes: first, the analysis of various classical translations, such as a dream of red mansions, etc. Scholars have analyzed the reasons for the success of these classic works from the perspective of the overall translation ecological environment and the principle of “three-dimensional” transformation, pointing out that translators can only translate good works if they adapt to the translation ecological environment. These analysis has been the focus of research, and can best prove the feasibility of the theory. Secondly, the text analysis of public signs points out the direction from a new perspective. Thirdly, the text analysis of film title and subtitle. Fourthly, the text analysis of news translation. Scholars have analyzed the phenomenon of news text translation from different perspectives of eco-translatology and provided theoretical guidance.<br /> ===='''2.2 Focuses of Eco-translatology'''====<br /> ====='''2.2.1 Adaption and Selection'''=====<br /> The relationship between “adaptation” and “selection” has rarely been discussed before the emergence of “translation adaptation and selection theory”, a basic research of eco-translatology, let alone a special topic, systematic description and explanation. According to the theory of adaptation and selection, translators should make both adaptation and selection. There are choices in adaptation, namely adaptive selection; There is adaptation, or selective adaptation. The specific characteristics of such selective adaptation and adaptive selection are as follows: first, “adaptation” -- translators' adaptation to the ecological environment of translation; The second is “selection” -- the translator carries out the selection of the target text with the “identity” of the translation ecological environment. Translation is described as an alternate cycle of adaptation and selection. The internal relations of this cycle are as follows: “the purpose of adaptation is survival and effectiveness, and the means of adaptation is optimization; and the method of choice is “tide weak stay strong”. The criterion of translation criticism is also expressed from the perspective of “adaptation/selection”[2]. The best choice is adaptive; The best translation is the one with the highest degree of integration, adaptation and selection.[2]<br /> ====='''2.2.2 Multi-dimension Transformation'''=====<br /> Language dimension adaptive selection conversion refers to the translator's emphasis on language level, including word use, language structure, language form and other aspects of translation. “Translators should have a deep understanding of the expression habits and methods of the original language, and choose language forms from different dimensions and perspectives, so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the original language” (Hu Gengshen,2013:57). Translators should avoid word-for-word translation for the formal level of language, and should further combine the target language with the imaginary language ecosystem. In this way, it is helpful to further realize the balance between the ecology of the source language and the ecology of the target language of translation, and provide the readers with a harmonious and thought-provoking translation.<br /> Cultural dimension adaptive selection transformation is an important translation method for translators to improve the quality of translation and realize the multi-dimensional transformation from different levels. The expression of different languages symbolizes different cultures. Of course there are big differences between the original and the target language culture. In the process of translation, to avoid misunderstanding of the original readers fully, conversion of the translator should try to reproduce the original language cultural ecology system, fully implement the original language ecological balance of ecosystem, and the target language to reproduce the original culture, thought and emotion and so on various aspects of the elements, the correct translation methods dealing with the unique cultural connotation, rich in every country to achieve successful communication and exchanges. Translators should understand the value orientation of the original language and culture and focus on the transformation of cultural connotation to achieve the best translation.<br /> Adaptive selection of communicative dimension focuses on whether the communicative intention in the original text is successfully realized in translation. If the communicative intention of the original information is not realized, the information processed by the translation will have no meaning at all. Translators should pay attention to many aspects and levels, including the transformation of language information and cultural connotation, and at the same time, should pay attention to whether the communicative purpose is successfully achieved in the transformation. By all means, it is forbidden to translate the original text faithfully and ignore the deep connotation of the original text.<br /> In a word, the focus of the multi-dimensional transformation in ecological translation theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation from three aspects of language, culture and communication. Although the selection and transformation of translators is not limited to these three dimensions in the process of translation practice, multi-dimension transformation is the most important way in the translation process. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, and the higher the quality of the translation will be.<br /> <br /> ==='''3.E-C Translation of 2019 Government Work Report from an Eco-translatology Perspective'''===<br /> From the perspective of the eco-translatology theory, the multi-dimensional transformation which includes the linguistics dimensional transformation, culture dimensional transformation and communication dimensional can help translator understand and translate effectively. <br /> ===='''3.1 Linguistic Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of linguistic dimension refers to the transformation of linguistic form and structure during the practice of translation so as to adapt to the ecological environment of the target language. English is a hypotaxis language, which focuses on the integrity of sentence structure while Chinese is a paratonic language, whose language form is simple, but often the deep meaning needs the reader to dig. Highly condensed Chinese expressions are often used in government reports<br /> Example 1 我们坚持不搞“大水漫灌”式强刺激(We were firm in choosing not to adopt a deluge of strong stimulus policies.) [1]<br /> “大水灌溉” is an irrigation method commonly used in Chinese agricultural production which water is poured directly into the ground. Not only does it waste water, but it is also prone to secondary salinization under drought conditions. This term is used to refer to a simple and broad way of working in the process of economic reform. In the Chinese ecological environment, it is not difficult for Chinese readers to understand the meaning of metaphors and related words, so a cognitive model for English readers is needed. In order to adapt to the ecological environment, the translator did not translate the metaphor of “flooding”, but chose to translate the economic structural reform model it represents. This not only adapts to the impact of cognitive context on the English language ecology, but also reduces the difficulty in understanding English readers.<br /> Example 2 “增强人民群众获得感、幸福感、 安全感”(Enable people to feel more satisfied, happy and secure.) [1]<br /> In the Government Work Report, “sense of gain, sense of happiness and sense of security” is people's expectation for a better life, and has become a familiar word in the original language. However, in the process of English translation, the translator does not repeat the word “sense”, but turns these three words into three adjectives, which are concise and clear<br /> Example 3 “绿色发展人人有责，贵在行动、 成在坚持”(Promoting green development is down to every last one of us; its success hinges on action and commitment.) [1]<br /> The translator doesn’t translate “贵在行动、成在坚持” into”its value lies in action and its success hinges on commitment”word by word while take the way of integrating. It is a model that targets economic growth and social development as efficient, harmonious and sustainable. In today's world, green development has become an important trend. Many countries regard green development as an industry and also an important measure to promote economic restructuring, and it is also a highlight. Green development means safety, environmental protection and sustainable development. “Green” often appears on topics related to life, such as “Green Peace” and green food. In traditional Chinese culture, “green” represents wealth, honor or prosperity, which reflects people's hope for a better life. From a linguistic perspective, translators translate “green development” to “green,” which conveys the concept of healthy development in China. It can also be accepted by readers.<br /> ===='''3.2 Cultural Dimension'''====<br /> The transformation of cultural dimension means that the translator should pay attention to the transmission and interpretation of cultural connotation in the process of translation, taking into account the cultural differences of the source language. The Government Work Report is a summary of the work of the Chinese government in various fields in the past year. The purpose of the report is to let foreign audiences know the content of the report. In particular, the report covers a large number of vocabularies with Chinese characteristics and cultural form.<br /> Example 4”双随机，一公开”(Oversight conducted through the random selection of both inspectors and inspection targets and the prompt release of results was implemented nationwide.)[1]<br /> It means, during the supervision process, the inspection objects are randomly selected, law enforcement inspectors are randomly selected, and the inspection results and investigation results are made public to the society in a timely manner. If the literal translation is only superficial, the readers of the target language will be confused. In order to solve this cultural difference, the translator added the complete connotation of each phrase to realize the intention of conveying cultural connotation.<br /> Example 5 “思危方能居安”(Only alertness to danger will ensure safety.)[1]<br /> In Chinese, it means”居安思危，思则有备，有备无患”, which means that even though you are in a peaceful environment, you are aware of the possibility of danger. To be mentally prepared for unexpected events. When translating, the translator takes full account of this difference in thinking and understands it as a literal translation after modern Chinese.<br /> Example 6 “是广大干部群众筚路蓝缕、千辛万苦干出来的” (...have been made by our officials and people through perseverance and hard work.)[1]<br /> “筚路蓝缕” refers that people drive a simple car, wearing ragged clothes to split the mountains. The use of great hardships in the original text fully reflects the hard-won achievements and presents a very vivid image in front of people. However, for the target language readers, this cultural connotation is missing, therefore, the translator chooses to omit the specific image of “enduring hardships” and directly translate its persistence and diligence, which is more understood and accepted by the target language readers<br /> ===='''3.3 Communicative Dimension'''====<br /> From the perspective of the essence of translation, the ultimate purpose of translation is to meet the needs of communication between people and achieve smooth communication. The communicative dimension mainly reflects the communication between different languages, with different factors such as the way of expression and the way of construction, etc. Chinese expression cannot find the corresponding words or sentences in English expression. Therefore, the theory of adaptive selection is particularly important in translation practice.<br /> Example 7”大班额”问题 (“The problem of oversized classes”)<br /> For western countries, due to different economic development levels and different education systems, the problem of “large class size” is relatively strange to western countries. Therefore, it is necessary to explain the concept of “large class size” in order to achieve the purpose of communication.<br /> Example 8”继续推进保障性住房建设和城镇棚户区改造”(We will continue to build government subsidized housing and rebuild rundown urban areas.)<br /> “保障性住房”is a fixed standard, price or rent housing provided by the government to families with low and middle-income housing difficulties. “Shantytown renovation” is a livelihood project launched by the Chinese government to renovate dilapidated old houses in cities and towns and improve housing conditions for poor families. These are the unique policies of the Chinese government to achieve the comprehensive implementation of poverty alleviation, translators need to adapt to the target language readers to understand the transformation.<br /> Example 9 “加大”破、立、降”力度” (We strengthened work to cut ineffective supply, foster new growth drivers, and reduce costs in the real economy.)[1]<br /> In the sentence, there are only three simple and clear words—”破、立、降”，which is usually seen in the Chinese. It lacks the objects, as we have discussed before, English sentence must be complete. If it is literally translated, the foreign readers will be confused and different meanings will be produced. So due to the purpose of communication, the translator adds the specific objects to be better understood. <br /> In short, the emphasis of three-dimensional translation in eco-translatology theory is to carry out adaptive selection and transformation of translation from three aspects: language, culture, and communication. Although in the process of translation practice the translator is not limited to multi-dimensional transformation. In addition, the more dimensions the translator pays attention to in the process of translation, the stronger the degree of adaptation and selection of the translation, the better the translation will be. <br /> ==='''Conclusion'''===<br /> <br /> During the process of translation, many factors should be taken into consideration in order to fit with the actual situations and catch public’s attention quickly. Different languages have their language systems and certain features in expression. As the most important carrier of culture, language can also be regarded as an extremely complex linguistic system. Translation is the process of transforming different cultures. Therefore, both source language and target language’s culture should be considered carefully. As a result, every translator is supposed to think about all the aspects before translating and select the most suitable words and sentence patterns.<br /> Because of its important political status and function, the Government Work Report has its unique linguistic features, such as the use of formal words, four-character words and Chinese characteristic words. The mastery of its language features lays a foundation for the application and analysis of multi-dimensional translation strategies. Aiming at repeated words in sentences and information, the translator mainly uses the province translation skills. Aiming at the same word in different parts of the sentence translation, the translator should choose according to the sentences and words in the context. Due to the differences between Chinese and English, translators mainly adopt the translation techniques of free translation or joint translation to deal with the translation of parallel structures. In cultural adaptation in the process of translation, or from the historical allusion and the Chinese characteristic vocabulary and culture, the analysis can be concluded that the Government Work Report in English translation does not affect the ecological balance and harmonious between the original language and target language, the translator mainly uses the province translation or free translation skills to deal with allusions. For some corresponding expression in target language vocabulary, they can be directly applied with those unable to find corresponding expression in target language. There is no established translation, the translator mainly adopts province translation, free translation, literal translation and annotation methods for translation, which is committed to preserving the original and the translation of balance and harmony, and achieve effective transformation of culture level. Finally, translators can use these skills to achieve communicative intention.<br /> First of all, we have explained the significance and background of the essay. The preview studies of political texts are also included. In the first chapter, we analyze the characteristics of 2019 Chinese Government Work Report from three levels and also give specific examples to further explain. In the second chapter, We introduce the concept of eco-translatology and mainly explain the two core theoretical principles of eco-transtology to build the foundation of the essay . In the third chapter, we have discussed the Government Work Report translation from the perspective of eco-translatology with multi-dimension theory and in this way, we have summarized that eco-translatology can be applied to Government Work Report translation.<br /> However, this study still has its limitations. Firstly, the eco-translatology is a new theory which is not systematic and it is a new perspective to the translation of political text, which may not be convincing in the global range of translation areas. Meanwhile, as the Government Work Report is a special political document, the readership is not very wide, so it is difficult to conduct an in-depth investigation on the readers' acceptance, so as to make an in-depth analysis on the shortcomings of the English translation of the Government Work Report.<br /> <br /> ==='''Bibliography'''===<br /> Ayto, J. Bloomsbury Dictionary of World Origins[M]. London: Bloomsbury, 1991.<br /> Bliss, A.J. A Dictionary of Foreign Words and Phrases in Current English[M]. New York: Dutton Press, 1966. <br /> Baker M.Corpus. Linguistics and Translation Studies: Implications and Applications[M]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing,1993.<br /> Hermans, T. Translation in Systems: Descriptive and Systemoriented Approaches Explained[M]. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 1999. <br /> Hu, Gengshen. Translation as Adaptation and Selection [J]. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 2003 (4): 283-291.<br /> Joan Pinkham. The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.<br /> 程镇球. 政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J]. 中国翻译, 2003(3): 18-22.<br /> 方梦之. 从核心术语看生态翻译学的建构[P]. 首届国际生态翻译学研讨会，2010, 澳门. <br /> 胡庚申. 初探翻译适应选择论[P]. 国际译联第三届亚洲翻译家论坛，2001, 香港.<br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学的研究焦点与理论视角[J]．中国翻译,2011 (2) : 5－9．<br /> 黄友义. 坚持”外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点问题[J]. 中国翻译,2004(6):27-28. <br /> 胡庚申．生态翻译学解读[J]．中国翻译,2008 (6) : 11－15．<br /> 刘润清. 西方语言学流派[M]. 北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.<br /> 童孝华.翻译的主体意识——2014年政府工作报告翻译心得[J]. 中国翻译,2014(4):92-97. <br /> 王刚毅.政治文件翻译的几点思考和建议[J]. 中国翻译, 2014(3):8<br /> 王英. 功能对等视角下汉英翻译中的冗余研究—以2012年政府工作报告为例[D]. 广东外语外贸大学, 2013.<br /> 周吉.《政府工作报告》中有中国特色政经用语的对等翻译[J]. 广西大学学报,2006(28):167-169.<br /> 周丽. 多维整合原则关照下的时政党政话语翻译[J]. 上海翻译.2015(3):42-44. <br /> 杨广,吉鑫悦. 生态视角下的政府工作报告英译解读[J]. 海外英语,2017(13):108-109<br /> 中国外交部. 2019年中国政府工作报告[R], 2019.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br />  <br /> <br /> ==A Simple Comparison between Nida and Catford’s Translation Theory of Equivalence - 欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling, 202070080603==<br /> &lt;center&gt;欧阳玲 Ouyang Ling &lt;/center&gt;<br /> ===Abstract===<br /> Abstract: Nida and Catford shared the same period of translation studies but carried on their studies from different perspective. Nida put forward two types of equivalence and accordingly some methods to achieve his ideal equivalent response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). His equivalence theory was built on his ideas about nature of translation, which was the process of reproducing in the receptor language the message of source language(Nida, 1964: 12). So Nida tends to provide a new direction which is oriented by the receptors. The nature and task of translation in Nida’s opinion formed a theoretical basis to set the equivalence theory in a comprehensive and systematic way. Catford, in another way, held a idea that any theory of translation must draw upon a general linguistic theory and therefore presented the equivalence at different linguistic levels between source language and target language(Catford, 1965: 1). In his opinion, the equivalence exists between the categories and the conditions to examine the equivalence lie on the relatable extent with the features of substance. Therefore, Catford’s theories seem to be more of abstract. The paper intends to develop a comparative study upon Nida and Catford’s theory of equivalence and my thoughts on their application in translation practices.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> Nida; Cartford; equivalence theory; linguistic theories<br /> <br /> ===题目===<br /> 《论翻译对等理论——奈达与卡特福特比较研究》<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 奈达和卡特福德在翻译学研究中处于同一时期，但二人开展的研究却是基于于不同的角度。奈达提出了两种对等类型，并提出了相应的策略以达到他理想的对等状态，即使译文接受者获得与原文接受者相同的反应（芒迪, 2008: 42）。他的对等理论建立在他关于翻译本质的观点之上，即在接受语中再现源语信息的过程（奈达, 1964: 12）。因此奈达提供了一种以译文接受者为导向的新研究方向，并基于对翻译的性质和任务的界定构成了对等理论的理论基础。另一方面，卡特福德认为任何翻译理论都必须借鉴一般语言学理论，因此提出了源语言和目的语在不同语言层面上的对等（卡特福德, 1965: 1）。他认为对等是通过范畴表现出来，而判断对等的条件就是原文和译文中各个范畴特性的相关性，因此卡特福特的理论似乎更具抽象性。本文旨在对奈达和卡特福德的对等理论进行比较研究，并对二者在翻译实践中的应用进行思考。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 奈达；卡特福德；对等理论；语言学理论<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> <br /> ====1.1.Nida’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Nida’s translation theories were formed along with the process of his translating the ''Bible''. Through the reflection upon these translation practices, he defined the nature of translation and pointed the task of translators. Afterwards, he discarded the old term such as “literal”, “free” and “faithful” translation by putting forward the theory of equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42) . The equivalence in Nida’s theory can be achieved at two levels: formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and he saw the two approaches to realize his ideal translation that equivalent effect between source language receptors and target language receptors. By bringing the two concepts up, Nida provided two directions when working on a translation work as well as standards of evaluating the work after it was done. Specifically, formal equivalence in Nida’s definition is the status of translation being equivalent with the source text in both contents and forms. To achieve this status, translators should be oriented towards the source text’s message and structure(Munday, 2008: 42). And dynamic, or functional equivalence, turned further to a new focus on the response of receptor. If the target language receptors react to the translation in the same way as source language receptors do to the source text, the success of a translation is then achieved in Nida’s functional equivalence theory. His theory put forward a new trend of translation studies at that time. Nida’s equivalence theory directed people to evaluate a translation by judging and comparing the response of receptors in stead of considering the correctness and accuracy of translation or comparing the formal and stylistic features between source language and target language. In a comprehensive and systematic way, Nida’s equivalence theory elaborated the approaches and the ideal status of translation based on his understanding on the nature of translation, and this equivalence theory has always been praised as his greatest achievement in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ====1.2.Cartford’s Theory of Equivalence====<br /> Catford’s translation theories were built on the discipline of linguistics, and his equivalence theory was included of course. Catford stated in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' the theory of translation is concerned with a certain type of relation between languages and is consequently a branch of Comparative Linguistics(Catford, 1965: 20). His theory of equivalence was also originated his definition of the nature of translation, which is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language( Catford, 1965: 20). His definition, in other words, portrayed the task for translators. In his opinion, in the process of translation, translators are supposed to replace every grammatical and lexical items in the source language with equivalents in the target language. So in this way, the equivalence in Catford’s theory can be graded into different levels according to the extent of the replacement, and then he put forward the distinction of full translation and partial translation. Moreover, he raised another pair of concepts: textual equivalence and formal corresponding, and it may give a clearer picture for us to understand his theory. If the target language text can be judged by bilinguals or linguists equivalent with the source language text in any given discourse or occasion, the textual equivalence is achieved. As regards the formal corresponding, Catford defined it as an approximate status when any target language category occupies, as nearly as possible, in the same place in the structure of the target language as the given source language category occupies in the source language. This pair of concepts presented two different degrees of equivalence and have become a valuable source in translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===2.Similarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====2.1.The Similarities between the Two Theories====<br /> As representatives of the linguistic school of western translation theory, Nida and John Catford's translation theories try to analyze and describe translation more objectively, accurately and scientifically from the linguistic level. The influence of linguistic was exerted in both of their equivalence theory. Also, some translation methods were put forward based on the linguistic level by them. Besides, the approach to achieve the equivalence upheld by Nida and Catford was similar. They tended to depart from the previous word-for-word or literal translation methods and promoted a natural closeness of target text with the source text. Since they held a similar idea that absolute equivalence in translating is never possible(Nida, 1984: 14), the approach in their view to achieve the equivalence turned out be moderate and flexible.<br /> <br /> =====2.1.1.The Influence of Linguistics in Both Theories=====<br /> Nida was considered as a representative of communicative theory school, and therefore, he built his equivalence theory based on the communicative purpose. Basically, in the view of Nida, translation can be seen as a communicative activity and the transformation of linguistic form is necessary. From this the influence of Chomsky's linguistics, especially his transformational-generative grammar (Munday, 2008: 40) . Nida believes that Chomsky's transformational-generative view of on language is of great importance to the process of translation. Specifically, the transformational-generative was used for Nida to describe the process of translation, which includes the grammar analysis, transferring and restructuring and the reproducing the information of source text. (Munday, 2008: 40) Chomsky’s generative–transformational model was incorporated in the description of translation process by Nida and, at the same time, it provides the basis of his building of dynamic equivalence, as a component of “the science of translation” in his eyes. <br /> <br /> Similarly, the influence of Chomsky’s linguistic theories can also be found in Catford’s theory in the following aspects. Firstly, as is defined by Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language(Catford, 1965: 20), and here the definition claims that there is sometimes no entire translation but a simple replacement by textual material at one or more levels of language(Catford, 1965: 20). To be specific, the replacement between source language and target language may be at grammar or lexis levels. Secondly, through his classifications of translation in terms of the extent, levels and ranks, Catford actually gives some standards to discuss the nature of translation equivalence, and these concepts are presented based on the linguistic knowledge. For example, the distinction between full and partial is related to the extent of source text which is submitted to the translation process(Catford, 1965: 20), and the extent may involve linguistic elements, such as lexical items. The same case occurs in the definitions of total and restricted translation, in which phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are all considered as the elements when estimating the replacement. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2.The Approach to Achieving Equivalence=====<br /> The key role played by Nida is to point the road away from strict word-for-word equivalence.His introduction of the concepts of formal and dynamic equivalence was crucial in introducing a receptor-based orientation to translation theory(Munday, 2008: 40). He also divided meaning into linguistic meaning, referential meaning and emotive meaning. Furthermore, several techniques such as hierarchical structuring, componential analysis and semantic structure analysis were presented to analyse the structure of words and differentiating similar words in related lexical fields. The classification of the three meanings and aided translation techniques serve as crucial elements in the mechanism of back-transformation presented by Nida. By the application of back-transformation, the surface structure of the source text is analyzed into the basic elements of the deep structure; these elements are transferred in the translation process into the deep structure of the receptor language and then restructured semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the target text(Munday, 2008: 40). <br /> <br /> The similar approach pointed out by Catford is translation shift, which consists of two major types: level shifts and category shifts. Catford made a distinction in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation between textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Furthermore, textual equivalence refers to the specific relationship of the source text and translated text while formal correspondence is presented and defined based on the systematic concepts of both source and receptor languages. Since the differences between the two concepts are obvious, the occurrence of translation shift is inevitable. Therefore, by presenting the translation shifts, Catford meant to depart from formal correspondence in the process of going from source language to target language(Catford, 1965: 73), which means, in a sense, he want to achieve the status of equivalence through the approach. In other words, level shifts and categories are presented as some techniques in the process of translation, which can be regarded as similarity when compared to Nida’s theory described above.<br /> <br /> ====2.2.The Differences between the Two Theories====<br /> Before comparing the two theories in terms of the following points, we should make it clear that the development of the two equivalence theories were started with the views of translation nature. Nida and Catford put forward their understandings toward the nature of translation, and, consequently, the central problem of translation practice and the central task of translators were proposed. In Nida’s view, translation is to reproduce information of the original text and exert the same feeling of the receptors with the source language readers(Munday, 2008: 42). Based on this receptors-oriented and text-centered principle, his equivalence theory turns to be more dynamic because the readers’ response, which is the essential factors to examine, occurs only in the process of the transferring of information. In other words, the behavior of encoding and decoding is a must once the equivalence is achieved. The equivalence in Catford’s view, by contrast, which lies in the internal structure of linguistics, turns out to be more static. The nature of translation given by Catford is the replacement of equivalent textual material between two languages(Catford, 1965: 20). By saying textual material, he held the idea that equivalence only occurs within the language and through its categories. The context of language and the components of linguistics including phonology, graphology, grammar and lexis are considered as elements to examine the equivalence(Catford, 1965: 22). And in this case, the equivalence between the source text and target text is to be realized by the equivalence of contextual features of both the source and target languages. Catford’s theory of equivalence, in this sense, differed from Nida’s theory by research methods. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.1.Different Conditions of Equivalence=====<br /> Functional equivalence described by Nida put a great emphasis on communicative effect of translation. He believed if the communication can be created between the source text and its receptors, the equivalent effect should be made when the translated text was presented before its receptors. Therefore, the comparison of receptors’ response between source language and target language would be necessary when it comes to the conditions of Nida’s equivalence theory. Besides, the meaning and style of the both texts should also be analyzed in a comparative way because this two factors are very influential in the formulating of receptors’ response. Firstly, by the division of formal equivalence and functional equivalence by Nida, he tried to generalize the two types of equivalence that which focused respectively on the faithfulness and closeness of the receptor language with the source language in both from and the equivalent response. Thus, the conditions to achieve formal equivalence may include accuracy and correctness of translation, which is determined by the approximation to source text structure. Furthermore, Nida put forward “four basic requirements of a translation” as the conditions to examine the achieving of equivalent response, which are making sense, conveying the spirit and manner of the original, having a natural and easy form of expression, producing a similar response(Munday, 2008: 42). These requirements were generalized to be the conditions of a success of translation. <br /> <br /> Since Catford defines translation equivalence as the empirical phenomenon, he discussed the conditions of translation equivalence by specific points within the context of sentences. First, the equivalence from his view is between categories including grammar, lexis, phonology and contextual meanings. From this we can know the same meaning at a linguistic level is hard to achieved between source language and target language. In this case, he describe a condition by pointing out a concept of total translation, in which the texts or items in source language and target language are interchangeable in a given situation(Catford, 1965: 49). In this way, he presented a new condition to evaluate equivalence. Based on this, he further his discussion on total translation by examining the overlapping contextual meanings in the items of source language and target language. He claimed contextual meanings include relationship to certain situational features, a more abstract and broad way to discuss equivalence. Therefore, another condition of equivalence was described as the overlapping extent of situational features common to the contextual meanings(Catford, 1965: 49). To conclude, Catford classified the conditions of equivalence on different scopes of translation. In the process of evaluating the equivalence in total translation, phonological translation or graphological translation, the examining of the relatable features between source text and target text should be made. <br /> <br /> =====2.2.2.Different Classifications of Equivalence=====<br /> Since Nida and Catford held different views on the conditions required to achieve the equivalence, they classified translations from different perspective. Nida raised a classification of two types of equivalence: formal equivalence and functional equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42). These two types actually reflect Nida's research on structure of language from shallow to deep. Nida believed that different languages should have the same deep structure and the same functions between languages lead to equivalence in translation. In his view, the functional equivalence occurs when the response of target language receptors is as same as possible the response of source language receptors. In describing equivalence, Nida pointed out that the correspondence between the original form and the target form should not be excessively pursued in translation. Instead, attention should be focused on accurately conveying the meaning of the original text in a natural way. By this dynamic equivalence theory Nida paved a road away from the static mode of focusing on the comparison of texts. He believed that only when the target receptors understand the translation thoroughly, the same response can be achieved, and this is the main task of translation(Munday, 2008: 43). Therefore, Nida’s classification was based on the specific situation in which the receptors communicate with the texts. <br /> <br /> In Catford’s view, translation is the replacement of textual material. From this definition, he actually drew a line between source language and target language because by textual material he meant to point out that there would be no entire translation of meaning. In his words, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement by non-equivalent target language material(Catford, 1965: 20). Based on this, Catford classified translation into categories in terms of the extent, levels and ranks. Full translation and partial translation are divided by the extent of parts replaced in the process of translation. This two concepts are maybe the basic components of his later presenting of formal correspondence. In his view, formal correspondence is an approximate status in which categories cannot be replaced totally in another language. And by dividing total translation and restricted translation, he intended to involve the replacement of grammar and lexis and consequential replacement of phonology and graphology in his definition. All of these classification provide certain perspective to evaluate the translation and help to create a structure when analyzing the language. In a word, the classifications by Catford was built in the internal language.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.3.Different Research Approach=====<br /> To some extent, the research method employed by Nida and Catford was shaped under the guidance of different linguistic theories. Guided by the transformational-generative grammar by Chomsky, Nida analyzed the structure of language and put forward the back-transformation theory that entails the transferring of surface structure to deep structure between source language and target language(Munday, 2008: 38). So the research methods adopted by Nida turns to be more flexible and have a focus on dynamic factor when discussing equivalence. Since Nida's translation theories were built up consciously to serve the research on the translation of ''Bible'', his theories may have distinctive features in guiding the translation practices(Munday, 2008: 38). In another aspect, Nida held a view that &quot;meaning is universal&quot; and emphasized the common ground between languages, which reflect in his equivalence theory, information conveyed by meaning is the focus To be specific, the equivalence can only be examined during the communication of these information between texts and receptors. Oriented by this communicative principle, Nida therefore took the reader's response as the standard to evaluate the translation. In a word, Nida described the equivalence and its mechanism in a developing process, during which the texts, context and receptors are performing their dynamic role. In a word, Nida’s carried out its study by the method of dynamic comparison, and through his discussion of receptor-oriented principle, his theories greatly contribute to the later translation practices. <br /> <br /> By contrast, in the process of Catford’s research on equivalence, the system-functional linguistics by Halliday was incorporated. The substance, form and context Language, which are the three basic levels in Halliday’s theory (Halliday, 2004: 16), constitute the categories of Catford’s equivalence theory. Moreover, language was define by Catford as a patterned behavior and this behavior is casually related to various other features of the situation in which it occurs(Catford, 1965: 2). Therefore, in terms of research methods, Catford carried out his comparative study mostly from the static and fixed perspective of language. Most of the examples he took are words, phrases and sentences, which are the units of language. He pay little attention to the dynamic context and receptors’ reaction. In describing the formal correspondence, he also held a view that categories of every language is defined in terms of relations holding within the language (Catford, 1965: 27). In this way, his research methods seem to be more static and fixed in the internal structure of language. Due to the static traits, Catford’s theories may be properly used for reference in academic study on languages because his theories exactly provide a macro framework.<br /> <br /> ===3.My Thoughts on the Two Theories===<br /> <br /> ====3.1.My Thoughts on Nida’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1Strengths and Contributions of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> In my view, there are many strengths and contributions of Nida’s translation equivalence theory. Firstly, Nida’s research integrated multiple disciplines, which means he set up his theory on a strong basis and it has convincing examples and explanations from various perspective. The development of Nida’s translation theory can be generally divided into three stages: the stage of descriptive linguistics, the stage of communicative theory and the stage of social semiotics(Tan, 2017: 132). I think Nida also developed its equivalence theory from formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence along with the three stages. Secondly, Nida’s equivalence theory is of significance in training translators, guiding translation practice and more importantly, his functional equivalence offers approaches to studying the communication between the cultures of source language and target language. Nida emphasized the importance of translator's initiative in the translation process because he put forward a principle of equivalent effect(Nida, 1964: 159). This effect cannot be formulated within the language or items of a text, but through the subjective activities of translators. Therefore, Nida's functional equivalence and dynamic equivalence offers a guidance to the translators to consider the needs of the target receptors, and to convey the message of source language into the expression that conforms to the habits of the target language. Thirdly, Also, the equivalence theory described by Nida is concrete and practical for people to understand and adopt for it is oriented by receptors’ response that can be easily examined and analyzed. <br /> <br /> =====3.1.2.Deficiency of Nida’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Nida’s functional equivalence was mainly applied to the translation of the ''Bible'' , and the criterion of the ''Bible'' translation in his view is to convey the will of God faithfully(Munday, 2008: 38). Therefore, the translation theory may tend to emphasize on the content rather than the form. For this reason, the range of its application may be limited. For example, when it comes to the translation of poetry that has its own aesthetic value in its form, people cannot simply discuss and analyze it according to Nida’s equivalence theory. What’s more, in Nida’s theory, equivalence is oriented by the response of receptors(Munday, 2008: 42). However, sometimes, the equivalent effect between source language readers and target language readers is hard to achieve because receptors of different cultures may have different responses. And translation is actually a cross-cultural communication through the translators, who may have their own translation purpose, preference and expressions, so the equivalent effect is also restricted by the difference of translators. <br /> <br /> ====3.2.My Thoughts on Catford’s Theory====<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1.Strengths and Contributions of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory=====<br /> Catford developed his equivalence by going deep into internal system of language. In my opinion, the most important strength of his theory is that he built the equivalence theory in a complete set of linguistic model, which provides a scientific and systematic theory. By introducing broad types of translation respectively according to extent, levels and ranks, he present new categories to discuss the nature of translation and the task of translators. By describing the translation shifts, he made a distinction of formal correspondence and translation equivalence and explained the conditions when equivalence occurs. Furthermore, since Catford believed there is no “total” translation in a strict way for the replacement by all equivalents at all levels can never be achieved(Caford, 1965:22), he sought to avoid the rigid trend toward the absolute equivalence and developed his theory in a more scientific and mature way.<br /> <br /> ====3.2.2.Deficiency of Catford’s Translation Equivalence Theory====<br /> Firstly, Catford carried out his research on the structural transformation of the source language and target language simply from the perspective of linguistics. The equivalence in his view is between textual materials, and this equivalence can be achieved at one or more categories in the materials(Wang, 2008: 166). Therefore, his theory is also limited and underestimates the influence of subjective activities of translators. Secondly, Catford did not pay enough attention to the cross-cultural factors in translation. On his discussion on the limits of translatability, he even pointed out that it may be not necessary to distinct linguistic and cultural untranslatability for the cultural untranslatability may be just caused by the impossibility of finding a equivalent collocation in the target language(Catford, 1965: 101). This shows he explained the cultural within a linguistic category. I think the translation involves more than language itself or the substituting of lexical terms and grammars, but also cultural elements. Therefore, the research method of Carford’s theory is rather incomplete.<br /> <br /> ===4.Conclusion===<br /> In conclusion, the two theories are developed based on two types of equivalence. Nida presented formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence while Catford put forward formal correspondence and textual equivalence(Munday, 2008: 42; Catford, 1965: 27). The two theories share some points in their theoretical basis and approach to achieving equivalence. Besides, Nida and Catford also have their own understanding on the nature of translation and the main task for translators, so they had a distinctive research method in building up their theories especially in the classification of equivalence and the description of conditions. Supported by various theories from other disciplines, the two theories were set up in a systematic way possess many strengths in such aspects as innovative perspective and scientific research method. However, it need to be emphasized that the two kinds of translation theory should be discussed and evaluated in a critical way and the analysis should be made on the scope of their application.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> Catford, John Cunnison 卡特福德 (1965). ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' 《翻译的语言学理论》. London: Oxford University Press 伦敦：牛津大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Halliday, M. A. K. 韩礼德, and C. Matthiessen 马蒂恩森 (2004). ''An Introduction to Functional Grammar''《功能语法导论》. London: Edward Arnold 伦敦：爱德华·阿诺德出版社.<br /> <br /> Li, Yang 李杨 (2014). 《纵观翻译等值——卡特福德、奈达比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford and Eugene A. Nida.'' 天津商务职业学院学报''Journal of Tianjin College of Commerce'', 第2卷第1期 Vol. 2, No. 1 , 93-95.<br /> <br /> Li, Zhidan 李志丹 (2014). 《卡特福德和奈达“对等”翻译理论思辨》 ''Comparing Catford and Nida's Translation Theory of “Equivalence Theory”'' 哈尔滨学院学报 ''Journal of Harbin University'', 第35卷第6期 Vol. 35 No. 6, 93-95.<br /> <br /> Munday, Jeremy芒迪 (2008). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications'' 《翻译学导论：理论与实践》. London ; New York : Routledge 伦敦；纽约：劳特利奇出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达, and Charles Russell Taber 泰伯, eds 著(2004). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' 翻译理论与实践. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press 上海：上海外语教育出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达 (1964). ''Toward a Science of Translating'' 《翻译的科学探索》. Leiden: Brill Archive 莱顿：博睿学术出版社.<br /> <br /> Nida, Eugene Albert 奈达. (1984). ''Approaches to Translating in the Western World'' 《西方世界的翻译方法》, 《外语教学与研究》 ''Foreign Language Teaching and Research'', 1984年第2期, 9-15.<br /> <br /> Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜 (2017). ''Translation Studies'' 翻译学. Shnghai: Fudan University Press. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br /> <br /> Wang, Ning 汪宁 (2008). 《论翻译中的等值——卡特福德、奈达和巴斯耐特比较研究》 ''A Comparative Study on Translation Equivalence of J.C. Catford, E.A Nida and Susan Bassnett''. 科技信息 ''Science &amp; Technology Information'', 2008年第三期, 2008(3), 166.<br /> <br /> ==Comparision between the traslation systems proposed by Tan Zaixi and Yi Jing 石海瑶 Shi Haiyao==<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of translation theories by Eugene nida and Susan Bassnett 胡慧芳 Hu Huifang==<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> 尤金·奈达与苏珊·巴斯奈特都是西方翻译史上著名的大翻译理论家和翻译家。奈达提出了“动态对等”的翻译理论，而巴斯奈特提出了“文化等值”的概念。奈达和巴斯奈特虽然在各自的翻译理论中都强调了“对等”或“等值”的概念，但理论内容却大相径庭。本文从两人翻译理论产生的背景和对各自翻译观的解读入手，来对两人的翻译理论的不同点和相通性进行初步对比分析处理，从而达到对两人翻译理论更深理解。<br /> <br /> ===关键词=== <br /> 尤金·奈达；苏珊·巴斯奈特；功能对等；文化等值<br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> Eugene Nida and Susan Bassnett are both famous translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Nida proposed the translation theory of &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;, and Bassnett proposed the concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot;. Although Nida and Bassnett emphasized the concept of &quot;equivalence&quot; or &quot;equivalence&quot; in their respective translation theories, the theoretical content is quite different. This article starts with the background of the two people's translation theories and the interpretation of their respective translation concepts, to make a preliminary comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two people's translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding of the two people's translation theories.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''=== <br /> Eugene Nida ;Susan Bassnett; dynamic equivalence; cultural equivalence<br /> <br /> ===1.Introduction===<br /> Eugene Nida is a well-known American translator, translation theorist, and PhD in linguistics. He was born in Oklahoma City in the south-central United States. In 1936, he studied at the University of California, and later received a master's degree in Greek &quot;Bible New Testament&quot; studies from the University of Southern California. In 1943, he received a PhD in linguistics under the guidance of Bloomfield and others. He served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Association for a long time, and in 1968 he was the president of the American Linguistic Society. In addition to translation theory, Nida has engaged in research in linguistics, semantics, anthropology, and communication engineering. He has also been engaged in Bible translation work for a long time, and has investigated a large number of languages, especially minor languages in Africa and Latin America. . Nida is engaged in translation studies and has written many books. From 1945 to 1986, he published nearly 200 articles and more than 30 books (including co-authored and co-edited works), including 16 monographs on translation and linguistics, the most important of which is &quot;Toward a Science of Translation&quot; &quot;The Theory and Practice of translation&quot; etc. His &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory and &quot;reader's response theory&quot; translation standards not only have considerable influence in the western translation circles, but also promote the transformation of Chinese translation theory circles. Dr. Nida broke the research paradigm that emphasized static analysis in traditional Chinese translation theory research, and put forward a new idea of open translation theory research, which has brought enlightenment for the establishment of a new translation theory model in my country's translation theory community.<br /> Susan Bassnett is a professor, translator, writer and messenger at the Graduate School of Comparative Literature Theory and Translation, Warwick University, UK. As a leading figure in the school of translation culture, her concept of &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; and related translation theories have had a huge impact on contemporary translation studies.<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; and Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory have certain similarities, but there are also many differences. This article starts with the &quot;similarities&quot; and &quot;differences&quot; of the two, to gain a more comprehensive understanding and understanding of the two translation theorists and translators and their translation theories, so as to achieve a deeper understanding and Understand the purpose of their translation theory.<br /> <br /> ===2.The background of the two translation theories===<br /> Before the birth of cultural translation school, linguistic school, functional school and structuralist school were the main schools in the field of western translation theory research. Representatives of the linguistic school, Jacob Button, Catford, and Nida, put more emphasis on equivalence in translation issues. They believe that translation is to replace one language material with an equivalent language material; functional school The representative figures Les, Nord and Mantari believe that the focus of translation studies should be the target text, not the original text. Their theoretical sources are mainly communication theory, action theory, information theory and reception aesthetics. But whether it is the linguistic school, the functional school or the structuralist school, in their research process, they are more or less trying to achieve language equivalence from all levels of text content and form. Translation researchers] hope to find a scientific and effective method to solve the various problems faced by translation, but cultural diversity determines the diversity of text cultural connotations. Therefore, these researchers have encountered great troubles when they encounter a context that is quite different from their own cultural background. The cultural translation school was born to better solve these problems.<br /> Before the 1970s, translation theorists mainly studied various translation problems from linguistics. After the 1970s and 1980s, the acceleration of globalization, the acceleration of information dissemination, and the diversification of communication methods have made the relationship between language and culture closer. In information dissemination, language differences have become more prominent, and the status and role of translation activities have also changed. Therefore, with the acceleration of globalization and the popularization of multicultural views and values, translation theory researchers who conform to the trend of the times pay more and more attention to the diverse cultural values ​​embodied in translated texts.<br /> <br /> ===2.1 The background of Eugene Nida’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> Nida's &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; translation theory was deeply influenced by his time. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, linguistic studies in the United States really started. It was not until the beginning of the 20th century that American linguists who studied in Europe and were influenced by Europe began to study American linguistics. They developed American descriptive linguistics and structural linguistics. Beginning in the 1940s, American linguistics began to have a huge impact on world linguistics research. During this period, the representative figures in American linguistics were Boas, Sapir and Bloomfield. Although their theories are not exactly the same, they are basically structuralism and descriptive linguistics (Liu Runqing, 2002). Nida learned and grew up during this period. In 1943, he obtained a doctorate in linguistics under the guidance of two famous masters, Bloomfield and Fries. Therefore, his thinking is deeply influenced by Bloomfield, an American structuralist, and Sapir, a human linguist, and he emphasizes the collection and analysis of language materials in language research. In the 1950s, since Nida served as the executive secretary of the translation department of the American Bible Society for several years, Nida has proposed and started to use dynamic equivalence theory to guide the actual work of &quot;Bible&quot; translation. Since the 1950s, translators have generally followed the dynamic equivalent translation theory in translation projects organized by the American Bible Society (Tan Zaixi, 1991).<br /> <br /> ===2.2 The background of Bassnett’s cultural equivalence theory===<br /> As one of the most representative figures of the cultural translation school, Susan Bassnet's translation concept with cultural translation theory as the core has had a significant impact on contemporary translation studies. In the introduction to &quot;Translation, History and Culure&quot; (Translation, History and Culure), Andre, Lefevere and Susan Basnett proposed that &quot;Culural lurn&quot; (culural lurn)-the term, this is the concept that was first proposed from here.<br /> Bassnett believes that the linguistic school of translation faces the following problems: The method of machine translation is an effective method, but it is not suitable for literary translation. In response to this situation, Bassnett pointed out that the research method of translation should undergo an cultural turn (eulturalturn). She believes that translators must perform translation activities in a specific cultural context, and translators must not conduct translation activities in cultural isolation under the influence of their own cultural background. In short, Bassnett’s cultural translation view is that translation is not a purely linguistic activity, it is rooted in and influenced by the culture of the language.<br /> <br /> ===3.Susan Bassnett and Eugene Nida’s translation theory===<br /> <br /> ===3.1 Nida' s“dynamic equivalence&quot; Theory===<br /> “Dynamic equivalence” is the core conception of Nida ’s translation theories. the essence of it is a receptor-centered theory of translation that aims at achieving a“dynamic”equivalence between the effect obtained from respective readers of the originaltext and the translated version, which requires that translators view from the angle of the sense and spirit of the original instead of rigidly adhering to language structures of it. That is, not rigidly adheringto formal equivalence. The theory of“dynamic equivalence&quot; is the most well- known and the most frequently discussed theory, and the focus of discussions on it may attribute to different interpretations of the term &quot;equivalence&quot;.<br /> <br /> 3.1.1The nature of &quot;equivalence&quot;<br /> “Equivalence&quot; is an important proposition in translation for it <br /> involves some key problems such as nature of translation, translation norms as well as quality and evaluation of translation. As a mathematic term, the word “ equivalence&quot; refers to an absolutely symmetrical and equal relationship, but in many English dictionaries, it gets obscure meanings that things possess similarities or areessentially identical. Then, is the concept“equivalence in translation theories derived from its absolute mathematics reference orborrowed from its indistinct meanings as a word of general linguistices? According to many translation theorists (including Nida), it may mean more of the latter than the former.<br /> &quot; Equivalence&quot; is a scientific descriptive notion that is more objective that &quot;loyalty&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;, for the concept of &quot;loyalty&quot;or &quot;faith&quot; refers to attitudes of translators while &quot;faithful translation&quot; indicates the quality of translation. But &quot;equivalence&quot; involves no translator' s attitudes, and thus let us get a more explicit conception. The &quot;equivalence” needed in translation is a comprehensive impact, not mechanically synthesizing equivalence of linguistics,semantics and pragmatics, but taking into account factors in different levels all around with artistical views and accomplishments of different cultures and languages. The historic contribution of Nida's&quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; is that it provides a convincing solution to the dispute of literal translation and free translation held by many western translation theorists for about 2000 years. Literal translation emphasizes equivalence in language forms and the effect oftranslation is overlooked while free translation focuses much more on “beauty” of translation effect with litle regard to equivalence.Nida' s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot;. however, puts emphasis on equivalence of both effects and then solves this contradiction.<br /> <br /> 3.1.2 Views on Nida s theory of &quot; dynamic equivalence”<br /> It has been mentioned above that Nida s &quot;dynamic equivalence&quot; theory is the most influential as well as the most frequently criticized and reproached due to dfferent interpretations of the theory. And here, a ittle more comments are given to be shared.<br /> 3.1.2.1Apprehension of the theory<br /> What Nida's values a lot in dynamic equivalence&quot; is that receptors of the two languages ( SL and TL) have approximately similar response and get basically equivalent ffect( 杨柳， 2006). The great contribution Nida made was to shift the focus from the comparison of the source- language and the target- language texts to acomparison of the two communication processes involved.&quot; (金隄,1998:231) Thus, Nida's dynamic equivalence &quot; focuses mainly onthe relative side of &quot; equivalence &quot; rather than absolutizes the term,which may imply that the equivalence theory in translation does originally mean something relative, obscure and indistinct.<br /> As a relative conception, the goal &quot; dynamic equivalence&quot; pursues is that the readers of the translation can obtain basically similar message smoothly from the translated text as the readers of theoriginal do from the original text, including their perception of the main essence, specific facts and artistic conception, although the two texts may vary greatly or entirely in forms. This goal can be applied to almost all types of translation. For all of these viewpoints,Nida and his theory have encountered constant criticism and reproaching. In sum, those who are against the theory argue that effect of equivalence can never be possible in translation because translation involves at least two different languages, cultures etc.which are rather hard to the non-native, while those who are in favor hold that equivalence can be achieved not only in senses and styles, but in effect as well. Nida has made it very clear that &quot;the response can never be identical' , but &quot;a high degree of equivalenceof response&quot; is required and possible. And for &quot;functional equivalence&quot;,Nida elaborates that no translation can be completely equivalent. Actually, different translations represent varying degrees of equivalence, That is, &quot;equivalence&quot; doesn't mean identity as its mathematical meaning. (Nida, 2001:87) In order to stress the conception of function and meanwhile avoid misunderstanding, Nida<br /> holds that the expression“functional equivalence&quot; is much more satisfactory in describing the degrees of adequacy of a translation（Nida, 2001:91). So, Nida, as he puts it explicitly in his works, doesn' t prescribe something &quot; identical&quot; or total equivalence between the original and the translated texts, but expects high degrees of closeness&quot; to ine ongmal and reproducing nearest translated message to the originai message. He advocates that translators work hard to pursue equivaiencerather than identity&quot;. Professor Jin Di may have standpoint identical to Nida' s, he holds that the term &quot; equivalence&quot; in Nida ' s theory indicates a linguistic notion that is different from &quot;identity&quot;, and &quot; equivalence&quot;is a rela-<br /> tive conception, which requires no totally identical effect, but striving for the closest impact produced by the translation within a possible range as what is produced to readers of the original text by the ST (金隄, 1998:44).<br /> <br /> 3.1.3 Theoretical Practice of &quot;Functional Equivalence&quot; in China-A Comment on the Translation of &quot;A Madman's Diary&quot;<br /> Here are three examples to analyze the theory of &quot;functional equivalence&quot; used in the &quot;Madman's Diary&quot; in the translation of &quot;The Call&quot; by Yang Xianyi and his wife.<br /> <br /> （1）“我同赵贵翁有什么仇.....把古久先生的陈年流水簿子，踹了一脚....”(鲁迅，2019: 08)<br /> <br /> “what grudge Mr. Zhao has against me...Itrod on Mr. Gu Jiu's old ledgers..&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 23)<br /> <br /> If this example is literally translated &quot;赵贵翁&quot;, it may be translated as &quot;Zhao Guiweng&quot; in many cases, so that the translation person seems rigid and the translation traces are too obvious. Yang Xianyi and his wife directly translated &quot;Mr. Zhao&quot; in the translation, which conforms to the native language habits of foreigners and avoids the appearance of translation accent. This translation achieves functional equivalence for the translation of personal words in the original text (Chen Weijia, 2009). The &quot;old-year running book&quot; here is a characteristic term of China's old society period, which means &quot;old account book&quot;. If literally translated as &quot;aged jour-nal&quot;, obviously there is no &quot;old ledgers&quot; which is more suitable for the time.<br /> Time backgroud. The Yangs’ translation handled the translation of characteristic nouns well and reached the result of information equivalent translation.<br /> <br /> (2)“陈老五赶上前，硬把我拖回家中了。”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “Old Chen hurried forward and draggedme home.&quot; (杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> The personal pronoun &quot;陈老五&quot;, if translated literally, might be translated as &quot;Chen Laowu&quot;. Yang Xianyi translated &quot;Old Chen&quot;, which is more authentic. &quot;Chen Lao Wu&quot; may be the habitual name of this person by the locals, rather than the name Chen Lao Wu. The Yangs' translation as &quot;Lao Chen&quot; here conforms to the Chinese people's habit of addressing acquaintances and conforms to the original cultural background (金瑞, 邵华, 2018).<br /> <br /> (3)“狼子村的佃户来告荒....”(鲁迅，2019: 09)<br /> <br /> “a tenant of ours from Wolf Cub Villagecame to report the failure of the crop...&quot; ( 杨宪益、戴乃迭，2000: 25)<br /> <br /> &quot;狼子村&quot; is a place noun. If it is simply translated as &quot;The Wolf Child Village&quot;, it is obviously inappropriate. Such translated names are not only not beautiful enough, but also cannot express the charm of Chinese place names. Here, the expression of &quot;Cub&quot; in &quot;Wolf Cub Village&quot; of the Young couple is quite vivid and accurate. &quot;Cub&quot; means &quot;cub&quot; and it is used here in line with the original meaning. Yang Xianyi has certain accomplishments in the translation of Chinese-specific place nouns, and conveys the Chinese-specific culture well in the translation process.<br /> <br /> ===3.2 Bassnett's &quot;cultural equivalence&quot; theory===<br /> Bassnett believes that the goal of translation should be changed from the text commonly accepted by people to culture, which is the so-called cultural shift. If we compare culture to the human body, then language is the human heart. Only when people's heart, language and body are coordinated with each other, can people maintain vigor and vitality. When performing heart surgery on a patient, the surgeon must take into account the overall physical condition of the patient. The same is true for translation practice. In the process of translating the target language into the target language, members of parliament must take into account the double standards of language accuracy and cultural adaptability, and must not strip away culture and treat translation in isolation.<br /> <br /> 3.2.1 Translation methods and strategies<br /> Regarding translation methods, Bassnett believes that language and text materials in different cultural contexts should have different translation requirements, and therefore different translation methods. For example, for original texts that are descriptive, or contain certain cultural beliefs, or are technological in nature, the translator should try to literally translate from a cultural perspective when translating. If the original text does not belong to the above three types of texts, then the translator can play relatively freely when translating, use more translation skills, and less consider the limitations of the original text culture on translation activities. It can be said that the degree of freedom of such translation activities is relatively high.<br /> Regarding translation strategy, Bassnett believes that the translator's translation activity is a process of information transmission. In this process, the translator should first find the cultural factors in the original text that are different from the target language, and then understand these factors in depth, and try to retain these factors on this basis. Such a strategy helps readers of other countries to better understand the connotation expressed in the original text, and enable them to have a more accurate understanding of the cultural context of the original text.<br /> <br /> 3.2.2 Content and form of translation<br /> As far as the content and form of the translation are concerned, Bassnett regards cultural exchange as the focus of translation, and she believes that the original flavor of the original language text should be kept as much as possible. At the same time, she also pointed out that literary translation must not lose its form. Taking poetry as an example, the translation of poetry is not simply a translation of the original poem content, but a new understanding and creation in translation. The translator must use his own translation skills and literary quality to create new content. But at the same time, the form and content of the poem are unified. The length of the syllables and the distribution of rhymes in the form are also conveying the content. The information of the times is all revealed behind it. Therefore, if the original form of the poem is discarded in the translation, Then it cannot fully reflect the content of the original poem. Take Chinese rhyme poems as an example. When its prosperity turned from its peak to its decline in the Tang Dynasty, the strict flat correspondence and cohesion were not only for making people melodious and catchy, but its pursuit of form revealed that The literati in the era remembered the dead Tang Dynasty and their strong unsatisfied political demands.<br /> <br /> 3.2.3 &quot;Intelligibility&quot; of the translation<br /> Before the rise of the cultural translation school, translation researchers sometimes translated the literary language in the original text into plain and simple language in order for the translation to be better understood by readers, deleting literary metaphors and associations. In this way, the translation will indeed become easy to understand, but the literary nature of the work has been reduced, and the interest and depth will not reach the effect of the original text. Therefore, Bassnett believes that the &quot;understandability&quot; of the translation cannot be based on abandoning the original style and artistry, but should try to maintain the original flavor of the original.<br /> <br /> 3.2.4 Evaluation Criteria of Translation<br /> For the evaluation criteria of translations, Bassnett believes that the evaluation criteria of translations are not unique. The standards for translating academic articles and applied and literary articles are different. When checking and evaluating the standard of translation, we should start from the target of translation, and judge the translation based on whether the translation can meet the needs of the target. In short, the translation should meet the needs of readers in different cultural contexts as a starting point, and use a suitable translated language that can meet this demand.<br /> <br /> 3.2.5 Examples of Bassnett's Cultural Translation Theory-Taking 《道德经》‘s Arthur Willy's Translation and Gu Zhengkun's Translation as Examples<br /> <br /> 原文:<br /> <br /> “六亲不和，有孝慈(孝子)。”(章十八)<br /> <br /> 辜译: &quot;Filiality and benevolence come along with the family feud,&quot;<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“It was when the six near ones were no longer at peace that there was talkof dutiful sons.&quot; (Waley, 1999:37 )<br /> <br /> &quot;六亲&quot; in modern Chinese generally refer to all family members and relatives, but in ancient Chinese there are specific references to father and son, brothers, and couples. Gu Zhengkun knows that family ethical relations are not as complicated in the West as in China, so he adopted the approach of being close to Western readers and translated it as &quot;the family; while Wiley used the method of alienation in order to get close to the original work, calling it &quot;sixnear ons&quot; , And supplemented by the notes at the end of the chapter to further explain the specific meaning of &quot;six relatives&quot;. (the six near ones: father, son, elder brother, younger brother, husband and wife.). Both translators have realized the function of the language opposite to them. The equivalence of the above. That is to realize the equivalence of cultural functions, but also convey the meaning of cultural connotation.<br /> <br /> 原文:“虽有拱璧以先驷马” (章六十二)<br /> <br /> 辜译:It would be better to present to the emperor Tao than jade disks followed by ateam of four horses.&quot; ( 辜正坤，1995: 251 )<br /> <br /> 韦利译:“Rather than send a team of four horses, preceded by a disc ofjade.e..&quot;(Waley,1999:131 )<br /> <br /> Both translators translated &quot;驷马&quot; into &quot;four horses&quot;, which is correct. In ancient China, the number of horses pulling carts was used to reflect the rank of status, such as driving two horses as a parallel, three horses as a stallion, and four horses as a parcel. Usually the emperor drives six, princes drive five, Qing drives four, doctors three, scholars two, and common people one. There are also horse-drawn chariots in wars, usually one carriage with four horses and three passengers. If the translator can comment on this, it will better help the target readers to understand the ancient Chinese horse culture.<br /> <br /> ===4.The difference between the two translation thoughts===<br /> Nida's translation thoughts are mainly influenced by language structuralist translators, which are manifested in his use of the syntactic structure analysis method, semantic component analysis method popular in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and the core similar to Chomsky's deep structure Syntactic analysis is a structural analysis of language expression forms and translation procedures from the perspective of language translation, that is, interlingual translation. However, the essence of Nida's translation thought lies in far more than its language structuralist translation view, but more of him In &quot;translation is science&quot;, &quot;translation and communication&quot;, &quot;translation must emphasize readers' reflection&quot; and many other propositions. Moreover, Nida's contribution in translation theory, especially in the translation theory of the Bible, and his position in contemporary American and Western translation studies are very important and widely recognized. (Tan Zaixi, 1991)<br /> But Bassnett's &quot;cultural translation view&quot; focuses on cultural exchanges, with culture first, and information second. Through translation to introduce the unique culture of each nation, explain the similarities and differences between each other, so as to promote the comparative study of two languages ​​and cultures. Bassnett also pointed out that culture puts forward various requirements for translation, and these requirements are closely related to the nature of the original text. In the process of translation, the translator should demonstrate the unique charm of different cultures through translation, so that people of different cultural backgrounds can communicate and communicate in a true cultural sense.<br /> <br /> ===5.The similarity of the two translation ideas===<br /> Nida believes that the service object of translation is the recipient. It is necessary to evaluate and judge the quality of the translation. It is not only necessary to compare the language form of the translation and the original text, but also to see how the recipient reflects the translation. Only when the translated works are easy to understand and in proper form can they be widely accepted by the public. Bassnett’s cultural translation view also emphasizes that translation should meet the requirements of different objects in a certain culture. In order to meet the requirements of different specific groups, the translator must find a suitable translated language functionally. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that translation works should focus on the demands of recipients of translation at different levels.<br /> Nida believes that when there is a contradiction between form and content in the translation process, form should give way to content. Bassnett also believes that in the process of functional equivalence, the translator can not be restricted by the literary image. It can be seen that the two translation theorists pay more attention to the content and form of the translation.<br /> Nida pointed out that the languages ​​and cultures of the world have 90% similarities and only 10% differences. Bassnett also believes that the translator should perform functional equivalence in the target language culture based on the target language; the reading object and the original language's function in the original language culture. It can be seen that both translation theorists believe that the source language and the target language can communicate and communicate in terms of culture. Although there is a cultural loss in the translation process, there are more similarities between different languages. Similarities or similarities (ie cultural common core).<br /> <br /> ===6. Conclusion===<br /> Both Nida and Bassnett are great translation theorists and translators in the history of Western translation. Their theoretical research ideas and academic vision are broad, and their insights are unique, which give people deep inspiration. In the process of translation research, the two masters placed translation in the multi-dimensional space of the original text and the target text, investigated from different angles to reveal the essence of translation, and achieved fruitful results. The two translations: principles and methods. There are both common points and their own characteristics. We should work hard to understand the characteristics and development trajectories of the two major translation theories, and find out the contributions and shortcomings of the two major translation theories. In order to find things that Chinese translation theories can learn from, to promote the development of Chinese translation studies.<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> <br /> [1]Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber. The Theory of Translation[M]. Leiden:E. J Brill,1969.<br /> [2]Liao Qiyi.(2000).廖七一.''当代西方翻译理论探索''.[Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theory].译林出版社[Yilin Publishing House]<br /> [3] Liu Runqing.(2002).刘润清.''西方语言学流''派[Schools of Western Linguistics].外语教学与研究出版社[Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press]<br /> [4]Lu Gang. (2006). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation].''中国比较文化''[Chinese Comparative Culture]<br /> [5]Tan Zaixi. (1991). 谭载喜. ''西方翻译简史''. [Western Translator Business History]. 商务印书馆[The Commercial Press ]<br /> [6]Duan Feng. 段峰.(2006). 苏珊·巴斯奈特文学翻译思想述评. [A Review of Susan Bassnett's Literary Translation Thoughts]. ''四川大学学报''[Journal of Sichuan University]<br /> [7]Lu Gang. (2010). 陆刚. 巴斯奈特理论与翻译中文化等值的不确定性[Bassnett's theory and the uncertainty of cultural equivalence in translation]. ''扬州大学学报''[Journal of Yangzhou University]<br /> [8]Deng Ju, Qin Zhongshu.(2007). 邓巨，秦中书.苏珊·巴斯奈特翻译思想述评[A Review of Susan Bassnett's Translation Thoughts. ''四川文理学院学报''[Journal of Sichuan University of Arts and Science]<br /> [9]Luo Chengli. 罗承丽.(2010). 操纵与构建：苏珊·巴斯奈特“文化翻译中”思想研究. [Manipulation and Construction: Susan Bassnett's &quot;Cultural Translation&quot; Thought Research].''北京语言大学''[Beijing Language and Culture University]<br /> [10]Waley,Arthur.The Way and Its Power:A study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought.London:Allen and Unwin，1934.<br /> [11]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call].江西教育出版社[Jiangxi Education Press]<br /> [12]Lu Xun. 鲁迅.(2010). ''呐喊''. [The Call]. 杨宪益，戴乃迭，译.北京外文出版社[Beijing Foreign Languages Publishing House]<br /> [13]Gu Zhengkun. 辜正坤.(2008). ''老子道德经''[ Tao Te Ching].北京大学出版社[Peking University Press]<br /> <br /> ==A Comparative Study Between the Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory 吴一露 Wu Yilu 202070080610==<br /> <br /> ===Abstract===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory and the theory put forward by Yan Fu, that is “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are one of the most representative translation theories respectively in the history of Chinese and Western translation theories. And these two theories have a profound impact to Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will compare the similarities and differences between these two theories as well as their historical contributions and limitations. It aims to get a deeper understanding of Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory and a better application of theories in practice. In the meantime, the collision and comparative analysis of Chinese and Western theories will also promote the study of translation theories and provide a reference for guiding translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Key words===<br /> <br /> Skopos Theory; Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance; Hans Vermeer; Yan Fu<br /> <br /> ===摘要===<br /> <br /> 目的论和严复提出的翻译理论即 “信达雅”分别是中西方翻译理论史上最具代表性的翻译理论之一。并且这两种翻译理论对中西方翻译理论和实践产生了深刻的影响。本文将对比研究目的论以及严复理论的同异，结合比较这两种理论的历史贡献及局限,旨在加深对目的论和“信达雅”理解，并将理论更好地运用到翻译实践中。同时中西方理论的碰撞和对比分析，也会促进翻译理论研究和为指导翻译实践提供依据。<br /> <br /> ===关键词===<br /> <br /> 目的论；信达雅；汉斯·弗米尔；严复<br /> <br /> ===1. Introduction===<br /> <br /> Skopos is the Greek word for “aim” or “purpose” and was introduced into translation theory in the 1970s by the German linguists Hans J. Vermeer as a technical term for the purpose of a translation and developed in Germany in the late 1970s. The creation of Skopos theory is a significant achievement of western translation theories, providing a new perspective for translation study. In 1897, Yan Fu set down the triple translation criteria of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance,” (Xin Da Ya), which influenced the development of translation practice and theory for almost half a century after it came into being and it still exerts great influence on contemporary TS. As now the scope of integration and exchanges between China and Western world are expanding to various fields, this paper will reexamine these influential theories by comparing their commonalities, differences and influences, so as to broaden our vision of translation theory study.<br /> <br /> ===2. Introduction of Skopos Theory and Yan Fu’s Theory===<br /> <br /> ====2.1 Skopos Theory====<br /> <br /> “Skopos theory comprises the idea that translating and interpreting means to produce a target text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances” .(Vermeer, Hans J.1987a, 26). The purpose decides everything, from the translation strategy and translation method, to the choice of the form and content of the original work, to the production of the target text. All these take the purpose as the reference. <br /> <br /> =====2.1.2 The Development of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> The creation of Skopos theory in not going to happen overnight; it is a gradual process that can the skopos theory become the core of functionalist approach, which is initially proposed by Hans Vermeer. Its formation and development experienced mostly three periods.<br /> <br /> (1) Katharina Reiss’s research <br /> <br /> The book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, written by Katharina Reiss in 1971, marked the appearance of German translation theories and was the first time raised the idea that text function could be listed as a standard of translation criticism and came up with thoughts of functional translation theory. The core of her translation theory is text typology, including informative text (content-focused), expressive text (form-focused), operative text (appeal-focused) and the auto-medial text, which laid a foundation of Skopos theory.<br /> <br /> (2) Hans J. Vermeer: Skopos theories and beyond<br /> <br /> Vermeer, Reiss’s student, casting off the chains of Translation Equivalence, thought: translation is not a mechanical language interpretation, but an activity with an aim or purpose. According to Action Theory, human action is a kind of purposeful behavior in a given situation. In his opinion, translation also is such a kind of action with purpose on the foundation of a source text. Hence, Vermeer names his theory Skopos theory, a theory of purposeful action. Hans J. Vermeer believed that the purpose of a text determines the translation strategies. The most important ingredients determining the purpose of translation is readers. So translators should better to consider integrally both the purpose of translation and special circumstances of target-text readers before interpreting.（Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 154）<br /> <br /> <br /> (3) Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord: the theory of translational action and Function plus Loyalty Principle<br /> <br /> Manttari differentiated “translation” and “translation action”. She thought that “translation” is simply transformative action while “translation action” is more intricate behavior designed to transfer message overcoming culture and language barriers. In Christiane Nord’s Translating as a Purposeful Activity-Functionalist Approaches Explained, she defines the Skopos theory as the prime principle determining any translation process. But Nord also found there were some drawbacks of Skopos theory, so she putted forward the “loyalty principle”: the responsibility of translators towards to their partners in translational interaction. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> =====2.1.3 Rules of Skopos Theory=====<br /> <br /> There are three rules of Skopos theory, including skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.<br /> <br /> The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the ‘skopos rule’, which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; in other words, that is “ the end justifies the means” (Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. 1984). As defined by Vermeer and translated by Nord, the Skopos rule states: “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Christiane Nord, 1997) Whether the function of the source text or passages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed all decided by the purpose of translation. The skopos is divided into three forms: translator purpose, communicative purpose of the translated text and the purpose of using some kind of translation strategies. Coherence rule talks about that the target text must be coherent with the source text, given target text receivers circumstances and knowledge (Pochhacker, Franz 1995, 32). Translators should pick out what is meaningful in the receivers’ condition. The last rule, fidelity rule, concerns the intertexual coherence between target text and source text---the target text is determined by its skopos. In accordance to this, the form of the target text would be determined by both translator’s interpretation of the source text and the translation’s purpose.<br /> <br /> These three rules connect with each other. Coherence rule and fidelity rule are subject to skopos rule. From above three rules, we come to a conclusion that the evaluation criterion of translation is “adequacy”—dynamic standard-- rather than “equivalence”. Therefore, translator should not be literalists who rigidly adhere to the words of the source text.<br /> <br /> ====2.2 Yan Fu’s Theory====<br /> <br /> Yan Fu (1854-1921) was an outstanding Chinese Scholar and translator who had studied abroad from 1877 to 1879 in Britain. In this period, he was interested in western politics and started to learn academic theories of capitalist politics. His solid foundation of language as well as rich reserves of theories made adequate preparations for his future translation work. Because realizing that it was important for old China to catch up western countries in fields of politics, economy, culture, ideology and institutions, this famous Chinese translator devoted his life to importing western ideas and theories by translating various foreign works, including Evolution and Ethics, Yuan Fu (the Chinese version of The Wealth of Nations), The Spirit of Laws and other essays. It is these translated works and his translation theories --- “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” that impressed large numbers of Chinese scholars profoundly, which also contributed to his everlasting name in the history of Chinese translation theory study.(Chen Fukang 2000, 105）<br /> <br /> =====2.2.1 The Development of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> (1)The proposal of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” <br /> <br /> The idea of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” （Xin, Da, Ya) was firstly seen in The Dhammapada sequence （《法句经序》）written by Zhi Qian , a venerable monk and a translator of Buddhist scriptures in the Three Kingdoms Period. But as a translation theory, it is known to the public and handed down because of Yan Fu. (Chen Fukang 2000, 106) In 1898, Yan Fu made a conclusion of all the debates related to translation since Han dynasty and Tang dynasty after research. Then he put forward “the three difficulties for translating” in the preface of the translation of T.H. Huxley’s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays more than one hundred years ago. The first draft of Evolution and Ethics was finished in 1895. As this was the first book he translated, he met many difficulties in translating and got a lot of thoughts. Then he put his thoughts into Yiliyan （《译例言》）: “ Translation involves three requirements difficult to fulfill: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. ” (Yan Fu, 1987) However, there are still some people holding the opinion that these translation thoughts of Yan Fu took their ideas from the three principles of famous British translator Tytler.<br /> <br /> (2)The evolution of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”<br /> <br /> Since this translation theory was put forward, it have inspired continuous debates for nearly one hundred years and the interpretation of the later scholars cannot be ignored. There are four main directions of this evolution.<br /> The May Fourth New Culture Movement ushered in a new epoch vernacular literature and translation, which changed the status of Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese. So Yan Fu’s interpretation of “Elegance”, which refers to application of Classical Chinese before Han dynasty, became out of step with the Times. Attempting to prove the rationality of “Elegance”, many translators made new interpretations of it. While there are also some made adjustments on the basis of Yan Fu’s theory. Qu Qiubai suggested using Vernacular Chinese instead of classical one; Lin Yutang, Liu Zhongdei and Zhu Wenzhen proposed to change “Elegance” into “Beauty”, “Closeness” and “Appropriate” respectively. Among which “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Closeness” not only inherits rational thoughts, but also overcomes limitations of “Elegance”. So this principle is a remarkable symbol presenting that China’s translation theories are becoming mature.(Liu Qijia 2000, 97)<br /> <br /> Besides, Lu Xun simplified this three-character standard, turning it into a two-character one--- “faithfulness and smoothness” (Xin Shun Shuo). From “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” to “Faithfulness, Smoothness and Beauty”, from “Similarity in Spirit” to “Sublimation”, we can see that the translation spirit of Yan Fu is carried forward and how profound an impact this theory made.<br /> <br /> =====2.2.2 Main Contents of Yan Fu’s Theory=====<br /> <br /> Whenever the criteria of translation is discussed in China, the principle of translation proposed by Yan Fu would be mentioned, namely: “ Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. From the perspective of Yan Fu, “Faithfulness” referred to the meaning of the target text should be close to that of the original one, that was, being faithful to the original meaning, as well as its sentimental color, style and flavor. There are two aspects of “Faithfulness”: being faithful to the original work and to target readers. “Expressiveness” meant the target text should be coherent and clear, there being no need to follow the exact order of words and sentences structure of the original language but reorganize and elaborate to respect the rules of target language. And “Elegance” indicated that the target text should be of refinement in language, namely, the use of ancient Chinese before Han dynasty so as to meet the expectation of target readers who were well-educated in China. He claimed that “where language has no refinement, its effects will not extend far”(言之无文，行之不远). (Chen Fukang 2000, 108）<br /> <br /> In Yan Fu’s point of view, “Faithfulness” is the core while “Expressiveness” and “Elegance” are two measures, which can be noticed from the order of these three characters. That means “Faithfulness” is the premise and basis of translation and the other two are the aim of translation. So these three standards are integrated.<br /> <br /> ===3. Similiarities and Differences===<br /> <br /> ====3.1 The Similarities betweeen these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory and Yan Fu’s theory originated in two different countries and cultural environments, and there are hundreds of years between the times when they were put forward, these two theories have many similarities.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.1 Fidelity Rule and Faithfulness=====<br /> <br /> The Fidelity rule in Skopos theory is similar to “Faithfulness” in Yan Fu’s theory. Comparing the two theories of translation, we find that both theories have a criterion based on the original text and pursue the principle of fidelity, which is only expressed in different words. Fidelity rule in Skopos theory holds that translator should respect both the original author and readers in the translation process. Translation is to try to reach an agreement with the original work's intention and translator is responsible not only to readers but also to the original author, reconciling the purpose of the translation with the author's intention and mediating between the two. In Nord’s opinion , the faithfulness principle gives translator the right to make changes to the original text according to the purpose of translation, showing an open, tolerant and dynamic view of translation; on the other hand, it requires translator to be responsible for all parties involved in the translation, to explain or interpret his or her translation strategy, and to reach an understanding and consensus among all parties.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br /> <br /> This coincides with Yan Fu's &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, which emphasizes not to deviate from the original text. And &quot;Faithfulness&quot; is the premise and foundation of translation. In the process of translation, translator is required to correctly understand the original text and then reproduce it in another language. If the ideas, expressions, and emotions in the translation are not consistent with the original work, then it violates the requirement of &quot;Faithfulness&quot;, as well as the requirement of the fidelity rule in Skopos theory. Thus, we can find that both theories emphasize the importance of faithfulness to the original text.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.2 Coherence Rule and Expressiveness=====<br /> <br /> The coherence principle in Skopos theory is similar to the “Expressiveness” in the Yan Fu’s theory. In short, they both emphasize the fluency and smoothness of the translation from the point of view of readers’ receptivity and comprehension, so that receiver can accept and understand the translation smoothly. The coherence principle refers that translation should be readable and acceptable, so as to achieve interlingual coherence and to be consistent with the communicative situation of the target readers. As elaborated by Nord, a communicative interaction can only be regarded as successful if the receivers interpret it as being sufficiently coherent with their situation. (Christiane Nord 1997, 32) Under this rule, the receivers of the target text, their cultural background, social circumstances, expectations, values and norms should all be taken into consideration as major factors to produce meaningful translations. In translation, translator should reproduce the content and form of the original text as much as possible, and such translations usually require extensive annotation so that readers can have a better understanding of the translation. <br /> <br /> This point is consistent with Yan Fu's viewpoint in his translation work, Evolution and Ethics · Yiyanli : “ 顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也(A translation is faithful but not expressive, then it is not a qualified translation)。” (Yan Fu, 1987) According to Yan, “Expressiveness” means to reproduce the meaning of the original text in a way that is consistent with the terminological conventions of the target language, which also emphasizes the understandability of the translation. That is to say, translator should focus on conveying the content of the original text and conveying the meaning and gist of the original text, rather than sticking to the order of the words and sentences in the original text. At the same time, Yan also points out that the sentence structure in English is very different from that in Chinese. If one mechanically translates long sentences from English, the Chinese translation will certainly be unintelligible. Therefore, a translator must first understand the main idea of the original text clearly before he can translate it without compromising the original meaning. It can be seen that both Skopos theory and Yan Fu's theory emphasize expressing the main idea of the original text in a way that can be understood by the target readers.<br /> <br /> =====3.1.3 Skopos Rule and Elegance=====<br /> <br /> The Skopos rule in the Skopos theory is similar to “Elegance” in Yan Fu’s theory to some extent. The Skopos rule states that the purpose of translation determines the entire act of translation at the macro level. In the meantime, translator must decide what methods and strategies to use in translation based on the function of the translation in the target culture. Vermeer regards the recipient of the translation as an important part of the translation requirements and &quot;one of the most important factors in determining the purpose of the translation&quot;. Translation is &quot;the text produced in the target language environment for the purpose of translation and for the target readers.”.(Christiane Nord 1997, 12) <br /> <br /> While in Yan Fu’s theory, “Elegance” is more specific, as it is based on the specific era and target readers at that time he lived. Because in the 19th century, the books Yan Fu translated were not for the general public, but for old literati and intellectuals who had the right to speak at that time. And most of them respected the old and discriminated against the new, advocating the ancient language while opposing the promotion of the vernacular language. There was no way to introduce Western ideas and knowledge to the scholarly class in China without taking into account their feelings. It is clear that he was thinking from the perspective of target readers, then this theory was put forward. (Chen Fukang 2000, 109) So, in essence, both theories share the same reader-centered viewpoint.<br /> <br /> ====3.2 The Differences between these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although there are many similarities between these two translation theories, big differences in the theoretical system, translation standards and translators' status still exist. These differences are not only caused by the different traditions of Chinese and Western theories, but also by the differences in cultural background and personal theoretical knowledge.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.1 Different Theoretical Systems=====<br /> <br /> Skopos theory is closely integrated with other disciplines. This theory was born out of the behavioral theory. Vermeer places Skopos theory in the framework of cross-cultural communication. He denies that translation is a purely linguistic transformation, and pays more attention to communication and culture.It makes the translation theory more logical, scientific and systematic. Thus, it breaks the text-centered translation research tradition, providing a new perspective for translation study. A theoretical system with diversified translation standards was formed. Skopos theory clearly puts forward some translation concepts, such as the three rules, and there is a clear hierarchy among the three rules, with both Fidelity rule and Coherence rule being subordinate to the Skopos rule. It makes clear to translator the standards and principles that they should follow.In addition, it also made a distinction between intertextual coherence and intratextual coherence, adequate translation and equivalent translation, and translation and translation action.(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 156)<br /> <br /> But Yan Fu’s theory is relatively abstract and vague. Although it concludes the translation requirements, it is not as clear as Skopos theory. Different translators have different interpretations of these three translation criteria. Some think that &quot;Faithfulness&quot; refers to the faithfulness to the original work's ideological content, while others think it is faithful to the content and linguistic style of the original work, which leads to differences in content and form. Zhu Guang Qian and Tang Ren even advocated condensing “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” into “Faithfulness”; people’s understanding of “Elegance” was even more diverse. Besides, Yan Fu's theory is not closely integrated with other disciplines and focuses more on content and aesthetics.(Chen Fukang 2000, 348）<br /> <br /> Therefore, Yan Fu's theory is not clearly demonstrated and scientifically summarized, which easily cause ambiguity. It is not as theoretical and systematic as Skopos theory, and tends to be more of an empirical theory.<br /> <br /> =====3.2.2 Different Translation Standards=====<br /> <br /> Before the emergence of Skopos theory, the mainstream translation standard was functional equivalence. The emergence of the Skopos theory broke through the constraint of equivalence，replacing the &quot;faithfulness principle&quot; as the first principle with the Skopos rule. The success of a translation depends on whether the intended purpose of translation is achieved. &quot;Skopos&quot; usually refers to the communicative purpose of the translation, that is, &quot;the communicative function of the translation in the target socio-cultural context for the target readers&quot;. Therefore, the Skopos theory pays more attention to the translation requirements, the target readers, the target language’s environment and culture. It has a broader scope of application, increasing the number of alternative translation strategies, which opened the shackles of translators.（Vermeer, Hans J. 1989, 186)<br /> <br /> In contrast, Yan Fu's translation theory, which can also be regarded as a translation standard, puts forward requirements for translations in three directions of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”. Although “Faithfulness” is the first among the three, Yan Fu also emphasized the importance of “Expressiveness” and “Elegance”. In Yan Fu's view, these three standards are integrated. Even he himself didn’t explain it clearly. In this way, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” are only three abstract translation criteria, rather than a systematic translation theory. And it has different requirements to different types of text. The requirements are highest for literary works, lower for philosophical and social science works, and even lower for science and technology related works, official documents and the like.(Chen Fukang 2000, 108)<br /> <br /> =====3.2.3 Different Translator Status=====<br /> <br /> For a long time in the past, the role and subject status of translators have not received enough attention and research. Traditional translation theories holds that translators should be subordinate to the original text in the translation process. However, Skopos theory emphasizes the subjectivity of translator and frees translators from the prison of the faithfulness standard of translation theory. According to Vermeer, the purpose determines translation action. And the intended purpose is determined by many factors: (1) translator's basic purpose (e.g. to earn a living), (2) the communicative purpose of the translation (e.g. to enlighten readers), and (3) the purpose to be achieved by using a special translation method (e.g. adopting literal translation to illustrate the grammatical structure of a language). (He Xiaoling 2012, 46)So translators has more freedom and rights. They can have their own judgment and understanding in the translation process. They can adopt different translation strategies, like omission or addition, according to different translation purposes. Therefore, under Skopos theory, translator is the medium of communication between the author and readers, original text and translated text. He plays a creative role in the translation process, instead of just converting two different languages mechanically. At the same time, translator acts as a central role in the translation process who is responsible for the results of the whole translation activity.<br /> <br /> However, in Yan Fu's theory, the content of the translation cannot deviate from the original work. The role of translator is more to convey the meaning of the original work to readers after understanding the ideological basis of the original author. He should strive for the consistency or similarity between the translated text and the original, without compromising the readability and acceptability of the translated text. Therefore, under this theory, translator is more of a bridge between the original work and the translated text. This would still be original text-centered, and translator would not be able to exercise much initiative. As we can see, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Faithfulness” still advocates the primacy of the original text. Compared with the subjective initiative of translator in Skopos theory, translator's act is largely passive .<br /> <br /> ===4. A Comparative Study of the Contribution and Limitation of these Two Theories===<br /> <br /> Skopos theory proposed by Vermeer and the theory proposed by Yan Fu play an important role in Chinese and Western translation theories respectively. Then what are the similarities and differences between the two theories in terms of their contributions and shortcomings? Through the analysis in this chapter, we can glimpse the development trend and characteristics of translation theory in the world of Chinese and Western translation.<br /> <br /> ====4.1 Contributions of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> When the linguistic dominance in translation studies was questioned before the birth of Skopos theory, translation studies gradually shifted to a cultural orientation, Vermeer placed translation in the framework of cross-cultural communication, which freed translation from the shackles of Nida's equivalence theory, and liberated translation studies from the constraints of source-text-oriented approach . In Skopos theory, the status of the source text is not as important as that of the target text. Vermeer regards the original text only as a &quot;source of information&quot;, which provides only the information needed for the translation commission, and is no longer the only or the highest criterion for evaluating the translation ( Hans J. Vermeer 1982, 98.) Taking the purpose of translation as the starting point and foundation of translation has greatly changed our original concept of translation. Skopos theory also provides a good explanation for the controversy over domestication and foreignization in the history of Chinese and Western translation, as well as the widely discussed form equivalence and dynamic equivalence in the translation industry in the past two or three decades. Whether to adopt domestication or foreignization in translation depends on the purpose of translation. More emphasis is placed on the purpose of translation, the goal of translator and the effect of the translation on readers. The social and communicative effects of translation, as well as that of readers and translation are also of great importance , thus a multifaceted and integrated translation standard was formed. Therefore, the creation of Skopos theory has finally freed translation research from the confinement brought about by “equivalence” and provided a new direction for translation study.<br /> <br /> Skopos theory has played a subversive role in the history of Western translation, while Yan Fu's theory is to a greater extent a summary and refinement of the previous theories of Chinese translation schools. But it has played a pivotal role in the history of Chinese translation and has long been valued by translation scholars. The contribution of this theory to translation lies not only in proposing a far-reaching translation standard, but also in its rich vitality. This is because this translation standard summarizes the main characteristics of translation work to a great extent and shows the requirements of translation work. Secondly, because of its inclusive nature, after several generations of scholars' discussions, the meaning of “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” has already exceeded the definition given by Yan Fu. In particular, there are various new interpretations of &quot;Elegance&quot; in literary translation, no longer sticking to the use of ancient Chinese before the Han Dynasty, but focusing on the use of literary style, writing style, and rhetoric. Over the past 100 years, Yan Fu's theory has aroused translators’ long-term thinking and exploration of translation theory, then its academic connotation has been unceasingly explored, which, in return, has been continuously developed and perfected, and has become the classic of Chinese translation thought. In the words of Shen Suru, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” is “still the most well-known and influential translation principle and standard, and no other principle or standard can replace it”(Shen Suru 2001,7).<br /> <br /> ====4.2 Limitations of these Two Theories====<br /> <br /> Although Skopos theory has made a great breakthrough to translation theory, it has some shortcomings of its own. Firstly, it overemphasizes the purpose of translation and translator, while neglecting rich meaning and multifunctionality of the original text, which undermines the ontological meaning of translation, and is not suitable for some text types. Skopos theory contains a certain degree of idealism, focusing on analysis and refinement, and sometimes it tends to neglect the integrity. As a result, sometimes the stylistic and semantic features of the original text are lost in order to achieve the translation goal. Many scholars have also criticized Skopos theory. Among them, Pym argues that it is a matter of common sense that translation has a purpose, and there is no need to make a fuss over the theory (Pym Anthony, 1996). Besides, Newmark claims that the “purpose-oriented” view is overkill. He strongly resents the approach of Skopos theory which eliminates the authority of texts and is oriented to translator's culture. Secondly, the possibility of realizing the purpose of translation depends on the conditions of the target culture rather than the culture of the source language, so fidelity to the original text is only a possibility. Thus we can see that the coherence rule and fidelity rule are not universally applicable.<br /> <br /> Obviously, there are also limitations to Yan Fu’s theory. Compared with Skopos theory, Yan Fu's theory gives sufficient attention to the original text, but, as we mentioned earlier, it is an abstract and general theory, which is more theoretical rather than expository. The lack of analysis and discussion of specific issues keeps the theory at an abstract level, making it difficult for translator to grasp the degree: what degree can be called “Faithfulness”, what degree can be called “Expressiveness”, and what degree can be called “Elegance”?(Zhou Mengzhen 2007, 157) It is this ambiguity that makes this theory less scientific and accurate than Skopos theory. Thus its guiding role in practice is greatly reduced. In addition, as a product of the times, Yan Fu’s theory is deeply influenced by the background of the time, and cannot be scientifically combined with other disciplines, which once again limits the application of this theory.<br /> <br /> ===5. Conclusion===<br /> <br /> There are many similarities between the theory of purpose and Yan Fu's translation theory, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, in terms of pursuing fidelity and consistency, and observing reader adaptation, while there are also many differences in the theoretical systems, translation standards, and translator status. Although both theories have certain limitations, it is undeniable that they both provide important guidance for translation practice.<br /> <br /> Through a comparative study of these two typical Chinese and Western translation theories, we can find that the Western translation theory pays more attention to scientific argumentation method. It attempts to combine with many other disciplines, and takes them as the theoretical support. Thus, the translation theory model is constantly proposed and improved, and the translation research perspective is expanded. Similarly, Yan Fu's theory is constantly being carried forward, and its influence is far-reaching.<br /> <br /> Nowadays, as the world is in the period of fast development, dramatic change and great integration, Chinese and Western thoughts and cultures are deeply interwoven. We should adhere to the essence of Chinese translation theory while learning Western theory, so as to better master the essence of both, grasp the development trend of translation theory, and more actively guide our translation practice.<br /> <br /> ===Reference===<br /> <br /> Christiane Nord. Translating as a Purposeful Activity [M]. St. Jerome Publishing,1997.<br /> <br /> Reiss Katharina &amp; Vermeer Hans J. Groundwork for a general theory of translation [M]. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1984.<br /> <br /> Pochhacker Franz. Simultaneous interrupting: a functionalist perspective [J]. Hermes: Journal of linguistics, 1995(14): 31-53.<br /> <br /> Pym, Anthony. Material Text Transfer as a Key to the Purpose of Translation[J]. Kent, Ohio: Institute of Applied Linguistics, 1996.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Translation als informationsangebot[J]. Lebende sprachen , 1982, 27(3)97-101.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. What does it mean to translate[J]. Indian journal of applied linguistic, 1987a.13,2:25-33.<br /> <br /> Vermeer Hans J. Skopos and Commission in Translational Action[J]. Chersterman: Translation Theory, 1989: 173-187.<br /> <br /> 陈福康. 中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 2000.<br /> <br /> 閤小玲. 浅析目的论视角下的译者主体性[J]. 柳州师专学报. 2012(4):45-47.<br /> <br /> 刘期家. 论信达雅的历史发展轨迹[J]. 四川外语学院学报.2000(2):96-101.<br /> <br /> 沈苏儒. 翻译的最高境界——信达雅漫谈[M].中国对外翻译出版公司.2001.<br /> <br /> 谭载喜. 西方翻译简史[M]. 北京：商务印书馆, 2004.<br /> <br /> 严复. 天演论·译例言[A]. 国闻汇编: 1897.<br /> <br /> 周锰珍. “目的论”与“信达雅”——中西方两种译论的比较[J]. 学术论坛. 2007(8):154-158.<br /> <br /> <br /> --[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:26, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Comparison of Eileen Chang’s Self-Translation and Conventional Translation from the Perspective of Gender 纪甜甜 Ji Tiantian==<br /> <br /> ='''Art of Translation'''=<br /> <br /> <br /> ==The Art and Science of Translation --Take the Literary Translation as an Example 桂一枝 Gui Yizhi==<br /> <br /> --[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:50, 8 December 2020 (UTC)==Study on the English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation 刘欧 Liu Ou==<br /> <br /> Abstract<br /> <br /> Key words<br /> <br /> 摘要<br /> <br /> 关键词<br /> <br /> 2.1 The Abundant Resource of Hunan Scenic Spots <br /> <br /> 2.2 The Meaning of View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> 2.3 The Existing English Translated Versions of Hunan Scenic Spots<br /> <br /> 2.4 The Strategy of English Translation of Hunan Scenic Spots Names from the View of Culture Translation<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> <br /> Reference<br /> <br /> ==A study of English Translation of Chinese Cultural Classics from the Perspective of Communication==<br /> <br /> ==The Visible Images and Invisible Hands: An Analysis of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility 祝美梅 Zhu Meimei student no. 202070080632== <br /> <br /> ==='''Abstract'''===<br /> <br /> This thesis tries to explain the visible images and invisible hands in the process of translation based on Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory and Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility. The inferior status of translation and improper techniques have rendered translators “invisible” in the past, however the improvement of the translator's status and the “cultural turn” in Translation Studies, have both served to make translators more “visible”. Thus the translator's subjectivity has received increasing recognition and status. Nonetheless, as a key point in translation studies, the translator's subjectivity should not be confined to the change from “invisibility” to “visibility”, but should be studied in all respects, and the challenges being faced should also be identified and dealt with.<br /> <br /> ==='''Key Words'''===<br /> <br /> invisibility; visibility; Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory; Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility; the translator's subjectivity<br /> <br /> ==='''摘要'''===<br /> <br /> 论文基于勒弗菲尔韦努蒂提出的术语translator’s invisibility解读,翻译地位的提高以及翻译研究的&quot;文化转向&quot;,促使译者&quot;显形&quot;,译者主体性也随之受到重视;但值得注意的是,在当今崭新的翻译时代背景下,各种翻译技术的发展导致译者&quot;忘形&quot;,从而使译者主体性面临挑战。译者主体性作为翻译研究的重点,不应拘泥于由忽视到重视的转变,而应以全面地眼光,发现并正视其现在所面临的挑战。 <br /> <br /> ==='''关键词'''===<br /> <br /> 隐形；显形；劳伦斯韦努蒂；操纵理论；勒菲弗尔的操纵理论；韦努蒂《译者的隐形》<br /> <br /> ==='''1. Introduction'''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.1 Introduction of Lefevere’s Manipulation Theory '''===<br /> <br /> ====''''1.2 Venuti’s Deconstruction of The Translator’s Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''2. Study on the translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''2.1 The Translator's Invisibility '''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.2 Culture Turn: The Translator Change from Invisibility to invisibility'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''2.3 The Translator's visibility '''====<br /> <br /> ==='''3. Factors Influencing translator's subjectivity'''===<br /> <br /> ===='''3.1 Interior Factors'''====<br /> <br /> ===='''3.2 External Factors'''====<br /> <br /> In the early 1990s, Lefevere, a representative of the cultural school of translation studies and a well-known translation theorist, elaborated Manipulation Theory is his book Translation, rewriting and the Manipulation Literary Fame, in which he said: Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. <br /> Lefevere, defines translation as a form of rewriting, thus treating translation as a form of creating another text image, just like literary criticism, biography, literary history, film, drama, fiction, falsification of anthologies and reader’s guides. But it doesn’t mean that translation is rewriting. Lefevere thinks rewriting includes some other forms, for example, historiography, anthology,, criticism and editing. He ven emphasized that translation creates the literary and cultural image of the original text, the original author, and the original text. All rewriting, regardless of its intention, reflects a certain ideology and poetics. Therefore, translation is actually the manipulation of the translator to the text, which makes literature work with a certain way in a particular society. In any case, the understanding of translation as rewriting or manipulation of the original text deepens people’s understanding of translation to a great extent. <br /> In Lefevere’s view, there are three elements influencing the function of translation. The first one is professionals within the literary system, including critics, reviewers, teachers and translators who will affect the acceptance of translated works; the second is patronage outside of that system. Patronage here can be seen as the powers that can further or hinder the reading, writing, and rewriting of literature, and the third is the dominant poetics. <br /> Lefevere’s translation theory represents an important turning point in the history of translation study. He developed Zohar’s poly-system theory. And he studies translation in cultural approach. <br /> Before the “cultural turn”, translation was seen almost as an exclusively linguistic process, in which the translator was required to find the TL equivalent for a SL expression and which was not influenced by any other factors than linguistic ones. But in fact, Lefevere’s translation theory could instruct translation activities in many cases. Based on the understanding of three control factors, the translator will solve problems encountered in the process of translation, exploring changes of translation strategies under various factors, mainly including ideology, poetics and patronages, which will be introduced in the next chapter. <br /> <br /> Three control factors <br /> Lefevere points that all literature works should be placed in a certain social and cultural environment. Thus its meaning and value is influenced by these factors. The audience’s apprehension of the work also differs for these factors. He emphasizes three factors manipulating translation: ideology, poetic and patronage.<br /> Introduction of poetics <br /> According to Lefevere, a poetics includes two components. One is the literary method which consists of literary genres, prototypical characters and situations, motifs, symbols. The other is the concept of the literature function. <br /> As a theory about the study of poetry and their skills, poetics is also a theory of literature and art. After choosing some types of practice at a certain period, while excluding others, the poetics is codified. Then it will have tremendous influence on the further development of the literary system. Lefevere holds that the translation methods adopted by the translators are carried out under the guidance of certain strategies of certain poetic factors. It exerts on the choices of words, sentecnes, even the style and translation strategies of the whole article. Translation has greatly influenced the exchange of different literary systems, not only in introducing new literary methods into a certain poetics, but also in whether the image of a writer or a work can be successfully introduced into another literary system. In Lefevere’s view, as the manipulatin of a translator, rewriting should be regarded as a cultural necessity in essence, because translators are bound to be influenced and constrained by different social and cultural factors in the process of translation. <br /> Rewriting under the guidance of poetics is an important part of the cultural system in which the rewriters produce works. Rewriters often adjust the original works to a certain extent to be in line with the dominant ideology and poetics of the period in which the rewriters lived, and to make the rewritten works accepted by as many audiences as possible. In order to adapt some famous works to the cultural background of various society and history, they have also been rewritten to varying degrees. As is mentioned above, works of the dominant poetics is what people called classics for future writers to follow. But “a poetics, any poetics, is a historical variable: it is not absolute.” For instance, poetics today differs from the dominant poetics of the Tang dynasty. In cater to the change of the dominant poetics, these canonized works will be adapted o rewritten. This is why some classical Greek works still have an impact on Western literature. Translators pay more and more attention on the poetic factors in translation, further developing translation theory. Poetics solve the problem of what literature should or can be, and deciding the role and influence of translation in the society to some extent. In the process of translation, emphasizing more on meaning and lesson poetic factors and literary component will make the poetic aesthetic sense of the original work disappear. <br /> Lefevere also points that any poetics transcend language, ethnic and political entities which is demonstrated by listing Multilanguage regions or various forms of social and political organizations in Africa share a common poetics. In his eyes, the poetics will not be adapted to any language, but the dominant poetics is dominated by the ideology. <br /> Introduction of ideology<br /> <br /> ==Cultural differences on English interpretation and the coping strategies 谭媛媛 Tan Yuanyuan==<br /> <br /> ==On Translation Strategies of Different Style, Taking English Journalistic Style and English Literary Style as an Example 张银柳 Zhang Yinliu==<br /> ==Translation Manipulated by Ideology 李泳珊 Li Yongshan==<br /> ==Translation Strategies from Contrastive English-Chinese Studies and Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation 聂晓楼 Nie Xiaolou==</div>

Ji Tiantian https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_trans&diff=109624 2020-12-10T09:42:22Z

<p>Ji Tiantian: /* Chen Sunfu 谌孙福 */</p> <hr /> <div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br /> In fact, reportage research and composition along with organizing and performing in roving theatrical troupes became one of the principal modes of ”internship” for young writers in the socialist educational system as it emerged in Yan’an.<br /> <br /> Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu were all in their twenties at this time, so they had limited literary experience before the 1940s. Thus for Liu and Yang, the Yan’an years helped define for them what literature is supposed to be from process to product. Qin Mu, however, never went to Yan’an; he spent the entire war in Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou. Thus though he had experience with some of these procedures of production in progressive circles in those areas, Qin Mu was not saturated in this kind of cultural environment.<br /> ==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br /> Once socialism or communism took the position of power (as in Yan’an during the war against Japan and then throughout the PRC after 1949) critical prose writing (whether essays or reportage) as it had been practiced during wartime became much more dubious from the point of view of cultural officials, and nonfiction needed to become a vehicle of literary celebration of public, historical achievements.[ See for example Yang Shuo, ”Qian jin, gangtie de dajun” (March Forth, Great Army of Steel, 1949), Zhonghua sanwen zhencang ben, Yang Shuo juan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1998) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951), Yang Shuo juan 13-17, ”Gebi tan shang de chuntian” (Springtime on the Gobi, 1953), Yang Shuo juan 29-33. ] This is precisely the familiar dilemma of Ding Ling, coming into Yan’an society well trained as a keen critic of her environment. It was an awkward transition, except for those who came into the socialist educational cultural system while still relatively young. To them the business of literature was that of constructing an unprecedented new vision.<br /> ==Chen Han 陈涵==<br /> '''Writers’ changing roles changed literary prose'''<br /> <br /> Each of the three authors I am discussing here was born between 1913 and 1919, only a few short years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. They were all in their late teens and early twenties at the outbreak of the war against Japan. Being roughly the same age, they shared the same historical and cultural atmosphere, but being in different locations, engaged in the war in different capacities, their transition into the aesthetics of incongruous lyricism took different paths and thus embodied different tensions. <br /> ==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br /> Yang Shuo[ 1913-1968, orig. Yang Shujin(?), of Penglai County in Shandong.] is probably the most ”standard” of the three from the point of view of the Communist Party in that he went to Yan’an early (winter 1937) and worked under the direction of the party’s cultural apparatus for the duration of the war there, in the northwest, and in Guangzhou. Like the reportage writer Huang Gang, he was of the right age for this Yan’an-based period to be his principal formative and educational experience, deeply conditioning his approach and attitude toward writing in the 1950s and 1960s. That being said, Yang Shuo was more concerned with issues of literary quality and symbolic meaning than others writing under the direction of the CP, and this concern colored even his most famous works with puzzling tones of ambivalence and reservation.<br /> ==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br /> Liu Baiyu[ 1916-?, orig. Liu Yuzan, of Beijing. See Niu Yunqing, Liu Baiyu pingzhuan (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1995).] arrived in Yan’an relatively early too, and was quickly immersed in its literary activism. Only weeks after his arrival, and though Liu was only 22 at the time, Mao Zedong personally assigned him to lead a five-person escort for the American marine observer Evans Carson to visit the guerilla areas in Northern China (one of a variety of types of ”cultural worker” assignments in the communist base areas). Despite this promising start and occasional contact with Mao, Liu published works that incurred the wrath of some critics and officials, became a target in the Yan’an zhengfeng campaign after Mao’s Talks, and underwent a process of mutual and self-criticism at the Central Party School. <br /> ==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br /> Though the result of this painful process was apparently ”successful” (Liu went on to hold important cultural administrative positions in the PRC), it also alienated him from certain elements in the literary community and led him to take an aggressively authoritarian role as the Party secretary of the Writers’ Assocation during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and 58. This alienation is occasionally revealed in his sanwen works from that point on.<br /> <br /> Qin Mu[ 1919-199?, orig. Lin Juefu, b. Singapore, of Chenghai County in Guangdong. See Huang Zhuocai, Weng Guangyu and Ai Zhiping, Qin Mu pingzhuan (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1989).] is one more step removed because he did not share the Yan’an experience with Yang and Liu. Though he was active in the literary resistance during the war against Japan, and though his biographers insist that he originally planned to go to Yan’an as early as 1938, he never went there (Huang, Weng and Ai, 1989, 26-27). <br /> ==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br /> Because he did belong to the age cohort and had the same basic inclinations, he did come into contact with the same organizations (the Communist Party, Wenxie) that the others did, and indeed could even have met Yang Shuo in Canton when Yang was sent there on assignment in 1938. He also engaged in similar types of literary intervention, organizing and performing traveling anti-Japanese theater in the countryside, accompanying troops in the field as a writer, and publishing anti-Japanese and anti-KMT/US zawen in Rear or KMT area newspapers. But his experience during the war was not a community experience: Qin at first alone and later with his wife underwent the trials and tribulations of a writer at wartime as an individual, making his own decisions and contacting organizations only when the opportunity presented itself and he wished to do so.<br /> ==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br /> Thus there is an especially independent streak about him that made relations between him and the Writer’s Association after 1949 somewhat strained. He was attacked in the 1957 zhengfeng movement, and it was not until 1962 that he joined the Communist Party.<br /> <br /> Thus each of these writers exhibited different tensions as they approached writing after 1949, and particularly during and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. All of them, however, adopted sanwen as a vehicle to express themselves, and while these essays at time seem on the surface to be pat or fulsome propaganda, they continue to be colored by these at times very personal tensions that often make the essays more compelling reading in spite of themselves.<br /> ==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br /> '''Procedures and interests of socialist essays'''<br /> <br /> The sanwen of the late 1950s and early 1960s, because of a variety of different such personal and larger cultural tensions, manifest various kinds of ”incongruous lyricism.” All three of these writers had their essays included in textbooks for junior high school and high school during the 1960s and 70s. But these canonic texts represented only the completion of a gradual process of adjustment and must be viewed alongside earlier, less well-known efforts by these authors as well as their works in other genres, particularly fiction.<br /> <br /> 社会散文的发展阶段和关注点<br /> <br /> 由于不同的个人冲突和更严重的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样“不和谐的抒情性”。这三位作家的散文均已收录进20世纪六七十年代的中学教材中。这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来看待那些经典文本。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 由于各种各样的个人冲突乃至文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出多样的“不和谐的抒情性”。在20世纪六七十年代的中学和高中教材中，这三位作家的散文均编撰进了课本。然而这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来分析那些经典文本。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 社会散文的发展和关注点<br /> <br /> 由于各种个人冲突和愈发剧烈的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样的“不和谐的抒情性”。20世纪六七十年代，这三位作家的三位都被收录进中学教材中。而这些经典文本仅代表调整工作的逐步完成，要正确的看待这些经典文本，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br /> '''Friction with leftist aesthetics'''<br /> <br /> In the late 1950s and early 1960s the term sanwen was more frequently associated with ”lyricism” (shuqing) and opposed to ”expository” (shuoli) prose essays. In practice, this is indicated by long descriptive passages, the frequent use of direct address to the reader in the second person as well as rhetorically loaded interrogative, imperative and expressive particles. At particularly rhapsodic moments, socialist sanwen texts take on a fu-like rhetoric, syntactic parallelism and a piling up of listed concrete objects and rich varieties of adverbs and adjectives. One is attempted to associate this attempt at of verbal profusion with certain Republican period stylists like Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo, but the socialist version is much more extravagant both in verbiage and emotional exhibitionism. <br /> ==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br /> On the level of imagery, a general fascination with images of light, fire and torches left over from the war period[ Particularly evident in Liu Baiyu’s reportage works from the late 1940s.] remains but in part gives way to a new interest in flower imagery in the 1950s.[ Qin Mu’s essays and some of Yang Shuo’s are filled with varieties of flowers and plants, enjoyed in themselves and as symbols of other things. ] Finally a strategy common to all three writers is to conceive of a vista or an experience as a living landscape painting, emphasizing a magnitude of vision and the accompanying emotional exhilaration. In some cases, these highly visual essays are accompanied with illustrations uncannily consistent with the texts’ visualization of the landscape. <br /> ==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br /> '''Yang Shuo'''<br /> <br /> Yang Shuo’s 1959 essay ”The Highest Peak of Taishan”[ Taishan jiding, wr. 1959, from Haishi. Yang, 125-129.] features this kind of overt reference to landscape painting. The text simply narrates the author’s ascent of the famous Shandong mountain, but the narrative structure of the climb is interwoven with a figurative structure consisting of three elements. The first is the traditional landscape painting motif: ”All the way from the foothills, looking closely at the mountain landscape, I felt like what was before me was not the lord of the Five Famous Mountains, but more like a green and blue landscape painting of astounding size,” (Yang, 125) an idea he develops as a conceit with figurative descriptive language. Second, Yang writes ”after a while, I began to feel that I was not only looking at a landscape painting, but randomly flipping through a historical manuscript.” (Yang, 126)<br /> ==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br /> This in reference to the calligraphy of famous visitors to the mountain carved into its sides and the legends and stories about them. The third and last layer of figuration is the sense that the author is not climbing a mountain, but climbing into the sky.<br /> <br /> The touristy desire to see the sunrise from Taishan’s peak introduced at the essay’s outset and which teases the reader occasionally throughout the text is deftly frustrated in the rhetorical pursuit of what to the author is a higher aim: the recontainment of a Taishan travelogue into the extolling of the historical achievements of socialism. Once he has passed through the Southern Gate of Heaven, the author sees the Shandong landscape spread out at his feet, but what he notices are the grand commune wheat fields (amber waves of grain) as opposed to patchwork agricultural quilt of yore, and smoky plumes in the distance are not scattered homes but factories.<br /> ==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br /> Though the weather had been clear at night near the peak when the party went to bed early in order to get up in time for the sunrise, fog and rain overnight linger to create an overcast sky at dawn. But author’s socialist/communist landscape epiphany of the previous evening eclipses the banal tourist wish for a beautiful sunrise – he has seen ”another kind of” (metaphysical) sunrise, that of the Chinese people/nation on the horizon.<br /> <br /> In his essay about Kunming’s camellias,[ ”Chahua fu” (Ode to the Camellia) written 1961, from Dongfeng di yi zhi. Yang 134-37.] Yang Shuo opens with a discussion with an artist friend about what kind of painting would show the face of the ”motherland” (zuguo). He then turns to his trip to Kunming after returning from travels abroad. <br /> ==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br /> Especially as a ”northerner” he is struck by the beauty of the red camellia flowers around the city and in Huating Temple, where he is escorted by Jin Zhiwen, the landscaper. His attention is drawn to one variety called ”Child’s Face” tongmian. As is almost invariably the case in Yang Shuo essays, the subject he has chosen becomes an opportunity for the author to contemplate the symbolic resonances of its characteristics – in this case the camellia’s sensitivity to proper care, environment and natural enemies, but also the fact that great trees centuries old have been carefully cultivated with hundreds and even thousands of blossoms. A detailed description of the gardener himself provides the author with the key to the signified:<br /> ==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br /> I fervently gazed at his hands, hands covered with mud-stained calluses. Then I looked at his face, the wrinkles at the corners of his eyes were cut deep, and it was not necessary to ask about his background: I could guess that he was a middle aged man who had been through a lot. If he waled away from you and into the crowd, he would vanish immediately and it would be very hard to find him again – he was just that kind of very ordinary laborer. But it is just this kind of person, month after month, year after year, exerting mind and body, cultivating flowers and plants with all his effort, beautifying our lives. This is how beauty is created. (Yang, 136)<br /> <br /> ==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br /> When author observes a group of schoolchildren who have come to see the camellias, the bond is cemented and the ”paint the face of the nation” riddle is solved – paint the Child Face Camelia.<br /> <br /> What is incongruous in Yang Shuo’s lyricism, in many other examples in addition to these, is that no matter how transparent the symbolism and fervent the message of his essay, there is almost always slight ambivalence introduced by negative elements at the fringes: why does the glorification of socialist progress in ”Taishan’s Highest Peak” have to come at the expense of the famous sunrise? What has Jin Zhiren ”been through” that has deepened his wrinkles, and why should that pain be related to the creation of beauty?<br /> <br /> ==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br /> '''Liu Baiyu'''<br /> <br /> Liu Baiyu’s transition toward sanwen in the PRC came from the direction of reportage literature. Liu had established some reputation as a novelist on the literary scene through key connections he had made with Ba Jin, Zhang Tianyi, Ye Yiqun and other major figures in the 1930s. But by 1949 it was his reportage collections, including Around the Northeast, The Light Shines Down on Shenyang, Cutting across the Central Plains, and The Torches Glow Red in the Yangtse River that were some of the best known works by a communist writer during the civil war in the late 1940s. <br /> ==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br /> The late 1950s text ”Lamplight” revisits the experience of the battlefield in a much more peaceful China. ”Lamplight” has a forceful, shrill rhetoric in its development of the image of glowing light through a number of different contexts, from war to socialist economic construction without losing the sense of militant struggle that informed the image of light for Liu from the beginning. [ ”Denghuo” (Lamplight), Liu Baiyu, Hong manao ji (Red agate) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1983) 5-11. ] Evidently Liu, though he holds influential positions in the literary establishment of the time, feels alienated by certain elements on the literary scene, particularly in regard to the stigmatization of the experience of the battlefield:<br /> ==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br /> . . . nowadays some people treat the subject of war, regardless of right or wrong, regardless of green red black or white always make it look bloody, dark and horrible! They call this ”through the soldier’s eyes,” ”foxhole realism” Hai! This makes those of us who have strapped puttees on our calves and have had the smell of gunpowder about the shoulders want to laugh our heads off. What can you do? There are brave soldiers who fight for what’s right; there are counter-revolutionary murderers; and there are cowardly traitors. Since there are different kinds of soldiers, there have to be different soldier points of view, and there must be different kinds of ”foxhole reality.” Perhaps there are those who would criticize me: how did I get from lamplight to this argument about war, aren’t I getting way off track? Actually, no. The lamplight I am talking about may be a small matter, but it really is a reality of life at war. Getting back to the subject, on the chill wilderness of the Songhua river, trudging through winter snows, wading through summer rapids, from lamplight I was able to understand a certain kind of warmth. (Liu, 7-8)<br /> ==Guo Lu 郭露==<br /> &quot;The Brilliance of Spring,&quot;[”Qingchun de shanguang,” written 1959, in Hong manao ji, 23-33.] a lengthy, fu-like essay extolling ten years of socialism in China, manifests many of the distinguishing characteristics of Liu’s post-1949 sanwen. Though written in the wake of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, it casts no shadow on the essay and though there is flower imagery, significantly, it does not emphasize diversity (as in ”hundred flowers”). At about 6,000 characters, it is also much longer than most of Yang Shuo’s essays, which are usually about half that long, particularly those most revered and anthologized. ”The Brilliance of Spring” does not start out with a clearly-defined topic; the occasion or motivation of its composition did not become obvious to me until near the end.<br /> <br /> &quot;春光灿烂&quot;（又名《青春的闪光》，写于1959年，载自《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。）这是一篇颂扬中国十年来社会主义发展的长篇巨作，表现了1949年后其散文的显著特点。即使写于反右运动之后，但其并未受其影响，虽然辞藻华丽，但并未没有强调多样性（如 &quot;百花齐放&quot;）。文章字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在3000字左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 &quot;春光灿烂 &quot;一开始并没有明确的主题，制造结尾我才明白它的创作场合和动机。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> &quot;春天的辉煌&quot;，[《庆春德山岗》，写于1959年，载《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。]这是一篇颂扬中国社会主义十年的长篇文章，表现了刘勰1949年后散文的许多显著特点。 虽然写于反右运动之后，但没有给文章蒙上阴影，虽然有花的意象，但显著的是，它没有强调多样性（如 &quot;百花&quot;）。 它的字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在一半左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 &quot;春光灿烂 &quot;一开始并没有明确的主题，它的创作场合或动机直到接近尾声时我才明白。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:23, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br /> The visualization with which the text begins juxtaposes a dawn construction scene complete with a handsome, rugged construction worker in Tian’anmen square with author’s memories of other occasions when he was ”right here, in this spot!” including most significantly, a vision of a Japanese tank rolling up from Qianmen, its treads gouging scars in the ground. Liu also includes memories of the entry of the People’s Liberation Army into Beijing, and the ceremony at which Mao Zedong officially established the People’s Republic, but the author moves from one impression-layer to the next vaguely and ambiguously, punctuated with the refrain ”Here! It was right here!” <br /> ==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br /> Liu makes a conspicuous gesture away from the scene of Tian’anmen to other significant spaces including oilfields in the Western deserts, a poignant scene of a mother sending her son off to the Korean war, Anshan the ”city of steel,” a humble Party meeting among lumberjacks taking place in a shack deep in the forest far from Beijing, and other sites of significant material and spiritual progress in the PRC. As the essay progresses, a new motif is picked up from the contemporary Tian’anmen scene and repeated with increasing frequency: the ”radiant red face and brilliant eyes” of the young socialist citizens whose verbal pictures Liu paints. There is much hyperbole and the extraordinary breadth of subject matter, convering ten years of socialist achievement packaged in spatial-visual tableaux, like a memorial display case or monument, which was the usual strategy of essays and reportage about the Korean War.<br /> ==He Changqi 何长琦==<br /> Despite the desire to come into close contact with the masses through genuine experiences, it was more common for writers to come into contact with workers, peasants and soldiers through the organizational activities and connections of the Communist Party. In Liu Baiyu’s essays from the 1950s and 60s, you can feel the author incongruously straining to make the most of his experience (straining to maximize its feeling of authenticity) and the characters he describes.[ ”Xie zai taiyang chu sheng de shihou” (Written as the Sun Begins to Rise), Hong manao ji 34-52 [written 1959?]. ] On the level of subject matter, since the (model) workers etc. he writes about are models and leaders, already part of the (embodiments of the) local Communist Party administrative apparatus, they too are straining to give the correct impression, put the right spin on their experiences and ideas, to behave in the way expected of them.<br /> ==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br /> '''Qin Mu'''<br /> <br /> Qin Mu’s case might be distinguishable from the others by virtue of the fact that he established himself as a satirical (zawen) columnist during the civil war, and of course satire in general had to go after 1949.[ Interestingly, Qin Mu continued to write zawen in the 1950s and beyond, publishing a very popular collection in 1960 entitled Yihai shibei (Gathering Shells by the Sea of Art). By then Qin’s zawen were not combative, but expository in nature, reflections on principles of artistic creation, so in a way Qin had redefined the zawen genre for himself. The sanwen collection Hua cheng was published at roughly the same time as Yihai shibei and was distinguished by the author himself as ”more lyrical” than the ”expository” pieces in Yihai shibei. Comparing the essays therein with those of Hua cheng, one is struck by formal differences (the Yihai shibei pieces are much shorter than those in Hua cheng) and by the almost complete lack of figurative or descriptive language in Yihai shibei. However difficult it might be for us to define the differences between zawen and sanwen now, it seems clear that Qin Mu had a clear idea in his own literary practice.] Fortunately he had been accustomed to making fun of Americans and the Guomindang which continued to be safe and politically correct targets in the 1950s, but he had to find positive things to write about as well, and considering his background and the ambiguity of his relationship with the Communist Party, this must have been a difficult transition for him, more difficult than it was for those who were already linked up with the party for years in Yan’an and other base areas.<br /> ==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br /> In his 1960 essay ”Earth,” (Tudi), Qin Mu makes a figurative connection between earth how handfuls of earth can serve as symbols of wealth, power, sovereignty, political positions. Part of the visualization involves (like Liu Baiyu) aerial views. As war with its arial reconnaisance and bombing transformed the concept of China’s space into a contiguous whole rather than a network of locales, the wider availability of air travel in the 1950s added a visual dimension to this contiguity that reinforces the connection between earth, China’s physical expance, the map of China, and the concept of nation:<br /> <br /> 秦牧在他1960年发表的论文《地球》（土地）中，将地球上的少数几个人如何象征着财富，权力，主权，政治地位作为形象的联系。 可视化的一部分涉及（如刘白玉）鸟瞰图。 随着战争的轰炸和轰炸将中国空间的概念转变为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，1950年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了视觉上的意义，从而加强了地球与中国物质扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系 。<br /> --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:57, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在他1960年的文章《土地》中，秦牧把土地比喻成财富、权力、主权和政治地位的象征。部分可视化包括(如刘白玉)空中视图。随着战争的勘察和轰炸，中国的太空的概念转变成一个连续的整体,而不是一个地区的网络,航空旅行的更广泛的可用性在1950年代增加了一个视觉维度，强化了地球之间的联系,中国物质扩张,中国的地图,和国家的概念:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:11, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 秦牧在1960年的文章《地球》（Tudi）中，将地球如何撮合成财富、权力、主权、政治立场的象征做了形象化的联系。 部分视觉化涉及（像刘白羽一样）鸟瞰图。 由于战争的侦察和轰炸将中国的空间概念转化为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，20世纪50年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了一个视觉维度，加强了地球、中国的物理扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br /> Once I gazed out an airplane window straight down upon the Pearl River delta; the heavens were crystal clear and I looked down and couldn’t help but cheer out loud because the Pearl River delta looked so magnificent that words couldn’t even describe it. The network of rivers and lakes shimmered in the sunlight while the earth looked like a piece of dark green velvet. The roads seemed as straight as if they had been sliced with a knife while the fields looked as neat as a chessboard. Wow! A hundred thousand years ago people looked to the skies for gods and miracles, but today the real miracle is taking place on the earth below.[ Qin Mu, Hua cheng (Guangzhou: Zuojia chubanshe, 1961) 17-18.]<br /> ==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br /> Many of Qin Mu’s essays in the collection Hua cheng (City of Flowers) imaginatively recreate an (occasionally ancient) historical scene, in a specific place the essay focuses on that the author is observing today (or at least gives that impression) like Liu Baiyu’s ”right here on this spot” refrain. In his 1956 essay ”Lyric on the Altar of the God of Grain,” the earthen, square altar referred to in the title is in Zhongshan park in Beijing, and was where aristocrats were traditionally enfoeffed by the emperor.[ Qin, 21-31.] In many ways, this is a continuation of the previous essay (”Earth”), extending reflections on the material symbolism of earth and the glorious wisdom of the ancients.<br /> <br /> 在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再现了一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今仍能观察到的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，是传统上皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是对前一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:22, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br /> This essay distinguishes itself by its relentless return to the altar itself, its self-conscious admiration of the brilliance of the ancients (with overtones of ethnic and cultural pride and reconciliation with the premodern culture of China) as well as a shrilly specific emphasis on unity as territorial sovereignty (”Once we liberate Taiwan and a few coastal islands, [our territorial] unity’s scope will be even more unprecedented.” 30)<br /> <br /> Qin Mu is at his most characteristic, though, in writing educational essays (zhishi xiaopin). Also known as scientific xiaopin, the character of such writings would seem to be defined by their subject matter. [ Another writer of the post-Hundred Flowers period that writes a lot in this vein is Ma Nancun (Deng Tuo), whose popular Yanshan yehua column in Beijing Wanbao lasted for years and was published in four volumes in book form.] But I would like to suggest that the transmission of modern scientific knowledge in these texts is not an end in itself, but rather one answer to the question of ”what to write about?” in socialist sanwen. And it conveys (in addition to the knowledge or information), a certain scientistic, post-industrial atmosphere of enthusiasm that is a style as much as content. <br /> ==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br /> Qin Mu’s ”Xing xia” (Under the Stars, 1958)[ Qin, 49-60.] begins as a sweeping exploration of stars, moving from the universal experience of gazing at the skies and wondering about the questions of existence to the cultural perspectives of the beliefs and lore of the ancients and finally to the scientific perspective of the astronomical knowledge gathered in recent centuries, decades and years that confirm the author’s faith in science and industrial modernity. The scientific knowledge in fact becomes a context or background against which to look back with some disdain at the superstitious quality of premodern beliefs, not only about the structure of the cosmos, but the extensions of such speculation into areas of human destiny and supernatural beliefs.<br /> <br /> 秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式开始，从凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，到古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式作为开端，然后写到凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，又至古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br /> Reading this essay one can see that one of the keys to Qin Mu’s popularity lay not in his conspicuously Marxist-Leninist politics, but in his sweeping, timeless, universal and seemingly all-inclusive scope of vision and contemplation. Many or most of his essays give an exhilarating sense of vastness.<br /> <br /> But this essay does not reach its completion without being recontained, as are Yang Shuo’s landscape meditations, in a political context. Written in the early years of Soviet space exploration, it seems obvious to Qin Mu that Soviet success in this area and the US’s failure is a clear sign of the direction of history. He argues with almost excessive rhetorical force that the failure of space exploration and science in general under capitalism signifies the inability of the capitalist world view to free itself from outmoded beliefs, while socialism is easily and innocently aligned with scientific achievement and progress.<br /> ==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br /> Qin Mu’s often shrill diatribes on historical materialism and Marxism-Leninism in educational essays (zhishi xiaopin) like this one, or about the history of overseas Chinese or the cosmic theories of warring states philosophers is an incongruous, inverted reflection of Qin’s perennial status as an outsider to the PRC socialist literary orthodoxy, being victimized by literary officials like Liu Baiyu in the anti-rightist campaign and only being admitted to the Communist Party in 1962. It is in his attempts to contain an ambitious gaze that can encompass human and natural history and the furthest reaches of space in a historicized polemic about the supremacy of Marxism-Leninism in the post war years that the incongruity of Qin Mu’s lyricism manifests itself.<br /> ==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br /> '''Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> The question of whether the ”real” world corresponds to the world these authors describe and narrate is moot; through the act of seeing or imagining the world as they do, they helped create the socialist world. These authors did not slavishly obey orders, writing from formulae they were provided by superiors and other writers; they willingly engaged in the procedures of research and composition that were part and parcel of communist education and literary practice; what they wrote followed from their training, it was the logical and organic extension of that training. They helped write the socialist world into existence.<br /> ==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br /> Slavoj Zizek’s interpretation of Pascal that belief can actually emerge from deliberately going through the motions of ritual and imitating the faithful, and Zizek’s further point that ”reality” in any society is produced by ideological fantasies peculiar to it, suggest a similar interpretation of socialist sanwen.[ Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989) 38-43.] Going through the ritual motions of faith, the individual already believes without realizing it, he argues, and then it is only a matter of time before that belief gradually takes control of the conscious mind. But within that ideological fantasy that is the representation of social reality, there are at the fringes and in the shadows suggestions of the impossibility of the vision. What I have referred to as the ”incongruous” in Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu are those almost unconscious suggestions tainting the pristine vision.<br /> ==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br /> Reading literature from the first seventeen years of the People’s Republic of China requires as much attention to practices within the socialist orthodoxy as to dissidents and victims. Against the prevalent view that socialist literary culture in China was a self-contained system introduced from the Soviet Union as if into a vacuum, socialist sanwen speaks to the mutability of that literary culture and the voice of individual writers in its development, however much sanwen may have been used for propaganda and indoctrination, it retained an ambiguity and reserve inherent in the genre since before the War gainst Japan. Above all, I think this speaks to the enormous importance of various forms of sanwen in modern Chinese literary culture in general, and any general apprach to the modernn Chinese essay must further explore the legacy of socialist sanwen, particularly as today’s sanwen writers for the most part read the works of Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu in their middle school textbooks.<br /> ==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br /> '''Tradition as Construct and the Search for a Modern Identity: A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place ''' [ This article is an extended version of the paper “The Self in the Landscape: Chinese Essays of Place in the Republican Era (1912-1949)” delivered at the conference The Modern Chinese Literary Essay: Defining the Self in the 20th Century, held in Achern, Germany, August 25-27, 2000.]<br /> <br /> ''Alexandra R. Wagner''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe, 1923), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (Diaotai de chunzhou, 1932), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from the Langya Mountain” (Langyashan youji, 1936) are three modern Chinese essays in which place and memory serve as the main textual and conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and search for meaning unfolds. Examining these “essays of place” with a focus on the dynamics between place, on the one hand, and personal as well as cultural memory, on the other, challenges the prevailing views of modern travel or landscape essays as either lyrical evocations of scenery, backdrops for personal experiences and thoughts, or sources for information on locations.<br /> ==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br /> The aggregation of cultural and personal memory in these essays foregrounds the skepticism and uncertainty that characterize the mindset of Chinese writers situated in a transitional period moving from tradition to modernity. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the essays are ultimately texts on writing as a continuous and open-ended exploration. <br /> <br /> Examining the “traditional gestures” central to the essays by Zhu, Yu, and Fang most prominently demonstrates this questioning of apparent meaning. Activities closely tied to places, such as climbing mountains, traversing lakes and rivers, and contemplating past history during visits to ruins and other sites are highly reminiscent of poetic onventions that have informed the long pre-modern literary history of travel and landscape writings.<br /> <br /> 这些文章中文化和个人记忆的聚合，凸显了处于传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家心态的怀疑和不确定性。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章归根结底是关于写作的文本，是一种持续而开放的探索。<br /> <br /> 审视朱、余、方三家文章中的 &quot;传统姿态&quot;，最突出地体现了这种对表层意义的质疑。与地方密切相关的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊、河流，以及在参观遗迹等过程中对过去历史的思考等，都让人高度联想到在漫长的前现代文学史上的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br /> <br /> 这些文章中文化记忆和个人记忆的聚集，突出了处于从传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家的怀疑和不确定性特征。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章最终成为关于写作的文本，是一种持续的、开放式的探索。<br /> <br /> 对朱先生、于先生和方先生所著文章的核心“传统手势”的研究，最突出地证明了对表面意义的质疑。与地方紧密相连的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊和河流，以及在参观遗迹和其他遗址时思考过去的历史，都让人联想到在漫长的前现代文学史的的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:19, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br /> As manifestations of cultural memory, such activities are more than simply concrete actions; they are gestures, i.e. “acts made as a sign of attitude.” These traditional gestures suggest an affinity between pre-modern and modern texts, yet at the same time, the essays consistently question the significance and consequence of this apparent affinity. This questioning is achieved, first, by the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, by introducing elements of imperfection and incompletion throughout the essays, and, third, by the self-referential aspects of the essays.<br /> <br /> 作为文化记忆的表现形式，这些活动不仅仅是具体的行动。它们是手势，也就是“态度表征的行为”。这些传统手势表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切关系，然而，同时这些文章始终对这种明显的亲和力的意义和结果存在质疑。这种质疑的实现，首先是通过作者与居住在这片风景中的人们的相遇；其次，通过在文章中引入不完美和不完善的元素；第三，通过文章的自我参照。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 作为文化记忆的表现形式，这种活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动，而是一种姿态，即 &quot;作为一种态度的标志而做出的行为&quot;。这些传统的姿态暗示了前现代和现代文本之间的密切关系，但与此同时，这些文章一直在质疑这种明显的密切关系的意义和后果。这种质疑的实现，一是通过作者与居住在风景中的人的相遇；二是通过在文章中引入不完美和不完整的元素；三是通过文章的自述来实现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br /> Adopting traditional gestures of contemplating place and past can be seen as an attempt to place the author in a privileged and thus assured position, offering him a way to authoritatively define himself within, yet separate from, his surroundings. However, encounters with people inhabiting the places make the author “interact” with these places. Rather than being objects of perception and contemplation only, places become parts of the perceiving and contemplating subject. The idea of place as distinct from the observer, providing a setting against which he can define himself as well as measure the changing times is deceptive.<br /> ==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br /> In addition, elements of imperfection and incompletion disrupt the narrative in these essays and thus similarly question the reliability of traditional gestures in the search for stable definitions of selves. Self-referential aspects of the texts also draw attention to the essays’ constructedness, thus questioning the idea that the texts have a single, accurate (and thus authoritative) interpretation and significance.<br /> <br /> In sum, an “ironic” reading of the traditional gestures in these essays of place foregrounds the concept of tradition as a vital part and construct needed to engage in a discourse on tradition and modernity from which modern texts ultimately evolve.<br /> ==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst Sounds of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (''Qinhuaihe''), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (''Diaotai''), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from Langya Mountain” (''Langyashan''), are three notable essays of place in which place and memory serve as the main conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and meaning unfolds. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the texts become ultimately texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays. <br /> <br /> In the essays, the authors engage in activities such as climbing mountains, traversing rivers, and contemplating history and historical figures while visiting ruins and other sites. <br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br /> <br /> Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 朱自清的《浆声灯影里的秦淮河》（《秦淮河》）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台的春昼》（《钓鱼台》）和方令孺的《琅琊山游记》（ 《琅琊山》）是三篇有关地点的著名散文。在这几篇文章中，地点和回忆是主要的概念性元素，作者通过这些元素来具体展开关于身份认同以及具体含义的阐述。通过质疑明显的含义和文学习俗，这些文本最终象征着作者的不懈努力与探索，因此成为了文本的开放性文本。<br /> <br /> 在这几篇散文中，作者在参观历史遗址时都参加了诸如爬山、过河、对历史以及历史人物进行深思的活动。<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br /> <br /> Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:26, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台上的春昼》（钓鱼台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。<br /> <br /> 在这些散文中，作者在参观遗址和其他地方时，还参与了登山、穿越河流、思考历史和历史人物等活动。<br /> --[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:52, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> ==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br /> For example, all three essays contain elements reminiscent of the poetic convention of contemplating the past (''huaigu''), often conveying regret over gone times and places. Images exposing the transience of human life in an enduring landscape suggest the writer’s uncertainty about the present and future, implying his desire to find a more lasting place within his existing surroundings. <br /> <br /> In their apparent affinity to poetic conventions, traditional gestures seem to promise the writer a degree of authority and certainty in observing and interpreting surroundings and thus in determining his position and role in them. An ''ironic'' understanding and reading of such gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang's essays however, exposes the concept of tradition as construct indispensable for a discourse on modernity. <br /> <br /> Evoking and sharing the cultural memory of place writing, Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays not only contain, but also constitute traditional gestures.（文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> FFor a concise explication of this poetic convention, see Hans H. Frankel, ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady: Interpretations of Chinese Poetry'' (New Haven and London, 1976), chapter 9 “Contemplation of the Past.”（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Li Meng 李梦==<br /> <br /> Modern texts evolve from a questioning and reassessment of well-established meaning and value, rather than from a mere rejection of what are perceived to be traditional notions, customs, and ideals. Once tradition is divested of its absolute claim and subject to interpretation and reconstruction, modernity can emerge. <br /> <br /> Generally, the term “gesture” describes an activity as “something done to convey one’s intentions or attitude.” The traveler’s activities are more than actions that have an obvious purpose, such as getting to a location or viewing a certain site. Roland Barthes’ notion of gestures in writing and writing as gesture suggests the multiplicity of meaning within essays of place and ultimately bears out the idea of essays of place as texts on writing. In ''The Responsibility of Forms'', Roland Barthes describes “gesture” in art as<br /> <br /> “Gesture.” Def.2. ''Oxford American Dictionary''. New York: Avon Books, 1980. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ''The Oxford English Dictionary'' defines “gesture” as “a move or course of action undertaken as an expression of feeling or as a formality; especially a demonstration of friendly feeling, usually with the purpose of eliciting a favorable response from another.” Def.4.b. ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd Ed. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1989).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br /> [s]omething like the surplus of an action. The action is transitive, it seeks only to provoke an object, a result; the gesture is the indeterminate and inexhaustible total of reasons, pulsions, indolences which surround the action with an atmosphere [. . .]. Hence, let us distinguish the message, which seeks to produce information, and the sign, which seeks to produce an intellection, from the gesture, which produces all the rest (the “surplus”) without necessarily seeking to produce anything. <br /> <br /> Traversing mountains and lakes are activities with a concrete objective. As “gestures” or “surplus action,” those activities are signs of attitudes that in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays ultimately serve to constantly question and change meaning by providing possibility instead of demarcation of meaning and signification. <br /> <br /> Barthes, Roland. “''[Readings: Gesture] Cy Twombly: Works on Paper.” The Responsibility of Forms''. By Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985) 160.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> According to Roland Barthes, every text is ultimately a product of gestures Discussing the work of American painter Cy Twombly (b. 1928), Roland Barthes furthermore says about the workings of gestures:（文献无需翻译） <br /> <br /> [t]he artist [ . . . ] is by status an “operator” of gestures: he seeks to produce an effect and at the same time seeks no such thing; the effects he produces he has not obligatorily sought out; they are reversed, inadvertent effects which turn back upon him and thereupon provoke certain modifications, deviations, mitigations of the line, of the stroke. Thus in gesture is abolished the distinction between cause and effect, motivation and goal, expression and persuasion (Barthes 160).（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Li Yu 李玉==<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing’s ''Qinhuaihe'' describes a pleasure excursion on the Qinhuai River he and his friend Yu Pingbo embark on one summer evening. Singsong girls and their musicians, offering their services to passengers in the roaming boats, provide popular entertainment on the river. Zhu and Yu try to enjoy the atmosphere produced by a combination of natural scenery, history, lantern lights, and sound of oars and of music. Despite mingling with other boats whose passengers happily solicit the singsong girls’ services, they remain passive observers. Zhu's narrative culminates in his and Yu’s direct encounter with the singsong girls, who approach them to solicit business. This encounter mortifies and confounds Zhu, turning the trip into a disconcerting experience. Both Zhu and Yu reject the singsong girls’ solicitations, and soon after the encounter, they head back to the pier. <br /> ==Lin Min 林敏==<br /> Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'' describes his travels in the countryside after having hurriedly left Shanghai to avoid being rounded up by Nationalist forces in the spring of 1931. Watching boats taking locals to their ancestral graves, Yu decides to visit his hometown in time for the Qingming festival. After only a few days with relatives and friends however, he becomes restless and leaves for a trip to Diaotai (Fishing Terrace) on Fuchun Mountain. He stops over at Tonglu for the night and despite the late hour climbs Tongjun Mountain located across the river. The next day, Yu visits the memorial hall on Fuchun Mountain dedicated to the Eastern Han recluse Yan Ziling and then climbs the famous Diaotai. <br /> ==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br /> Fang Lingru and a group of friends visit various historic sites scattered in the mountains they traverse during a spring outing. The most famous site is the pavilion named by Ouyang Xiu and celebrated in his famous ''An Account of the Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man'' (Zuiweng ting ji). The group decides to stay overnight at the ''Temple of Cultivation'' (Kaihua si), located deeper in the mountains, and spends the rest of the day touring the mountains and their cultural imprints guided by a monk. In the evening, the friends enjoy the nocturnal atmosphere and quietude of temple and mountains. The next day, the day of the Qingming festival, the group tours two more mountains before returning to Nanjing in the evening.<br /> <br /> 在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜，并在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 06:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br /> All three essays contain attempts to adopt gestures of contemplating times and places while traversing varied landscapes. Yet, three elements in the essays destabilize significance and consequence of those gestures, undermining their power to confirm identities and signaling the questioning nature of the texts. These three elements are first the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, elements of incompletion and ambiguity that unsettle the traditional gestures, and, third, as supplementary elements, the essays’ self-referential strategies. The following readings of Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays explain and illustrate one of each of these elements respectively.<br /> ==Liu Bo 刘博==<br /> '''Encounters with People in Zhu Ziqing’s Qinhuaihe'''<br /> <br /> Encounters with people populating the landscape have two effects. First, these encounters force the author to interact with the landscape. It becomes impossible for him to demarcate his position and identity by contemplating places from an autonomous vantage point. Zhu and Yu’s encounter with the singsong girls is the central human encounter in Zhu’s ''Qinhuaihe''. Initially, the singsong girls’ presence on the river does not appear to displease or disconcert Zhu. However, he maintains this sanguine perception by keeping a distance to the singers’ boats. The distance allows him to assume the traditional gesture of traversing a river to take in and contemplate its scenery and history from an independent viewpoint.<br /> <br /> It is important to point out that a clear distinction between traveler and landscape does not mean the travelers’ disassociation from his surroundings. Rather it points to the clear demarcation of positions and roles necessary to form a stable unified whole from two distinct units.(文献无需翻译)<br /> ==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br /> The encounter with the singsong girls witnessed by other passengers unsettles gesture and atmosphere. By diminishing the safe distance between writer and observed place (which so far included the singers), the encounter forces Zhu to play an active role in his surroundings. The singers step out of the landscape picture, and Zhu becomes part of the place against his will.<br /> <br /> Ironically, however, the ensuing interaction nevertheless exposes an unbridgeable gap between author and people inhabiting the landscape. Zhu’s confrontation with the singsong girls reinforces an experience of distance, misapprehension, and alienation rooted in the dilemma of modern intellectuals. <br /> <br /> ==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br /> Zhu is both tempted by the offer and ashamed about even entertaining such a sentiment. Being publicly approached by women who sell their services to men and confronting his inner conflicting emotion embarrasses Zhu, who considers himself a moral and modern individual professing to condemn the exploitation of underprivileged social groups. <br /> <br /> The text moves from the portrayal of external space and atmosphere to a detailed self-dissection of Zhu's psyche and thoughts, a strikingly modern feature. As Zhu's progressive sensibilities interfere with acting out his desire, this psychological passage further disrupts the cohesion of the text as traditional gesture.<br /> <br /> 朱自清受到诱惑的同时又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。朱自清自认为是高尚现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪和内心的矛盾情绪，朱自清却感到尴尬。<br /> <br /> 文本从对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的心理和思想细致的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的进步情感干扰了他的欲望的表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:30, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代人，会公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，感觉十分尴尬，<br /> <br /> 文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，以及对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，均具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的先进情感干扰了他的欲望表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br /> The encounter quickly deflates and undermines Zhu's attempt to adopt traditional gestures, causing confusion and conflict rather than reassurance of positions and identities in the river’s ultimately unpredictable space. Zhu’s experience of place is marked by a tension arising from an attempt to assert his independent position within his surroundings, the futility of the attempt, and the concurrent impossibility to become part of his surroundings.<br /> <br /> Significantly, only when Zhu’s inner conflict has abated somewhat, he and Yu are rewarded. On their way back, they pass a boat with a solitary singer coming toward them.<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br /> <br /> The singer is sitting in the bow of the unlit boat, singing only to herself. This unexpected episode has an at least temporarily redeeming quality for Zhu. However, his feeling of contentment lasts only a fleeting instant, and soon he and Yu are back in the bustling amusement district. Importantly, Zhu and Yu do not truly encounter the solitary singer. Possibly, the singer did not even notice them. This brief moment comes closest to successfully adopting a traditional gesture. As long as they maintain a distance, fulfilling the significance of the gesture seems possible. Ultimately however, Zhu, not in control of the gesture, is unable to prolong this moment. <br /> <br /> ==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br /> He is left in utter despondency. Threat and intimidation Zhu experiences are signified well by the way he perceives his surroundings immediately after passing the lone singer’s boat. Passing under a tall bridge, it seems to Zhu “as if the darkness was opening its huge mouth, about to swallow [their] boat.” Zhu is left in a no-man’s-land between private desire and modern awareness.<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Incompletion and Ambiguity in Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'''''<br /> <br /> Elements of incompletion and ambiguity further question the significance of traditional gestures. By unsettling the essay’s narrative, these elements suggest an ironic reading of the texts that undermines the reliability of traditional gestures when searching for stable definitions of selves and surroundings.<br /> <br /> 他陷入了彻底的绝望。朱棣棣所经历的威胁和恐吓，从他经过独唱者的船后立即感知周围环境的方式就可以看出。经过一座高高的桥下，在朱棣看来，&quot;仿佛黑暗张开了巨口，要把他们的船吞掉&quot;。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br /> <br /> '''郁达夫的''钓鱼台''的不完整与模糊'''<br /> <br /> 不完整和模棱两可的元素进一步质疑传统手势的意义。这些元素使文章的叙事变得不稳定，暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，破坏了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:20, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 他陷入了深深的怅惘。经过歌舫后，他立即感知到周围环境变化，从这里就可以看出朱自清所感受到的压迫和不安。船过大中桥时，朱自清写道，&quot;如黑暗张着巨口，要将我们的船吞了下去&quot;。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br /> <br /> '''郁达夫《钓台的春昼》的不完整性与模糊性'''<br /> <br /> 不完整性和模棱性的要素对传统手势的意义提出更多的质疑。通过打乱文章的叙述方式，这些要素暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，削弱了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:55, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br /> Obstacles in Yu Dafu’s path paired with a restlessness he experiences in places destabilize the gestures he tries to adopt. The significance of his trip remains ambiguous.<br /> <br /> The evening before reaching Daotai, Yu sets out to climb Tongjun Mountain to visit a Daoist temple. Upon disembarking from the ferryboat, he immediately falls over a loose rock on the dark and rugged mountain path. The image of a stumbling Yu on his solitary endeavor to climb the mountain at night is almost comical. His idea to climb the mountain at this hour appears unreasonable and undermines any effect the attempt to adopt a traditional gesture might have.<br /> 郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上与他在一些地方感到了不安，这都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br /> 在到达道山的前一天傍晚，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山，去一座道观。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他摔倒在了一块松动的石头上。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也打破了他想要的任何意义。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br /> <br /> ==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br /> The ferryman hands Yu a pack of matches to help him find the way. At first, Yu is “groping [his] way up the mountain,” but as he approaches the top, moonlight begins to illuminate his path. A vast sky and a broad vista into the distance and onto the town seem to increase Yu’s chances of adopting the traditional gesture of contemplating place and past. As he approaches the temple however, an apparently locked gate in the low wall surrounding it obstructs Yu’s progress. After pacing up and down for a while not knowing what to do, he finally tries the gate, and surprisingly it opens. Ironically, Yu’s trip is delayed and almost cut short not by a locked gate but by his indecision and hesitation.<br /> ==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br /> Although he finds the temple gates indeed securely shut for the night, Yu is at this point quite content to sit on the wall adjacent to the gate from where he can overlook the river and enjoy the scenery. He gazes at the stars, clouds, and moon above and the lights of the boats below gently wavering in the wind. At last, Yu’s position allows him to contemplate place and past from an elevated and independent vantage point. The unparalleled scenery of Tongjun Mountain inspires Yu to contemplate the lives of the Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.) recluse Yan Ziling and that of the two Dai brothers, Dai Bo and Dai Yong of the Easter Jin (317-420), who made this area their home.<br /> ==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br /> Yu fully appreciates and identifies with their decision to lead a hermit’s life foreshadowing his own life of seclusion soon to begin. The clapper of the night watch in town finally wakes Yu to reality. Startled, he runs back head over heels to the boat. This abrupt ending to Yu’s reverie and his sudden anxiety to get back to the boat sharply contrast with the reflective atmosphere and sentiment of the passage. The traditional gesture is abruptly terminated. Like the clapper startling Yu, this abrupt ending to the nightly scene startles the reader.<br /> ==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br /> On the boat to Diaotai, Yu, tired from admiring the scenery, falls asleep and dreams of a gathering with some old friends in an inn along the river. The text does not make it explicitly clear that Yu is dreaming. This becomes fully clear only when the boatman wakes Yu as they approach Diaotai. <br /> <br /> In his dream, the friends chat and make merry, but after all has been said and done, the atmosphere turns cheerless and awkward. At the center of the dream is a poem Yu composed a few years ago at a similar occasion. It is a political poem written in traditional septa-syllabic regulated verse style, lamenting the chaotic state of the country and expressing the dissatisfaction of intellectuals with the government.<br /> <br /> ==Ma Juan 马娟==<br /> One prominent traditional image in the poem is the loyal official who, “feigning madness,” (yang kuang) speaks the truth that goes unheeded. Here, a well-known traditional gesture is embedded in a text within a text. Before the gesture can come to full fruition, however, it is again terminated, this time by the boatman who wakes Yu.<br /> <br /> Significantly, Yu's perception of his surrounding has completely changed. Before falling asleep, he saw green mountains encasing the clear river and sandbanks with blossoming flowers; in short, tranquil and picturesque scenery. As the boat approaches Diaotai, however, “river and mountain scenery all around had suddenly changed.” (文献无需翻译)<br /> <br /> Zhu Ziqing, “Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 95.(文献无需翻译)<br /> <br /> Yu Dafu, “Diaotai de chunzhou,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 204.<br /> <br /> Yu Dafu, 206(文献无需翻译)<br /> <br /> ==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br /> The river has narrowed and the mountains have moved extremely close, “as if ahead was no further way.” The towering mountains create an oppressively lonely atmosphere, in which even the sound of the oars seems disheartened; the echo is audible only after a long while, amplifying the “ancient silence,” the “silence of extinction” enveloping the boat. The sun is gone, and only a soughing wind comes and goes. <br /> <br /> The surrounding has turned ominous. Yu’s anticipation turns into apprehension. Compared to his reverie on Tongjun Mountain, Yu now perceives Diaotai as desolate and gloomy, eerily echoing the chaos and tumult evoked in his poem. He describes dilapidated stone structures overgrown with weeds.<br /> ==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br /> Approaching Yan Ziling’s ancestral hall, now no more than decrepit walls and broken tiles, Yu begins to feel “a little afraid, afraid to encounter the ghost of Master Yan, old and dried-up like strips from a towel gourd.” Yu’s rapidly growing skepticism and discomfort upon approaching the setting further suggest the impossibility to find meaning and identity by adopting traditional gestures in places.<br /> <br /> On the Fishing Terrace, Yu is curiously reminded of a postcard depicting the William Tell Memorial Hall and its scenery in Switzerland. The colors of mountains and rivers he sees from Diaotai are strikingly similar to those on the “collotype postcard.”<br /> <br /> ==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br /> However, in the scenery he views from Diaotai, “the variations are a little greater, the surrounding in all directions is just a little more jumbled and chaotic, that’s all, but this is actually a plus, enough to represent the East’s desolate beauty of national degeneration.” Ironically, Yu’s comparison between the postcard picture and his view stresses the similarities between the colors of the landscapes only. He views a place that in its very structure carries the marks of present crisis. Associating his description of the scenery with Switzerland generally associated with national stability and social order only intensifies the image of national chaos and debility. <br /> <br /> ==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br /> Superficially conforming to the traditional gesture of contemplating (and lamenting) place and past, the comparison here is not one between present and past, but one between two presents. Yu's view evokes scenery on a foreign postcard, which in its modern photographic quality and miniature size cannot evoke the past, challenging the idea of a traditional gesture. <br /> <br /> After having had some wine in the hall, Yu walks up to the Buddhist shrine whose derelict walls are covered with poems, most of them of poor quality. In a corner near the ceiling, he finds an inscription by the Qing loyalist and fellow villager Xia Lingfeng (Xia Zhenwu, 1854-1930), whose commitment Yu admires despite objecting to Xia’s political convictions. Yu inscribes the poem from his dream next to Xia’s.<br /> <br /> 这里的对比并非介于今昔之间，而是两个现在时间的对比，从表面上看，这与传统的伤怀表达方式不谋而合。余想起了外国明信片上的风景，其现代摄影质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，因而挑战了传统的表达方式。<br /> <br /> 在祠堂里喝了点酒后，俞走到佛龛前，佛龛斑驳的墙壁上满是诗词，其中大部分文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了一首由夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）题的词，夏灵凤是清朝的拥护者，也是本村的村民。尽管余反对夏灵凤的政治信念，但他仍然钦佩他的忠诚。因而余在夏灵凤的词旁边也作了一首诗。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:32, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br /> <br /> 虽然表面上符合传统的伤怀表现手法，但这里并非今昔对比，而是两个现时的比较。余秋雨的观点让人联想到外国明信片上的风景，以其现代摄影的质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，挑战了传统的表达方式。<br /> <br /> 在祠堂里喝了点酒后，余秋雨走到佛龛前，佛堂废弃的墙壁上挂满了诗词，其中大都文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了清朝忠臣、同乡夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）的题词，虽反对夏的政治立场，但他还是很欣赏夏的忠诚，因将梦中的诗词题在夏的旁边。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 07:05, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Mo Nan 莫南==<br /> Initially, Yu's act of inscribing the poem suggests that he sympathizes and identifies with Xia. However, since Yu does object to the substance of Xia’s ideals and motives, the gesture of writing a poem next to Xia’s only stresses the ambiguity of such an act. With the gesture of inscribing his poem along with others of inferior quality and next to that of a Qing loyalist Yu willingly obscures his own political stance and inadvertently questions the relevance of his act. The traditional-style poem placed in an obscure corner on the wall as one among many is ineffective, and the gesture of inscribing it loses its significance. Yu’s position and role in his time and place remains ambiguous and difficult to define. Ironically, while Yu’s essay saves the poem and its context from obscurity, it also exposes the very ambiguity of his act.<br /> ==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br /> '''Self-referential strategy in Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan'''''<br /> <br /> By foregrounding a texts’ constructedness, self-referential strategies question the idea of a texts’ definite and authoritative meaning. Suggesting the texts’ plurality of meaning further substantiates their significance in negotiating perspectives, positions, and identities.<br /> <br /> Concluding the narration of her two-day trip, Fang Lingru writes: “There are still many more scenic spots and ancient sites on Langya Mountain; if it’s meant to be, I’ll come another time to visit again. ''There is nothing more I can add to this piece'' (my emphasis).” <br /> <br /> Fang Lingru, “Langyashan youji,” ''Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan'', eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 148.<br /> ==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br /> Yet, she goes on to recommend a particular dish and wine the group had at a restaurant in Chuzhou before returning to Nanjing. This rather banal and anticlimactic addendum to her narrative is then followed by two more paragraphs, describing her sentiments upon returning home. <br /> <br /> When I got home, it was already ten o’clock at night, and a fine drizzle filled the air. Just before leaving, the old monk Shangkuan had tied three Spring Azalea sprigs to my rickshaw, which I planted immediately upon coming home. Now the twigs have already developed tender sprouts; by this time next year, they will blossom. XX named them “Bodhi Shangkuan.” <br /> <br /> ==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br /> I’ve been feeling extremely tired lately, but thinking back to the trip into the mountains, I can say that it was flawless, and I have no regrets. <br /> <br /> It is a cliché to state at the end of a text that nothing can be added. Fang’s appended restaurant and food recommendation suggests her eagerness to relate every detail from the trip. However, extending her narrative by two paragraphs, she effectively contradicts her own assertion that everything worth saying has been said. This contradiction and the contrast between her matter-of-fact-style in which she ostensibly ends the essay and the intimate tone and personal content of the concluding paragraphs highlight the act of writing and constructing the text.<br /> ==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br /> The final paragraphs further question the effect of adopting traditional gestures to find stable meaning and purpose in and through one’s surroundings. For Fang the gesture of translating visits to sites and ruins into detailed description evoke the past is not sufficient. Her encounter with the monk ultimately renders her experience on Langya Mountain significant. The flowers she received from him signify the possibility of growth, nurturing, and encouragement. By contrast, the significance of the sites themselves remains ambiguous.<br /> <br /> 文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了传统手势的效果，在传统手势中，文章的意义和目的仅仅通过环境体现出来。对方令孺来说，如果运用简单的翻译手势，只是详细描述到访的琅琊山遗址是远远不够的，因为与那名僧人的相遇才是她琅琊山一行最有意义的事情，她从僧人那里收到的花代表着生长的可能性、象征着养护和激励，相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义确是模糊不清的。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br /> <br /> ==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br /> The last two paragraphs of Fang’s essay complete the framework of personal reflection that encases the largely dispassionate narration of her trip. Personal memory is the ultimate locus of meaningful experience and the creative force underlying the essay. Exhausting facts and details in representing an experience does not bring a text to its end despite assertions to the contrary. Fang’s last sentence suggests that remembering the trip in close connection with the human encounter constitutes a source of satisfaction for her, rather than the emulation of traditional gestures that seem to promise an authoritative rendition of place and time. <br /> ==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br /> Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br /> <br /> Conclusion<br /> The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br /> Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br /> <br /> '''Conclusion'''<br /> <br /> The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br /> <br /> ==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br /> Traditionally, the poet contemplating place and past was a solitary figure estranged from his times and surroundings, often questioning the present state of affairs. From the perspective of literary history, however, sharing this gesture and its variations with other poets in a long line of succession offered writers a way to secure rather than question their role and identity. Through canon formation and the writing of literary history, acts and themes such as contemplating places and past came to be understood as customary endeavors gaining and increasing their significance from their perceived continuity. Such understanding is part of the ''construction of traditions'' to legitimize poetic authority and continuity, or - as during the May Fourth movement - change and eradication. <br /> <br /> Relevant to the argument here is the idea of canon formation and the way it works. The argument does by no means suggest that all texts based on or containing certain traditional gestures and conventions are indeed similar and unchanged over the long pre-modern period. Nor does it suggest that in pre-modern travel and landscape writings the writer can indeed successfully confirm his identity and role through following the conventions of his time. （文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> 传统上，这位诗人考虑的地方和过去是一个与他的时代和周围环境疏远的孤独人物，经常质疑现在的事态。但是，从文学史的角度来看，与其他诗人一路相继分享这种姿态及其变化，为作家提供了一种确保而不是质疑其角色和身份的方式。 通过教规的形成和文学史的写作，诸如冥想地点和过去之类的行为和主题被理解为习惯性的努力，这些努力和主题从其连续性中获得并增加了其重要性。种理解是使诗歌权威和连续性合法化的“传统建构”的一部分，或者像在“五四”运动中那样，改变和根除。<br /> <br /> 与这里的论点相关的是佳能形成的思想及其运作方式。 该论点绝不暗示所有基于或包含某些传统手势和约定的文本在很长的前现代时期中确实是相似且不变的。 它也没有暗示在前现代的旅行和风景画中，作家确实可以通过遵循当时的惯例成功地确认其身份和作用。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:02, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br /> Instead of confirming the writer’s authority as mediator and interpreter of time and place, traditional gestures in modern essays such as Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s foreground his precarious role and position within his time and place. Attempting to adopt traditional gestures ultimately exposes the gestures as constructs that do not provide an indisputable way of understanding and representing surroundings and one’s position and role in them. <br /> <br /> By deconstructing the cultural and literary traditions, May Fourth intellectuals and writers tried to establish a practical dichotomy between conservative past and progressive present and future to confer authority upon the modern text.<br /> <br /> ==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br /> As the above readings show however, modern texts inevitably comprise a ''discourse'' on what is made out to be tradition and modernity. This discourse inscribes, negotiates, and transforms tradition within the modern text albeit in an ever varying and irrepressible way. The texts’ complexity, subtexts, and plurality of meaning arises from a ''negotiation'' between familiar conventions and new and modern perspectives in search of identities, roles, and positions in a changing time and place. Ultimately, the texts are texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays.<br /> ==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br /> '''From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature'''<br /> <br /> ''Wang Ban''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> As a genre, the essay in contemporary China can be seen as a symptom of the decline of historical consciousness and narrative. This comes through most sharply when compared with the previously established literary paradigm: the Chinese novel in the realistic mode. For many decades the fiction of revolutionary realism served as ideological apparatus and medium for providing coherent temporal perceptions about past, present, and future.<br /> ==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br /> The realistic novel's central assumption is epic best described by Georg Lukacs, who construes the epic form as a projected ideal that is realizable through narrated social and historical actions. Little thought needs to be taken to see that a revolutionary epic is a strenuous but finally triumphant harmony of ideal and reality. The rise of the essay in the recent decades epitomizes the turn of literary writing from the epic coherence of ideal and life to the dispersed and fragmented sensory or sensual pleasures and sheer appreciation of images or anecdotes.<br /> ==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br /> The essay retreats from historical consciousness and responds warmly and lightheartedly to the advent of consumer culture. It is designed to satisfy the modest needs of the urban consumer whose sensibility is becoming “essayistic,” prosaic, ahistorical and everyday, preoccupied with the most intimate and quotidian matters. This paper takes a look back at Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay and attempts to trace the linkage between the modern essay and the rise of urban consumer culture. Then through an analysis of Wang Anyi's novella ''The Story of Our Uncle'' (Shushu de gushi), I demonstrate how the retreat from historical consciousness to what I would call the essayistic structure of feeling is dramatized by Wang's groping, explorative essay/fiction. <br /> ==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br /> The main character Uncle's career illustrates the waning of historical consciousness. This paper seeks to point out that the essay's ambivalence lies in its freedom from the straitjacket of the grand narrative and in its contribution to the withering of historical consciousness in the rising consumer culture in China. <br /> <br /> '''The Essay and the Novel'''<br /> <br /> The essay as a cultural form can be grasped in its relation to the novel. In twentieth-century China the novel in the epic, realistic mode had been the dominant form of literature and a pivotal ideological apparatus--probably up to the mid-1980s. The Chinese realistic novel can be construed as epic in the way formulated by Georg Lukács.<br /> <br /> ==Sagara Seydou ==<br /> Its epic characteristic lies in its historical scope and teleology, its engagement with social and political issues, its intertwining of the individual's fate with collective projects, its aesthetics of the exemplary hero, and its striving for transcendence within everyday immanence. The novel of socialist realism in the Mao era strove to achieve an imaginary unity of transcendent ideals and quotidian reality. It depicts a universe in which the world and the self “never become permanent strangers to one another” (Lukács 29) and the individual's growth is of one piece with communal destiny. In the post-Mao era, often dubbed the New Period, works of fiction appeared to be different but were still imbued with an epic impulse. <br /> ==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br /> It is true that the 1980s saw the emphatic upsurge of interest in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual, but far from an atomistic ego of appetitive self-interest, fictional characters were still figured as the subject of history. For all its seeming revolt against the previously dominant mode, the image of the newly awakened modern self in the fiction of the New Period went hand in hand with the socio-historical process of socialist modernization, individuals serving as agents of this process. Thus, Fredric Jameson's concept of national allegory--in which the individual's fate tells a larger story of collective destiny – was well received in Chinese criticism and made to apply with equal ease to the realistic novel of the Mao era as well as those advocating reforms. <br /> <br /> Critics have noted that in the 1980s thought emancipation movement (sixiang jiefang), the fundamental literary mode and historical consciousness were derived from the Hegelian-Marxist version of the unity of subject and object, the individual and history. So the self that was upheld was not an autonomous self cut off from the collectivity of social processes, but was assimilated and modeled by the requirements of the modernization drive. See Qi Shuyu, 103-104.（文献无需翻译）<br /> <br /> ==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br /> If this view of the novel sounds anachronistic to contemporary China, we may justify it by a reference to the striven-for unity of revolutionary ideals and social reality, of theory and practice, a prominent tenet in the utopian legacy of Marxism. As literary counterpart of this projected unity the Chinese realistic novel presents a mythical and epic structure in which dream and history, individual and collective become one. In Lukács the epic is contracted with the novel, because the latter is a form stripped of the former’s immediate and unproblematic unity of ideal and reality (56). <br /> ==Si Yu 司妤==<br /> In other words, the novel in the Western realistic tradition is troubled by the intrusion of time, which causes fractures in the epic, time-defying harmony between self and collectivity, dream and actuality. But Lukács still insists that the novel is a kind of epic, because it strives to close the fissures created by the gap of time, hence potentially able to attain the epic status on a higher level. <br /> <br /> The gap between ideal and reality is minimized in the Chinese novel, which appears to be more epic than the realistic novel in the West. The novel of revolutionary realism is closer to poetry, marked with tremendous lyricism, as Charles Laughlin notes with regard to the socialist sanwen in his essay “Incongruous Lyricism” in this volume. <br /> <br /> ==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br /> <br /> It would not seem incongruous when lyrical exuberance, equated with revolutionary idealism and utopianism, is maximized in the novel as a way to transcend and close the gap between a historical time marked by imperialist invasions, sufferings, and poverty on the one hand, and the ultimate ideal of communism culminating in the epic harmony of ideal and reality, theory and practice, on the other. The novel in this mode is supposed to be more than a text you read, curled up in your couch in a snowy winter night in solitary comfort. It was ideological, educational, edifying, its grand narrative projecting material praxis. It aimed to instigate you to go out into the streets or impoverished villages and get organized with other fellow humans to make history.<br /> ==Su Lin 苏琳==<br /> The rise of the essay in contemporary China is a sign that the novel in the epic mode has become an endangered species. This is not merely the problem of genre, nor am I suggesting that readers are flocking to essays and abandoning novels. My point is that the novel as a medium of envisioning social life and registering experiences of temporality is giving way to the essay, or more generally to the essayistic structure of sensibility. I play with the idea of essayistic in order to refer to the essay as a canonical textual form as well as those discursive moments in other literary genres embodying an “essayistic” quality and a “prosaic” structure of feeling.<br /> ==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br /> One crucial point to made is that this emotional structure accords with the everyday sensibility of a city-dweller and consumer. This is one reason why it is instructive to contract the essayistic with the novel. The essay deals with a prosaic and mundane world. In Hayden White’s recapturing of Hegel’s distinction of poetry and prose, “The world in which prosaic utterance developed must be supposed to have been one in which experience had become atomized and denuded of its ideality and immediately apprehended significance, and voided of its richness and vitality” (87).This prosaic world of fragmented experience is to the Chinese novel as the Lukácsian novel is to the epic: a fall from an original oneness. In contemporary China, neither the novel nor poetry seems to be a means of closing this widened gap. My purpose in the essay is to examine the position of the essayistic in relation to the novel, and the related sensibilities in relation to history.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br /> The Hegelian Marxist perspective I sketched earlier is helpful here for understanding the shift from the novel to the essay. For Hegel art is necessary because it strives for a seamless, organic apotheosis of transcendent spirit and mundane reality. This view, though historical, can lead to two contradictory conclusions. In Hegel art is historical because it is a stage of the Spirit's journey to its self-realization. As art evolves as historically transitory forms of the Spirit, the movement of history leads to the abolition of certain forms of art, or the demise of art altogether. On this account the novel would be a casualty of the Spirit’s historical movement and self-realization. For Hegel art becomes problematic and obsolete because the “world of prose” has attained the empirical form erstwhile aspired to by art. In the world of prose, the Spirit has realized itself both in thought and in socio-political praxis, exemplified by the Prussian state.<br /> <br /> ==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br /> The polity embodied by the Prussian state is for Hegel is the epitome of theory put into practice, a real image of realized art. As Luckács remarked of Hegel, “Thus art becomes problematic precisely because reality has become non-problematic” (Lukács 17).<br /> <br /> Lukács, however, draws a contrary lesson from this historical, or more precisely the “end-of-history,” “end of art” thesis. Taking issue with Hegel's view of art as “aestheticized” body politic, Lukacs argues that the problem of the novel is a mirror image of a world gone out of joint. In modern times the novel is still alive as the impulse of art is still pressing. The novel is aesthetically and epistemologically vital and necessary not because the established reality has achieved what art can only dream. On the contrary, the novel is a desperate attempt to patch up a broken reality and inject little doses of meaning into a world emptied of spontaneous and totalisable significance.<br /> <br /> 普鲁士国家所体现的政体是黑格尔是付诸实践的理论缩影，是现实艺术的真实形象。 正如拉克奇（Luckács）评论的黑格尔的那样，“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术才成为问题所在”（卢卡奇17）。<br /> 然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点得到了截然不同的教训。 卢卡奇对黑格尔将艺术视为“审美化的”身体政治的观点持怀疑态度，他认为这本小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。 在现代，由于艺术的冲动仍在继续，小说仍然活着。 这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，并且不是必需的，因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:46, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 对于黑格尔来说，普鲁士王国代表的政体是理论成为现实的缩影，是现实艺术的真正形象。正如卢卡奇(Luckács)评价黑格尔时所说的：“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术就成了问题所在。”（卢卡奇 17）<br /> 然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点中得到了截然不同的教训。卢卡奇不认同黑格尔“将艺术看作美学政体”的观点，他认为这部小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。艺术的冲击力仍在继续，因此现代小说依然保持着其生命力。这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，这是必需的，并不是因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br /> Therein lies its modern irony, the irony of dreaming the perfection of the world while knowing acutely the impossibility of perfection. Interestingly, Lukács' insight into the ironic, self-reflexive nature of the novel provides a glimpse on the condition of the essay. In the Chinese realistic novel, to be sure, the historical totality of communist utopia emerging out of a mundane reality is the shining symbol of inspiration, bearing a superficial resemblance to the Hegelian realization of Spirit in the state. But the faith in the final triumph of communist utopia and the attainment of a fully emancipated society is presumed by the novelistic discourse as law-like and predetermined, hence realistic and inevitable. Thus the decline of the novel, the novel in the epic mode, can be read as the decline of the grand, Marxist narrative of historical teleology. In contrast, the rise of the essay harbingers a more fragmentary, disjoint, and private form of signifying practice that is springing up in the cracks and gaps of a fallen reality, a world out of joint.<br /> <br /> ==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br /> The world out of joint is a compelling image of today's China going commercialized, globalized, and fragmented in all aspects of life. The phrase “out of joint' here is meant to denote both the explosive vitality and disorienting chaos, the drama and trauma of the Chinese scene unfolding in the past decade. To grasp China as a vast market place, a rising consumer society, an emergent culture of mass media and spectacles, I refer the reader to numerous reports by journalists, economists, and a vast number of essays written by writers who have recently turned to the personal essay as a forum. Literature, as a historical vision and ideological apparatus, is hanging in the balance.<br /> <br /> 脱节是当今中国在生活各个方面走向商业化、全球化和碎片化的一个引人注目的形象特点。在这里，“脱节”一词意指蓬勃发展的活力和令人困惑的混乱，以及过去十年中中国社会的戏剧性和创伤。要了解中国是一个巨大的市场，一个正在崛起的消费社会，一个新兴的大众媒体文化和奇观，我建议读者参考大量的记者、经济学家的报道，以及大量的文章，这些文章的作者最近转向个人文章作为论坛。文学作为一种历史的视野和意识形态的工具，悬而不保。<br /> --[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 04:46, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br /> <br /> ==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br /> Like many other spheres of culture, it has become commodified and entered the marketplace, being packaged into one more item in the mass media and entertainment industry. This altered social context is crucial to understanding the essay as a literary form and a cultural medium of expression in contemporary China. But this link between the culture of commodity and the essay, or the essayistic mode of writing and feeling, is not a brand new phenomenon of the last decade.<br /> <br /> For a tracing of the historical linkage we may turn to the earlier period in modern literary history. Eileen Chang's essays and her reflection on the essay form are the compelling and successful instance of the marriage between the essay and mass culture. Nicole Huang’s paper in this volume looks at some aspects of this marriage as manifest in Chang’s essay.<br /> <br /> ==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br /> This marriage finds its new manifestations in the work of the contemporary writer Wang Anyi, who is writing in a renewed urban context in many ways similar to that of Chiang. An analysis of Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay will help us understand Wang's work. Eileen Chang's views give the essay form a clear shape as it emerged in an urban and consumer culture. Wang Anyi's essays and especially the essayistic moments in her fiction mark the return of this consumer-oriented genre under new historical circumstances.<br /> <br /> '''Eileen Chang and the Essay in the Urban Setting'''<br /> <br /> The story and essay writer Eileen Chang has been seen as one source for Wang Anyi's work. Although Eileen Chang wrote fictions of urban life set in Shanghai and Hong Kong in a mixture of traditional and modernist styles, her writing is a sharp contrast and an antidote to the grand narrative of the May Fourth Enlightenment and revolution in modern Chinese literature.<br /> <br /> This view of Hegel's on art is evoked by Lukács in his preface to ''The Theory of the Novel'', 11-23.<br /> <br /> ==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br /> Her stories relish the irrelevancies, minor manias, trivia, and anxieties and depict random episodes of the urbanite's life. The intriguing depiction of the narrow romance and personality of the petty urbanites, ''xiaoshimin'', is her forte and attraction. The prose of life in a cramped and congested urban setting is not only the hallmark of her fiction, but also constitutes the major themes of her essays. While her essays correspond to and illuminate her fiction, her thoughts on essay writing serve to highlight the aesthetic quality of the essayistic in modern Chinese literature. <br /> <br /> Eileen Chang's essay collection ''Floating Words'' (sometimes translated as ”Written on Walter”) is a compelling example of the essay as it emerged in Chinese urban culture. In the opening essay entitled “The Child Utters his Words without Constraints” (Tongyan wuji) she equates her essays to the chatty, whimsical, and willful airing of pent-up feelings whenever and wherever she can, like an unrestrained child. <br /> <br /> ==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br /> Writers like her, she says, have little to do with earth-quaking, epoch-making historical events and should drop the dream of immortality attainable from self-portrayal by writing a popular autobiography. The satisfaction and salvation for a writer are writing “bits and pieces about matters concerning oneself” (7). The matters of self-concern, as Chang continues, include money, dress, eating, important personages and their grotesque undersides, and family relations. Within a few pages of this first essay we have a range of sundry themes expressing interest in consumer habit, survival in the city, personal and social relations in an increasingly compartmentalized urban culture. Running down the table of contents of this essay collection, we have trouble classifying what the essays focus on, except to say that they essay opinion and play around with perceptions just about anything in city life. They touch upon whatever flickers through the mind, passes in view, appeals to the senses, any stereotypical or routine scenes or acts in the urban setting.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> 她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯的兴趣，在城市的生存，个人和社会关系在一个日益分割的城市文化。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及任何在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yu 王煜==<br /> There are, to give a taste of their randomness and miscellany, pieces about living in an apartment, beating up people, private and intimate words, shallow impressions about art, changing dresses, woman, rains, the umbrellas, even about a routine act of going upstairs. <br /> <br /> While it is surely impossible to box these essays into a general category and abstract a unifying principle, Eileen Chang points beyond this charmed collection of essays to the grand historical narrative and thus provides a useful reference point for what the essay refuses to do. If it is not clear what the essay is, Chang shows what it is not. She sees the essay in its withdrawal from and rejection of historical discourse and in its all-consuming absorption in the mundane and fragmented urban scenes. The nature of the essay seems to lie in its irrelevance to history as a literary principle:<br /> <br /> ==Wang Yuan 王源==<br /> I have no desire to write history, nor am I qualified to make judgement on the historian's perceptions. But privately I hope they would say more things that are irrelevant. Reality as such is not systematic; it is like seven or eight chatter-boxes sounding simultaneously, creating confusion. But amidst this incomprehensible sound and fury there occur moments of illumination, poignant and bright, enabling us to hear the tune and understand a bit, only to be swallowed up by the thickening darkness. Painters, writers, and composers connect these chancy, fragmented discoveries and create artistic wholes. (41)<br /> <br /> As a fiction writer Chang does not believe in artistic perfection. She creates “imperfect” and flawed characters in her fiction, as she repeatedly claims. In her essays she holds it important to write about the irrelevancies, for, as she proclaims, all life' charms are to be found in the irrelevancies. (42)<br /> <br /> ==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br /> Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay reflects certain aspects of Chinese modernity that provides a context for understanding the essay form as an increasingly prominent cultural medium. The essay for her is a writing practice opposed to the historically oriented and politically charged literature, to the teleological historical narrative, and to the monumental work of art. Formalistically the essay is random, self-contradictory, expressive, and therapeutic. Eileen Chang's essays are a radical departure from Lu Xun's miscellaneous essay (''zawen''). Despite its similarly disjoint, personal, and casual form, the ''zawen'' à la Lu Xun is polemic, militant, acid, socially and political engaged. It seizes upon the small and transitory but its gaze goes past them to the culturally and historically significant. This engaged character puts the ''zawen'' in a close lineage with the didactic tradition of May Fourth literature aimed at raising readers' consciousness or jolting them out of the half-sleep of tradition and convention.<br /> <br /> ==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br /> The rise of consumer mentality, urban culture, and the new role of the writer as a professional breadwinner brought to prominence the values of entertainment, charm, taste, performance, charisma, and glamour--values inherent to urban culture with a good appetite for entertainment, images, and spectacles. This emergent socio-historical context was overshadowed and marginalized by the dominant political ideology and historical narrative in the decades after Eileen Chang's short-lived popularity. <br /> <br /> Andrew Jones of UC-Berkeley is at work to translate Eileen Chang’s essay collection into English and he uses the phrase “Written on Water.”<br /> <br /> In his recent book ''Shanghai Modern'' Professor Leo Lee has admirably traced Eileen Chang's writing and the commercial urban culture she was immersed in. See the Chapter “Eileen Chang: Romances in a Fallen City,” 267-303.<br /> <br /> ==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br /> In the 1990s and in Wang Anyi's work, this historical context re-emerged with sharpness and vengeance. I will argue that the fate of the essay or the aesthetic quality of the essayistic cannot be understood without considering the revival of urban and consumer culture and its increasing detachment from the historical consciousness.<br /> <br /> '''Telling a Story Where There is no Story to Tell'''<br /> <br /> Wang Anyi's work in the 1990s shows how deeply the urban mass culture has penetrated and transformed literature. The novel in the epic mode depends upon some preconceived story pattern which delivers ideological and historical convictions about temporal perceptions of past, present, and future. One symptom of the shift from the novel to the essay is the acute sense of lack of story, the sense that the archetypal stories that writers used to rely on to generate their narratives are no longer convincing.<br /> <br /> 20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以尖锐和复仇的笔触重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br /> “在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br /> 王安忆90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式提供了意识形态和历史信念，关于对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型是故事的严重缺失，作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> ----<br /> <br /> 在20世纪90年代，以及在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br /> “在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br /> 王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br /> For Wang Anyi this poverty of stories is directly linked to the urban setting. The title of one of her essays on literature “The City Has no Story to Tell” (Chengshi wu gushi) highlights the disappearance of sharable, communicable narratives in the city's amorphous atmosphere and the anonymous urban crowd. This essay makes quite clear the sociological transformations that have given rise to the generic shift from story to non-story, or from narrative fiction to the essayistic mode. In it Wang sets up a contrast between the village community and urban social organization. The tightly knit rural communities, such as villages and small towns, are the nurturing ground for sharable stories. As the social relations are largely those of family, kinship or clan, human contact and communication are more intimate and primarily face to face. Individuals act out their life stories in a pre-given trajectory and within a received social network of work, authority, and hierarchy.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br /> The stories both told and lived, recounted over and again against a backdrop of traditional orientation and self-evident norms. Traditional values and age-old customs shape the stories people tell each other and assure their intelligibility and guarantee cultural continuity. In short, the temporal and spatial perceptions are inherited and sedimented over time and can be repeated in new stories. <br /> <br /> This argument about village community brings to mind Benjamin's critique of the modern novel and re-evaluation of the communal storyteller. The village community is embedded in an inexhaustible fund of stories and exemplified by the culturally cohesive role of the storyteller. Benjamin's familiar argument takes on new significance when the contract between village and city is construed as a metaphoric tension between the self-assured story-telling in the epic mode of the Chinese novel and the disappearance of the story in the city. <br /> <br /> ==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br /> More importantly, the tension foregrounds the accelerated modernization process that has rendered almost obsolete, in less than a decade, the relatively habitual and time-worn socio-psychic infrastructure. It brings into sharp focus the market oriented, amorphous urban setting where the individual becomes atomic individuals, cut loose from the social moorings of kinship, community, and family, from lineage and history. Thrown into the competitive marketplace and transient impersonal relations, the individual has to rely on his or her own ingenuity and resources.. Since they come from different areas and are isolated from each other in the compartmentalized life spheres and specialized work, urban dwellers only have their own vastly different stories to tell, stories which are narrowly biographical and not readily meaningful to other people. There are more stories to tell, it is true, but the apparent multiplication of stories imply the poverty of a communicable story. <br /> <br /> ==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br /> This is what Wang means by saying there is lack of stories in the city. The endlessly varied confusion and lack of common interest lead to disjoint, fragmentary, anecdotal, performance-driven forms of writing often found in essays written for the consumer's relaxed state of mind, or mindlessness after a nice dinner.<br /> <br /> '''From the Historical to the Essayistic: the Fall of the Intellectual'''<br /> <br /> Wang Anyi's ''The Story of Our Uncle'' illustrates the transition from the historically and ideological oriented literature to a form that could be characterized as essayistic. The novella was written in 1990, a time of drastic change for Chinese society and culture as a whole. From a culture dominated by an ideologically oriented and centralized state China was moving quickly into a brave new world of frenzied economic development, investment, consumerism, and pop culture. Something fundamental had drastically shaken the basic fabrics of Chinese society.<br /> <br /> 这就是王先生所说的城市缺少故事的意思。 无穷无尽的各种困惑和缺乏共同的兴趣，导致了不连贯的、零碎的、轶事的、以表现为目的的写作形式，这些写作形式常常出现在为消费者轻松的心境而写的散文中，或者在一顿丰盛的晚餐后的无心之作中。<br /> <br /> '''从历史主义到文章主义：知识分子的堕落'''。<br /> <br /> 王安忆的''舅舅的故事''说明了从历史性、意识形态性的文学向可称为散文性的形式过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、投资、消费主义和流行文化的勇敢新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本结构。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 12:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br /> ''The Story of Our Uncle'' registered a very sensitive aspect of the epoch-making changes in China. Rather than interpret this novella as a literary text, I will look at it as a document tracing a shift in literary and social history. Focusing on a novelist's career, the novella delineates the qualitative shift in the value and function of literature in a time when ideology and politics were giving way to the market, economic development, and consumerism--all under the rubric of modernization. From the vicissitudes of a writer we may see how the novel as a cultural form loses its ground and how literary sensibility shifts to the essayistic. This generic shift provides a glimpse onto the fundamental social transformations in the 1990s.<br /> <br /> Critics have noticed the presence of essayistic quality in Wang's writing, especially in her fiction.In ''The Story of Our Uncle'', one finds the essayistic prevailing over narrative.<br /> <br /> ==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br /> The text reads more like an essay-- rambling, random, analytical, disjoint, gossipy, chatty--than a straight narration, a fact acknowledged by the author herself. In this narrative-essay a young writer on behalf of his generation attempts make a biographical assessment of an older writer they call our uncle. One would be disappointed to expect an engaging action or dramatic story. Though the text retains the outward, apparent shape of a novella it is a hybrid composed of diverse genres, with literary and art criticisms, gossip, conjecture, history, philosophizing, anecdotes, and stories all rolled into one. The narrator suggests that this novella is an essay in the double sense of textual form and playful, explorative literary exercise. He proclaims in the opening paragraph that this is a story assembled out of a hodgepodge of elements, and there is no way to distinguish truth from falsehood. <br /> <br /> ==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br /> “Many blanks need to be filled up with imagination and inference,” and the story is filled with “subjective coloring” (181). The subjective, arbitrary, even whimsical character of the text is further associated, as the narrator notes, with the mode of production that writers have adopted as they are geared toward an emergent literary market. Writers, the narrator says, are people who spend their time making up stories. One day “we started circulating his (Uncle's) maxims.” To the laborers like us the maxims are significant, for they are capital in commodity production and can produce surplus value, which can put back to expanded reproduction. ''The Story of Our Uncle'' is thus premised on fragmentary axioms, an arbitrary principle of composition, random fantasy, and the form of commodity. <br /> <br /> ==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br /> In a strictly formalistic sense, Wang's text complies with the usual comments and generalizations on the essay as a literary form. In Theodore Adorno's well-known essay entitled “The Essay as Form” we find numerous descriptions well suited to an analysis of the essay in the Chinese context. Adorno pits the essay against the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural condition of reification. The essay is envisaged as an ''enfant terrible'' or a serious playboy seeking the utopia space of the pleasure principle. Thus the essay turns up its nose to the notions of totality, completeness, systematicity, the universal and the eternal. It is marked by fragments, excessive fantasy and interpretation, exploration, and experiments. Its supposed form is actually formlessness. Abandoning the rigid conceptual schemata, it seeks and engages the object in its historical specificity and quotidian trivia.<br /> <br /> 从严格的形式主义意义上讲，王的文本符合论文中通常的评论和概括的文学形式。 在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《作为形式的散文》中，我们发现了许多非常适合在中国语境下对论文进行分析的描述。 阿多诺将这篇论文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来的社会文化条件化相提并论。 这篇文章被认为是“恐怖的婴儿”或寻求娱乐原则的乌托邦空间的严肃的花花公子。 因此，本文对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性的概念大加赞赏。 它的特点是碎片，过多的幻想和解释，探索和实验。 它的假定形式实际上是无形式。 它摒弃了僵化的概念图式，而是以对象的历史特殊性和“琐事琐事”来寻找和参与对象。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:35, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br /> While Adorno's comments are apt and in tune with much of Eileen Chang and Wang Anyi's musings on the essay, the philosophical framework in Adorno that the essay rebels against is different: the essay is up against the high-minded conceptual tyranny of Western philosophical tradition. In the Chinese literary convention the essay is not so clearly defined against something so established. Its polemic pole, I have tried to argue throughout this essay, is to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of revolutionary realism. <br /> <br /> The essay is a literary exploration trying to break out of the conceptual and discursive straitjacket. Adorno quotes Max Bense and says that the essay “is distinguished from a treatise:<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br /> The person who writes essayistically is the one who composes as he experiments, who turns his object around, questions it, feels it, tests it, reflects on it, who attacks it from different sides and assembles what he sees in his mind's eye and puts into words what the object allows one to see under the condition created in the course of writing. (17)<br /> <br /> The dropping of a grand, complete vision and opting for the incomplete, trivial, and the experimental are what makes for the essay. The German word Versuch, attempt or essay, Adorno writes, is the place where “thought's utopian vision of hitting the bullseye is united with the consciousness of its own fallibility and provisional character” (16). This “indicates . . . something about the form, something to be taken all the more seriously in that it takes place not systematically but rather as a characteristic of an intention groping its way” (16).<br /> <br /> See Wu Liang and Wang Anyi, “A Conversation on Reality and Fiction,” in Wang Anyi, Reality and Fiction (Jishi yu xugou) 325.<br /> <br /> Adorno, 3-23.<br /> <br /> ==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br /> An intention groping its way into the mysteries of the Uncle's life aptly describes the essayistic quality of Wang's novella. As a text assembled out of disparate materials-- hearsay, gossips, and guesswork, fantasy, and conjecture, the narrative enacts a wide array of pre-given discourses and narrative patterns to grope at the “real” life of the Uncle. These discourses and narratives are in their own turn commented on as objects of inquiry and critique on a “meta” level and treated as options in an experimental writing. As an intellectual the Uncle is typical of hundreds of thousands others persecuted in the political campaigns whose suffering and re-instatement in the post-Cultural Revolution period is now a cliche. But at the very outset the novella unpacks the myth of the suffering intellectual into forking paths of narrative.<br /> <br /> 探索叔叔生活之谜的意图恰如其分地描述了王中篇小说的散文主义特质。作为一个由传闻、闲话、猜测、幻想和猜想这样不同的材料组合而成的文本,叙事中出现了大量预先设定的话语和叙事模式，以探索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些话语和叙述在“元”层面上作为探究和评判的对象被评论，并在实验性写作中被视为可选择的事物。作为一名知识分子，叔叔是在政治运动中遭受迫害的数十万人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和恢复现在已成陈词滥调。但从一开始，这部中篇小说就把受苦知识分子的故事解构成了分岔的叙事路径。<br /> --[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:28, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br /> <br /> 一种试图探索叔叔生活奥秘的意图恰当地描述了王的小说的本质特征。作为一篇由不同材料-道听途说，流言，猜测，幻想和猜想-拼凑而成的文本，叙事赋予了大量预先给定的话语和叙事模式，以摸索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些论述和叙述依次被评论为“元”层面上的探究和批判对象，并在实验写作中被视为选项。作为一个知识分子，叔叔是成千上万在政治运动中受到迫害的人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和重生现在已经是老生常谈了。但从一开始，中篇小说就将饱受苦难的知识分子的神话展开，开辟了叙事的道路。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Xie Fan 解帆==<br /> One can make up a narrative of the Uncle on his way to the place of exile, for instance, by recourse to a tragic-sublime scenario of political victims echoing Dostoevesky. Riding in a beat-up truck drudging through the vast, snowy Siberian landscape in the Northwest plateau, the victim/hero would ponder the significance of life and fate with an elderly wise man. One could also cast the Uncle in a lackluster, comic or even grotesque light, reduced to a mere creature of survival, trapped in a narrow village life. Like thousands of other writers, Uncle was persecuted and exiled because of his writing. But this fabled story of the tragic-heroic writer is again playfully retouched into three different versions by Uncles' own retelling after the fact. In the first telling, his persecution is a political story, indicting the tyranny of the political system. Then it is an existential story, intimating the mysterious and ironical workings of fate.Thirdly, it is a prophetic story, in the fashion of an Aesop fable, full of prescience and bodings of catastrophe. <br /> <br /> ==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br /> This intention groping its way into the Uncle's life draws upon various types of narrative patterns and aesthetic resources. This is by no means a literary embellishment for pure rhetorical variety or pleasure. The narration is saddled with the difficulties of understanding and getting the Uncle's life's straight. The difficulty is not the usual generational gap, but reflects different historical experiences and memory that separate the young from the old. This difference not only drives a wedge into the writers as a group, but also gives rise to the divergence of generic practice and the aesthetics informing it. This divergence is the key to understanding the essay and the essayistic.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br /> The older generation, having experienced political persecution and historical traumas at the first hand, is deeply grounded in a historical consciousness and a teleological narrative. The Uncle is intensely committed to writing literature as praxis for social change. His meteoric rise to the leading writer in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution indicates that the position of what Gramsci called the “organic” intellectual remains strong, even thriving. The popularity of his novels shows that a work of literature can make a tremendous hit and is an effective medium for criticizing the flaws of the system and raising the social, political consciousness of readers. It revives the legacy of the New Literature of May Fourth and is rightly re-baptized as the literature of the New Period (xin shiqi wenxue). It is the voice of the farsighted and the vanguard in China's modernization drive. Despite all his traumas and sufferings, the Uncle's generation, writers in their forties and over in the narrative time, remains firm in their belief in the organic totality of socio-historical process and the people's capacity in steering the course of history. Literature is simply one vehicle that carries this historical mission. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许晶==<br /> The historical consciousness embodied by the Uncle is to find its corresponding form in an epic mode of writing: the realistic novel. The Uncle's general outlook on the world is epic in the Lukácsian sense. The young narrator captures this ''Weltanschauung'' very accurately: <br /> <br /> The political life of the past few decades has filled up his personal experience and life. This enables Uncle to keep his worldview firmly anchored to reality and politics. The state and government encompass the whole world for him and form the vast backdrop for human activity. Patterns of people's behavior and conduct are but representatives of social life. The concept of culture sounds very abstract and empty to him. For him art should also perform real and political functions. (214-215)<br /> <br /> ==Xu Jing 许静==<br /> The young generation, in contrast, is not so firmly grounded. Growing up in a period when the dominant ideology is in decline, they are left floating in the winds of various imported ideologies and newfangled isms. Creatures of the newly emergent market and players of nihilistic intellectual fashions, they produce literature without any commitment to a socio-historical mission. Literature is but a playful, aesthetic game unburdened with any responsibility and weighty purposes. Art has become an artful, artsy activity, floating free of socio-historical grounding. Literary activity to them means, more specifically, attending pen conferences, pursuing hot fashions, innovating fresh forms and tastes, brandishing new theories, making up sensational and marketable stories. All this also leads to the enhancement of a writer's charisma and even sexual appeal. Indeed, to the young generation it is old fashioned to see literature as having historical or social significance; literature becomes more and more sexy and commercial.<br /> <br /> ==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br /> The story of the Uncle is an allegory of withdrawal from history and the dangers involved, exemplified in his crisis-ridden metamorphosis from a historically grounded writer to a playful artist, from novelist to essay writer. The Uncle's earlier success thrusts him to the status of literary celebrity and stardom: he becomes a prominent figure in the media. As the younger writers pursue fashions and cater to new consumers with playful, entertaining, artsy literary goods, the Uncle feels the need to catch up. His new position as a glamorous writer allows him to become a globetrotter. At the invitation of literary and academic circles and literary institutions around world eager to know a newly opened China, he journeys from country to country giving talks and socializing at literary cocktail parties. Increasingly, sightseeing and superficial impressions of exotic foreign countries become the only materials he can summon: he becomes a tourist and a writer of travelogue. <br /> <br /> ==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br /> Going along with the role of a player in an increasingly cosmopolitan, global, and consumer oriented literary market is a new philosophy of writing, which favors a showy, playful, essayistic quality at the expense of the epic, social and historical. The Uncle is reborn, the younger narrator rightly observes, into a new life, and into an enclosed new realm of pure artistic creativity. He addresses serious social problems playfully in the style of black humor and through anachronistic narrative techniques. He becomes more and more detached from the grave political issues of the day. His new outlook is derived from a purely aesthetic principle.<br /> <br /> 在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者正确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> 在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和随笔性。年轻的叙述者精确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭式的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，戏谑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与越来越疏远当今严肃的政治问题。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:21, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br /> Emptied of historical substance and filled up with fragmentary and rambling impressions in his global trips, both life and writing of the Uncle thin out into personal, irrelevant, discontinuous fragments. His writing begins to take on the essayistic quality, and borders on sheer images or simulacra, getting closer and closer to those of the younger generation. Real human relations are “only a literary conceit.” (227), he echoes the younger generation. Within the aesthetic shelter the “Uncle can no longer become excited or moved and is immune to suffering.” Tragic suffering is now only a literary category, and “the awareness of this is the hallmark of Uncle's becoming a pure writer” (225). Parallel with this essayistic quality is the Uncle's changed life style. His is more taken with things he would have considered vulgar, low, or quotidian;<br /> <br /> ==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br /> he becomes more listless and yuppish. He has developed a strong interest in women and sexual intrigues and conquests; he indulges in vulgarity and trivial pursuits, exulting in money and showy, exotic collectibles. In short, he metamorphoses from an image of the epic novelist and organic intellectual to a middle class, professional writer, whose favored form is the essay and whose lifestyle takes on the “essayistic” quality of a ramble for self-pleasure.<br /> <br /> The transformation in the Uncle reflects the retreat of literature from a historically grounded medium to a form light-hearted, playful entertainment and a theatrical performance. The problem with this change, as the novella's ending suggests, is that it is self-deceptive. Despite the Uncle's willful creation of an aesthetic cocoon, history manages to intrude in the end as return of the repressed, in the person of his murderous son. His son embodies all the painful memory and disgraceful experience of the Uncle's life, unfit for the epic treatment in his novels and repressed in his ethereal, airtight, essayistic experiments. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br /> The son's attempted murder of his father signifies the revenge of a history that the Uncle is trying to shut off from the serene, trouble-free aesthetic realm. Our concern, however, is not with the interpretation of the story per se, but with the way the Uncle's fate indicates the shift in literary form. If the Uncle's story apparently traces the trajectory of a novelist to a writer who not only writes travelogues and essays but also is imbued with essayistic sensibility, then the essay in contemporary China is a release from the epic form of writing and historical discourse. It is a release into the literary market and consumer taste, a response to the pervasive secularization of life and rising consumerism.<br /> <br /> 儿子企图谋杀他父亲的行为象征着一段历史的复仇，而这段历史是叔叔试图将其与宁静、无烦恼的美学领域隔离开来的。然而，我们关心的不是故事本身的解释，而是叔叔的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果“叔叔”的故事明显地将小说家的轨迹追溯到一个作家，他不仅写游记和散文，而且充满了散文情感，那么当代中国的散文就是从史诗形式的写作和历史话语中解放出来的。这是对文学市场和消费品味的释放，是对生活普遍世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 儿子企图谋杀他的父亲这一行为象征着一段极具历史意义的复仇，叔父试图从宁静、无忧无虑的美学领域中脱离出来。然而，我们的关注点不在于对故事本身的解读，而是叔父的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果说《叔叔的故事》追溯了一个小说家转变为作家的轨迹——在写游记和随笔的同时，倾注了散文式的细腻情感——那么当代中国的随笔就是史诗写作和历史话语的一种释放。这是对文学市场和消费者口味的一种释放，是对无处不在的生活世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br /> It comes as the image of a loosening up of the previous, ideologically controlled life, which is now becoming more private, more disjoint and fragmented, more removed from the totalistic social and political process. Yet history has not become the simulacrum to play with, as envisioned by the younger narrator or the Uncle himself as he catches up with the fashions. China’s social reality does not square so nicely with the essayistic playfulness one may wish. Thus the essay as a cultural form is caught in a tension between withdrawal from the burden of history and the possible return of the repressed. <br /> <br /> ==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br /> '''Mulish Essays: the Genre of ''Zawen'' in Contemporary China<br /> '''<br /> <br /> ''Mary Scoggin''<br /> <br /> '''Abstract'''<br /> <br /> Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? This paper illustrates the trope of tone through the particularly ,sonorous' work of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his ''zawen''. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for ''zawen'' in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, ''zawen'' depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages. Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, ''zawen'' is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices.<br /> <br /> ==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br /> Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, ''zawen'''s ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can find their seat and sit in it, or take offence. While readers love and hate their morally and politically provocative ''zawen-of-the-moment'', writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. <br /> <br /> ==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br /> Eventually they even preserve ''zawen'', long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the ,dagger and spear' is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of social dialogue.<br /> <br /> In contemporary textbooks and manuals of Chinese essay composition, the “miscellaneous essay,” [literally, “mixed essay,” referred to as ''zawen'' hereafter] is presented as a particularly “Chinese” essay genre within a global view of universal literary categorization.<br /> <br /> 杂文中的典故，笑话和挖苦的细节常令人茫然，在这些细节被人遗忘之后，“杂文这一体裁最终得以保存”， 读者经常将自身职业价值汇编成一些小册当做是自己的离散描述杂文，然后将分小册发给朋友和仰慕者。 因此，鲁迅的“匕首与长矛”流派不仅是狡猾的政治武器，而且是复杂的自我雕塑，为社交对话的残酷语调所勾勒。<br /> <br /> 在当代中国散文写作的教科书和手册中，“杂文”（直译为“杂文”，以下简称杂文）在全球普遍文学分类的全球视野中被视为一种特别的“中国”散文类型。 --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br /> Lu Xun, the genre's initial back-handed champion, quipped sardonically that although he searched the standard encyclopedia thoroughly, he was unable to locate the genre of “tsa-wen” in any authoritative foreign classification. Lu Xun's sarcasm includes both defiance and self-conscious uneasiness about a writing practice that Chinese circumstances, he felt, rendered peculiar and unseemly upon a world stage. Compare the comments of a recent critic of ''zawen'':<br /> <br /> In Chinese affairs, there is a strange phenomenon that has held true until the present time, and that is; the value of any certain thing has to be established by a foreigner or by some common foreign publication. <br /> <br /> ==Yi Huan 易欢==<br /> As for this thing called modern Chinese ''zawen'', because its Chinese characteristics are too strong, Westerners truly have a hard time understanding them, and thus have difficulty in researching this subject... the American writer Pearl Buck said something like: 'this thing called ''zawen'' is too peculiar, you really cannot understand it.' That is why only Chinese people themselves can evaluate this phenomenon called zawen. (Yan Xiu in Zhang Hua [all translations by Scoggin unless otherwise noted])<br /> In this passage, Yan Xiu, an eminent writer and critic, articulated Lu Xun's defiance of the foreign authority to categorize essay genre in a relatively explicit way, while also maintaining a typical ''zawen''-esque playfulness of style. He continues his commentary;<br /> <br /> ==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br /> But we do not need to worry about this long period of neglect in which foreigners do not recognize ''zawen.'' Even if a foreigner were to burst his/her mind researching Chinese zawen, I am afraid that they would not be able to research anything out of it even if they researched themselves flat broke and starving. But Chinese people all understand them easily. If they were not able to maintain the abiding appreciation and understanding of Chinese readers, this practice would have been lost. The historical reasons and significance for the creation and propagation of ''zawen'' in China are worth serious research and theorizing (ibid.).<br /> <br /> Bravely dismissing the risk of bankruptcy, I do propose to research and theorize the culture of this funny genre of essay in all of its supposed inscrutability. <br /> <br /> ==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br /> One ubiquitous characterization of zawen from textbooks and manuals is built upon the metaphor of the mule. This metaphor suggests a number of qualities, including hybrid vigor and strength, stubborn bad-temper, and resilience in the face of obstacles. Mules kick, spit and bray with distinctive exuberance. ''Zawen'' are often considered an awkward combination of “part-poetry, part politics” (Lin). Cross-bred traits extend the qualities of a mule; ''zawen'' are bred to toil at the most difficult of human labor, they are strong, hard-working and rather famously unloved creatures, best known for their expressive obstinance. <br /> <br /> So how does an essay kick, spit and bray? In Chinese theoretical discussion of ''zawen'' the metaphor moves from kinetics to sound; ''zawen'''s kick is located in its “tone,” a term taken from music, although the sound here is can be distinctly unlovely. <br /> <br /> ==Yu Ni 余妮==<br /> Elsewhere I have examined the function of “tone” through the lens of the published record of debate over tone between literary editors (see Scoggin 2001). I have posited the idea that approaches to writing ''zawen'' fall into two interdependent strategies, one overt and one covert, both blending the tactics of politics and poetics in perfect measure. Overt ''zawen'' are relatively bold and obvious in their churlish tone, reflecting confidence in a tolerant audience. Covert ''zawen'' are sometimes difficult to identify, disguised or hidden within other genre of writing, but still drawing upon the distinctive tones of ''zawen'' through intertextuality and other tricks. <br /> <br /> Below, I examine the mechanics of ''zawen'' tone through contrasting these two style of ''zawen'' issuing from a single pen, that of poet and noted ''zawen'' writer Shao Yanxiang. <br /> <br /> ==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br /> The two essays discussed below form opposites sides of a spectrum of variable transparency, and vastly differing publishing circumstances, although they were composed only months apart by the same individual, one before and one after a specific political event in China. I argue here that unifying the two ''zawen'' is a particular subset of modal tropes, qualified as the verbal equivalent to a mule's kick, bite or bray. The expression of this unclearly delineated but distinctive subset of modal tropes is the single central mission of ''zawen'' as a genre in Chinese literature and society. Chinese theoretical debates over “tone” specifically address the function of this kind of modal trope. While sometimes as bald and direct, as in the overt ''zawen'' “Pei pei pei! ”?discussed below, many zawen conceal their weapons, depending upon contextual circumstances of publishing to pack their punch, as does the essay “East Station,” also discussed below.<br /> <br /> 下面讨论的这两篇文章形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章是由同一个人撰写的，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸”?中，许多杂文隐藏他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如文章《东站》，也将在下面讨论。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:09, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 下面讨论的这两篇文章从相反的角度形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章由同一个人撰写，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸！”?中，许多杂文隐藏起他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如将在下面讨论的文章《东站》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 11:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br /> <br /> Both types of ''zawen'' should be read “ethnographically,” in concrete social and historical circumstances. After covering some of the primary textual elements of ''zawen'', I will demonstrate the significance of more subtle contextual gestures of ''zawen'', which must be read out of the process of submitting and publishing ''zawen''. Through the contrast of these two essays, I will explicate and generalize about the formation and mechanics and of tone in modern Chinese literary history, and offer a thesis upon the reception of Chinese literature in Western scholarship as well.<br /> <br /> 杂文的两种类型都应该置于具体的社会和历史环境下，以“民族志”的方式解读。在介绍杂文一些基本的文章要素后，我会揭示杂文更细微的语境姿态的意义，而这个只能从提交和出版杂文的过程中解读出来。通过对比这两篇文章，我会我将对中国现代文学史上基调的形成、机制和基调进行阐述和概括，并就西方学术界接纳中国文学这件事发表一篇论文。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br /> An Demonstrative Sample – “'Pei Pei Pei!'?”<br /> ''<br /> A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there should be no more “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place. (Shao 1993, 181)<br /> So begins an essay entitled “呸呸呸!”? composed in February of 1989. I will return to the circumstances of publication shortly, but first I will demonstrate the trope of tone through this representative sample ''zawen.<br /> ''<br /> ==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br /> A word like “Pei!” contains what we can call a modal trope, a figure of speech that captures mood and emotion, expressing not only subjunctive or declamatory mood, as adverbial modal tropes such as “could” and “should” may do in English, but also more subtly embedded mood in the semantics of lexical items (the meanings in words) expressing outrage, joy, command, sarcasm, threat, pathos, irony (Friedrich, 30-32). Usually modal tropes work together with other functions of language but in the case of “pei!” the modal trope is more nearly pure, it stands primarily for the emotional tone it communicates. A parallel sample in English might be something like “tut, tut, tut!” although “tut” fails to pack the censorious reproach of the Chinese “pei!” <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br /> In the case of this title, modal functions are reinforced by several formal tropes. Note the repetition (three pei's!) and the complex punctuation consisting of an exclamation point and a question mark, separated by quotation marks. In the case of “Pei pei pei!”?, the ''zawen'''s own voice is not the primary expression of the tone of disgust. The quotation marks invoke disgust only to distance it, while the question mark further challenges it. The title alone demonstrates modal function with very little distraction; one character, two repetitions and three punctuation marks move this title in several modally intense directions at once with almost no referential content at all. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br /> “Pei pei pei!”? performs a transparent metadiscursive comment upon ''zawen'', in this case defending the extracurricular genre favored by declasse intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang, himself, a “retired” poet who had resigned with bitterness from his career at the central Chinese poetry journal ''Shikan'', and devoted his post official career to writing zawen. Upon learning of this unnamed “provincial leader's” complaint about “pei pei pei”-ing, and sensing that he himself bore some responsibility for this reportedly lamentable state of affairs, Shao writes that he discovered that the provincial leader had indeed characterized a kind of caustic, sarcastic disparaging discourse about the party, the nationality and the people, as “pei pei pei-ing all over the place” and that he had further warned that this kind of talk was spreading a mood of despair and hopelessness. <br /> <br /> ==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br /> In the remainder of this essay Shao ridicules said provincial leader's complaint as circular, admitting no culpability on the part of his own fellow ''zawen''-writing social critics. <br /> <br /> The tone of “Pei pei pei!”? is that of pointed irony, expressed recursively upon three levels. The first level is located in the words themselves, including the use of “pei” I have described above. This “first order” irony, as I have described it (Scoggin 1997), is an elementary type of sarcasm, a part of the conventional rhetoric of any language, written or spoken, and not usually misunderstood by a competent interpreter. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br /> Other examples of this level of tone in “Pei pei pei!”? would include the attitude of “stupidity” Shao Yanxiang assumes when he claims that he looks for pei pei pei ing “all over the place” but cannot find any at all, and the repeated use of expressions he lifted from the pointedly unnamed “provincial leader's” talk, including the primary charge of “mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal” Shao is refuting, and also the leader's assertion of “discipline and rectification,” which Shao has skillfully turned into a counter charge. <br /> <br /> A second level of irony requires contextual knowledge on the part of the reader. This includes assumptions that would be obvious to most readers. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br /> For example, Shao Yanxiang claims that he has never heard of the idea that “literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” But just such a position has clearly been long-standing socialist policy for many kinds of public writing, including media news and literature. References to historical events in terms like the cultural revolution tones of “newspaper [published] by all the people” and Han Shaogong's controversial Post-Mao short story “Ba Ba Ba” fall somewhere in between the first and second levels of ironic tone. <br /> <br /> A third level, which I have labeled “indexical irony,” makes use of immediately contextual information such as the actual publishing outlet of the essay (in this case, the mainstream ''Literature Journal'' essay column “Literature and the People's Lives,” which Shao mentions at the end of the article) and Shao's own writing persona.<br /> <br /> 例如，邵彦祥声称他从未听说过“文学出版物应在稳定人民思想，增进信仰，不使人民意志消沉方面有所帮助”这一思想。 但是，这种立场显然已经成为包括媒体新闻和文学在内的许多公共写作的长期社会主义政策。 对历史事件的引用，例如“全民[报纸]的文化大革命”和韩少功备受争议的毛泽东短篇小说“八八八”，都介于第一和第二讽刺语调之间。<br /> <br /> 第三个层次，我称之为 &quot;索引性反讽&quot;，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏 &quot;文学与百姓生活&quot;）和邵自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:13, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 比如，邵燕祥声称，他从来没有听说过 &quot;文艺刊物要对稳定民心、增加信仰、不挫伤民心意志有帮助 &quot;的观点。 但就这样的立场，显然是包括媒体新闻和文学在内的多种公开写作的长期社会主义政策。 像 &quot;全民办报（出版）&quot;的文革调子和韩少功的争议性后毛短篇小说《巴巴》等词语对历史事件的提及，都属于第一和第二层次的反讽调子。 <br /> <br /> 第三层次，我称之为 &quot;索引性反讽&quot;，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵逸夫在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏《文学与人民生活》）和邵逸夫自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:17, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br /> ''Zawen'' often make extensive use of this third, intimately contextualized level. In this case Shao claims that he can find no “pei pei pei” articles, but many readers would recognize that he himself is well known for writing ''zawen'' that would certainly qualify.<br /> <br /> In “Pei pei pei!”? Shao Yanxiang has deliberately sought out an accusation that he then counters with withering acerbity. Complaint, combat and disgust are just the beginning of the range of contentious moods that ''zawen'' represent. ''Zawen'' accuse, retaliate, needle, and snarl; but as I will demonstrate shortly, they can also moan and sigh with considerable subtly. Either way they clothe all this, quite often, in word games of subterfuge and indirectness, which -- beyond the intellectual puzzle of circumlocution also common in other genres of verbal art -- carries the weight of ''zawen'''s mission in the singular feature of tone.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br /> As a ''zawen'' writer, the “provincial leader's” complaint is exactly the sort of accusation intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang are accustomed to facing. His defense links the ''zawen'' mission to many others we could find in diverse settings; he is also answering, for example, Spiro Agnew's famous condemnation of “nattering nabobs of negativism” in American public discourse, and displaying the cross-cultural breadth of a “Jeremiad,” evident in the travel-worthy allusion of the very term, rooted in biblical texts. In this and other ''zawen'', Shao defends the contemporary Chinese genre of zawen as a genre of protest and complaint. He borrows the insult of a critic to distinguish thoughtless emotional battering from the carefully aimed spar, which is both his own ideal and the standard mission of the genre of ''zawen.''<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br /> '''A Restrained Sample – “East Station”'''<br /> <br /> I have outlined how one essay demonstrates the function of ''zawen'' in a particularly transparent way, but some of the best and most effective zawen are covert operations. On the opposite side of spectrum of transparency, we can place a relatively understated and “essay-like” ''zawen'', also by Shao Yanxiang. “East Station” was submitted for a national ''zawen'' competition in a southern evening newspaper in 1994. It was judged too “sensitive” to publish by the zawen editor, but nevertheless it was privately noted by the editors as the unofficial winner of the competition. At first glance there is very little to mark it as a ''zawen'' at all, not to mention a seditious ''zawen''.<br /> <br /> 受约束的样本–“东站”'''<br /> <br /> 我已经概述了一篇文章如何以一种特别透明的方式展示“ 杂文”的功能，但是一些最好，最有效的杂文是秘密行动。 在透明度范围的另一面，我们可以放一个相对低调的，也像邵燕香一样的“散文式”“ 杂文”。 1994年，“东方站”在南方晚报上提交给全国“ 杂文”竞赛。它被杂文编辑认为过于“敏感”而无法出版，但编辑私下指出它是非官方的比赛获胜者。乍一看，几乎没有什么可以将其标记为“ 杂文”的，更不用说煽动性的“ 杂文”了。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:47, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br /> It is a rather lyrical survey of historical images centering upon refugees, migrants, political and literary figures on their passages to and from Beijing. It does, however, contain a few of the indications of first level irony that traditionally mark a ''zawen'', such as a “quotation” placed for its jarring effect, as in the opening passage below.<br /> <br /> Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer East Side of Front Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br /> <br /> 此文是以流民，移民，政治和文学人物往返北京为中心的历史形象的抒情研究。然而，它确实包含了一些传统上标记“杂文”的第一层讽刺的暗示，例如为了其刺耳效果而放置的“引语”，如下面的开头段落所示。<br /> 三十年前的北京，如果提到“东站”，大家都会知道是指位于正门外东侧的北京东站。如今，这座半西化建筑风格的不起眼的建筑，夹在喧嚣闹市的高楼大厦之间，支撑着一块“铁路工人俱乐部”的小牌子，已是“古文物”，昔日的繁华辉煌早已一去不复返了。<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br /> The somber opening paragraph is in part marked as a zawen by the appearance of snapshot “quote,” in which what might have been a significant icon of Beijing history is reduced to a cheesy “Railway workers club” sign hanging on a architecturally half-breed building not even worthy of preservation. Other ironic comments of this sort include Shao's sarcastic reference to Guo Moruo;<br /> <br /> And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time, he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br /> Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I do not know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br /> <br /> In a similar but more deeply contextualized vein would be Shao Yanxiang's allusion to Tu Fu's escape during the An Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang Dynasty contained in the quoted term “fortuitous rescue.” Shao's general structure in this piece is a recurring cyclical allegory that parallels the Japanese, the Nationalists and the Communists in bitter condemnation of the last, as only one more invasive army disturbing the lives of ordinary Chinese people. The People's Traffic Police also take their place in this cycle, a silly reminder that we are still in the realm of ''zawen''.<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br /> Obviously this kind of first and second-level rhetorical sarcasm and historical irony alone is not enough to define an essay as a ''zawen'', but the difficulty of assigning an essay its genre is also no obstacle; ambiguous “mixedness” is part of ''zawen'''s identity. This covert zawen depends most fundamentally upon indexical irony, to an extent that surpasses “Pei Pei Pei!”?, above. One crucial feature that makes “East Station” a ''zawen'' is the entirely untextual fact that Shao Yanxiang submitted it in a competition specifically designated for ''zawen'' in a provincial evening newspaper. The editors did not reject the piece as “non-''zawen'',” on the contrary, they complained that it contained too much of the requisite ''zawen'' pique. In order to understand this, we must again go beyond the actual words of the piece.<br /> <br /> 仅从一级和二级讽喻修辞及历史讽刺角度分析显然不足以将一篇文章定义为“杂文”，但将一篇文章分类的难题也不是什么障碍；含糊“混杂”是“杂文”的特点之一。杂文的隐蔽性更多地依赖于索引性讽刺，在某种程度上来说，它超越了“呸呸呸！”。把《东站》这篇文章归为“杂文”的一个关键因素是由于其完全无文本性这一事实，邵燕祥在地方晚报“杂文”特辑上发表这篇文章。编者也不否认这篇文章不是一篇“杂文”；相反地，他们抱怨这篇文章涵盖太多“杂文”必不可少的气息。为了解这一点，我们必须再次透过文字本身来看这篇文章。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:49, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br /> In a late night conversation in which the managing editor and two guests including myself drank beer and discussed the ''zawen'' competition to which “East Station” was submitted, the editor mused about the publication that wasn't. She said;<br /> <br /> Actually Shao Yanxiang submitted two manuscripts, but I had to return one. (Reaching around to a drawer) Well, I wanted to return it to him, but then I couldn't bear to. The original is still here, I wonder if you will understand? It requires some background...At the time it was the head editor that rejected the manuscript. He also felt badly, but there was no question but that it could not be printed, because it would certainly cause trouble...This happens with your friends, but I really felt uncomfortable about this one. <br /> <br /> ==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br /> Because this essay was just written so well. He just wrote about the East Station, but he used Beijing East Station to talk about his view on everything. (Scoggin Fieldnotes) <br /> <br /> She continued to discuss the essays that were just too “that way” (''neige le'') as they came in for the competition. “One day the police came and looked through that box all afternoon!” she added. The managing editor's two guests that evening jumped on her comment, “They what!?” But she retained the appearance of serenely refusing to interpret this police visit as a sinister gesture.<br /> It was just manuscripts, why should they look at those? They said they were just reading, there were two of them, I really don't know, I guess they enjoyed reading them too.(ibid)<br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br /> When she finally found the manuscript (tucked away where snooping police would not have found it) she decided to give it to me. She said she had called Shao Yanxiang to tell him that they could not print it, and even though he had said he understood, she still hated to bring the matter to his attention again by sending the essay back to him, and now it seemed too late. Since I was also acquainted with him, and clearly admired him, giving the manuscript to me as research material seemed to her to be a fitting conclusion to the whole matter. <br /> <br /> In the original manuscript of “East Station” is signed, as is the custom, with the date it was composed at the bottom, “September 13, 1989.” Although it was submitted to the newspaper in 1994, in a private note scrawled to the editors, Shao added; “Please don't cut or change this date. <br /> <br /> ==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br /> The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with 'more that thirty years ago' at the beginning of the essay.” The emphasis upon these dates forces a new consideration of the essay as a whole. Suddenly the parallel between Nationalist, Japanese and Communist cycles of refuge and expulsion he mentions are rendered a sinister reference to a modern “rebellion” in the spring and summer of 1989. The date heightens the threat of Shao's concluding two sentences; “Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.” The scrawled note links 30 years, 1989, “today,” and the defiant “inches of proof” that mark East Station as a zawen, even beyond the micro structure of submission channels. For all its elusively distant tone, East Station suddenly became a pointed, angry, and, even in 1994, unpublishable ''zawen''.<br /> <br /> 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的'三十多年前'相吻合&quot;。对这些日期的强调，迫使我们对文章的整体进行新的考虑。突然间，他提到的国民党、日本和共产党的避难和驱逐周期之间的平衡，被恶意渲染成1989年春夏的现代 &quot;叛乱 &quot;。这个日期强调了邵的最后两句话：“今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。&quot; 这张潦草的纸条将30年、1989年、&quot;今天 &quot;和不顾一切的 &quot;寸土寸金 &quot;联系在一起，这标志着东站作为一个杂文，甚至超越了提交渠道的微观结构。尽管东站的语气难以捉摸，但它突然变成了一个尖锐的、愤怒的、甚至在1994年还无法出版的杂文。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:15, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 新火车站于1959年开始运营，与本文开头的“三十多年前”相适应。” 对这些日期的强调迫使我们对论文作为一个整体进行新的考虑。 他提到，国民党，日本人和共产党人的避难和驱逐循环之间的相似之处突然变成了对1989年春夏的现代“叛乱”的阴险参考。这一日期加剧了邵的结论的威胁。 今天也将成为历史。 北京的每一寸土地都将提供其历史的证明。” 散乱的笔记将1989年的30年（今天）与挑衅的“几分证据”联系起来，这标志着东站成为杂文，甚至超出了提交渠道的微观结构。 尽管遥不可及，但东站突然变得尖锐，愤怒，甚至在1994年，也无法发表“杂文”。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br /> '''A Larger Trend: Revealing Ugly Truth through Troubled Tones'''<br /> <br /> It is almost a matter of definition, then, that discordant, troubling tones are the characteristic, even of the most beautiful ''zawen''. I have not illustrated “ugly” ''zawen'' here, but they do exist, and in profusion. Many ''zawen'' are suffused in a preachy, pedantic tone that is sometimes quite off-putting to Chinese and non-Chinese readers alike. And yet, like the larger category of essays in Chinese literature, ''zawen'' remain a popular staple in the literary supplements of Chinese newspapers, and many prominent writers turn later in their career to writing ''zawen''. In contemporary history the “mule” genre of ''zawen'' has also played a significant political role far beyond its humble posture (see Scoggin 1997).<br /> <br /> 一个更大的趋势。通过烦恼的语气来揭示丑陋的真相。<br /> 那么，这几乎是一个定义的问题，不和谐的、令人不安的音调是特征，即使是最美丽的杂文也是如此。我在这里没有说明 &quot;丑陋 &quot;的杂文，但它们确实存在，而且数量很多。很多文都充斥着一种说教的、迂腐的语气，有时让中国和非中国的读者都很不喜欢。然而，就像中国文学中更大的散文类别一样，杂文仍然是中国报刊文学副刊中的热门主打，许多著名作家在其职业生涯的后期都会转向写杂文。在当代历史上，&quot;骡子 &quot;文体也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了它的卑微姿态（见Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br /> What is it about this genre that draws prominent writers, and commands significant attention of the Chinese readership? The answer lies, I think, in assumptions about the mechanics of tone rooted in Chinese literary history. To examine this problem we need to leave particular zawen behind and examine a larger picture that views Chinese literature via the globalized perspective that contemporary Chinese critics take.<br /> <br /> ''Zawen'' as a category causes problems for Chinese as well as non Chinese classification, but there is a revealing divide between Western and Chinese treatment of zawen. With few exceptions, ''zawen'' has been neglected as a subject of the study of Chinese literature from outside of China until recently (the Achern conference on the Modern Chinese Literary Essay being a rare exception, with several papers devoted to zawen.) <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br /> While the problem of the status of zawen is not important in itself, I propose difficulties with this particular genre can reflect larger issues of significance to the study of Chinese literature and culture more generally. ''Zawen'' can highlight some special features of Chinese writing that are latent in other, more respectable forms of Chinese literature and culture. My research on ''zawen'' showed many instances of zawen being held up as a unique outgrowth of Chinese particularities, such as a fondness for brevity in verbal art, a tendency to take intellectuals more seriously than they are taken in contemporary societies elsewhere, as well as a few “perversions” that are supposedly unique to China, such as political tyranny that is strikingly detail-oriented, or collective aversion to verbal performance that is too straightforward (Scoggin 1997). <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br /> Some of these claims for Chinese exceptionalism may be overblown; but I think that the genre, driven by what I argue is its central mission of tone, makes observable certain strains and practices that have acted as stumbling blocks to international research on other aspects of Chinese culture. <br /> <br /> Chief among those obstacles to the study of Chinese literature is what I call the “bad literature” complaint.[ For recent affirmations of this complaint, see Huters 1990, McDougall 1997, Link, 2000. Earlier views in American sinology tie &quot;bad literature&quot; directly to the effects of political tyranny. ] Summarizing several quite different lines of argument, the suggestion is that with all the promise of Chinese literature holds as a naturally poetic language, with rich, revered and well-preserved traditions, with the particular visual and grammatical advantages of the Chinese character and linguistic structure, and further with dedicated literary “troops” to use the modern Chinese metaphor for institutions of organized and supported writers, modern Chinese literature has failed to produce truly great literature. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br /> Obviously this generalization is subject to objection at many, if not all of its points. I would argue, however, that the consistency with which similar arguments emerge, defensible or not, points to themes of some significance. Complaints frequently accrue over the following literary practices;<br /> <br /> 1)Indulging in churlish tones, including hectoring, scolding and otherwise “yelling” in print<br /> <br /> 2)Adhering to one or another “politically correct line” <br /> <br /> 3)Participating in personal squabbles and vendettas, sometimes involving extraliterary persecution of both writers and targets <br /> <br /> 4)Exhibiting an “obsession” with China, and an oversized sense of responsibility for its fate<br /> <br /> 显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都遭到反对。然而，我要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br /> 1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br /> 2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br /> 3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br /> 4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都会遭到反对。然而，我（在此）要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br /> 1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br /> 2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br /> 3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br /> 4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:03, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br /> Interestingly, these complaints of “bad literature” are usually not strongly refuted by Chinese literary critics. Fair, true or not, this sort of summary criticism of the Jeremiah complex in Chinese literature in general is relevant to my discussion because these very faults that warrant the most notice are deliberately magnified in the genre of ''zawen'', and may be, I believe, essentially outgrowths of an almost unconscious commitment to the type of tone that defines the ''zawen'' genre most purely. I argue that what has happened here is that readers and analysts have failed to recognize a literary strategy that reflects deeper ideas about how tone is supposed to operate in verbal practice.<br /> <br /> 有趣的是，中国文学评论家通常不会强烈反驳这些对“烂文学”的抱怨。不管是否公平与真实,在中国文学中，这种耶利米情结的总结批评大体上和我的研究是相关的,因为这些最值得注意的错误在&quot; 杂文&quot;中被故意放大了。我认为,这本质上也许是纯粹对定义“杂文”体裁语气类型的无意识承诺的发展。我认为，这里的问题在于，读者和分析人士未能认识到一种文学策略，这种策略反映了语气在口头练习中应该如何发挥作用的更深层次的观点。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:08, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br /> These “off” tones are not just flaws and mistakes resulting from tyranny or exaggeration, nor are they mere signs of amateur literary expression, the struggles of a culture trying to modernize. Instead they are held to be nearly involuntary markers, not of beauty, but what we will have to call for lack of a better word, “truth,” revealed by critical examination of shortcomings and problems that appear to stem from, again for lack of a better word, “culture.” Culture, in the high modern ideology adopted more or less wholesale in contemporary Chinese theoretical systems is opposed to the neutral modernity of newspaper editorials and literary short stories and the other canonical genres of modern writing practices. <br /> <br /> ==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br /> Culture is not general, it is particular and peculiar, and Chinese culture exerts a powerfully perverse influence upon most genres of literature practiced in China.<br /> <br /> Examining tone in the broader context of Chinese culture reveals some of particular ways that social exchange, reference and the other mundane duties that plain (neutral, modern) words are supposed to carry out, must be crosscut with characteristically Chinese tone in order to communicate with the authority of truth, in explicit defiance of social requirements for polite and face-saving locutions held to be necessary in a uniquely Chinese way. Thus, complaint about “bad literature,” from a Chinese perspective may not be a mere reflection of failure but, rather, an expression of protest, a modal trope, mule's kick that works with stubborn tenacity to reveal unpleasant truths.<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br /> ''Zawen'' provide frequent commentary on precisely this issue. Lan Ling, a major opponent of “New Tone” zawen theory provides a characteristically provocative commentary on writing “the ugly truth” through zawen. In an essay that asks why such a fuss is made when a “upright and esteemed elderly writer” pronounces that he intends now to speak/write “the truth,” (he refers to Ba Jin, see ''Suiganlu'') Lan Ling demonstrates the difficulty of establishing truth through his own experience:<br /> <br /> It was several decades ago that they “struggled” me saying I was “reactionary.” I responded, “I am fundamentally not reactionary (''fandong''), in fact, I am actionary (''zhengdong'').” They said, “There you go with sophistry, you are lying, who has ever heard of such a thing as 'actionary'?” … But if what I said was false, that of course meant that what they said was true, and thus my political label was accomplished: “reactionary.” After several decades this conclusion was overturned and rectified, so now what I had said became the truth. (Lan, 85). <br /> <br /> ==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br /> The irony and false fatalism of this ''zawen'' is characteristic of its style. In this essay he claims to give up distinguishing the truth of his own speech; “No matter how difficult it is, this miserable person [I] still want to speak, and as for whether it is true or not, let someone else go analyze it.” (Lan, 85) Lan Ling reveals that he has created, in the heat of struggle, a misnomer; there is no such word as “actionary.” But, in the end, in its awkward and involuntary way, his retort rings true, what way is there to be, if not reactionary? Displaying all four characteristics of the “bad literature” complaint I have listed above, this piece is still an admired ''zawen''. It is the moody, but honest, kick of the mule.<br /> <br /> 这种“杂文”中的反讽和错误的宿命论是其风格的特点。在这篇文章中他宣称放弃了甄别言论中的真伪；“不管有多困难，这个可怜的人[我]仍然想说，至于说的真假，就让别人去分析去吧。”（兰，85）兰陵表示，在激烈的斗争中，他出现过用词不当的情况；就比如没有像“actionary”这样的词。”但是最后他的反驳以笨拙和不自觉的方式听起来像是真的，即使不是反动派的话，还能是哪种呢？这篇文章展示了我以上所列举的“不良文学”的全部的四个特点，它仍然是一篇受人敬佩的“杂文”。它令人悲伤，但是真诚又执拗。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> 这类杂文的风格特点是讽刺和虚假的宿命论。在这篇文章中，他声称要放弃辨别自身言论的真假，&quot;无论多么困难，这个可怜的人（我）还是要说，至于说的是不是真的，就让别人去分析吧&quot;。(兰，85)兰陵透露，他在斗争的热潮中，创造了一个误区，没有 ’行动力‘这个词。”但是，最后，他以笨拙和不由自主的方式作出的反驳，听起来又像真的，如果不是反动性，还能有什么方式呢？这篇文章表现出我上面所批判列举的 &quot;劣质文学 &quot;的四个特征，但它仍然是一篇令人钦佩的杂文。它是有情调的，却诚实有执拗。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:09, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br /> <br /> ==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br /> ''Tone in Historical Context''<br /> <br /> As evidence that it is the modal trope that inspired the genre of zawen from its inception, I conclude this essay with a brief look at historical manifestations of tone. It is key, and often part of the Chinese subtext, that the notion of tone (discussed alternately ''diao, yin, yun'') ultimately originates beyond words, in music. Even as a metaphor that must obliterate the acoustic qualities of sound when applied to written Chinese, tone maintains ties to the power of something that is in, or is like, sound, emphasizing physical, oral, informal and emotional qualities that are not part the rational process of exposition, this is the “poetry” of ''zawen''. Tone plays a role in a tremendous range of social events that surround and comprise writing. It occurs in the figure of music as a central metaphor in the most influential theories of literature and poetry. <br /> <br /> ==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br /> For example, spoiled music can signal a larger or more abstract disturbance; in the classic novel Dream of the Red Chamber a heroine breaks a string on a instrument and sees her impending death; in a well known folk story a high ranking official Yu Boya hits a sour note and knows that a potential assassin is lurking in the woods, listening. Music figures centrally in the Confucian Great Preface to the Book of Odes:<br /> <br /> The affections emerge in sounds; when those sounds have patterning they are called “tones” [音] The tones of a well-managed aged are at rest and happy; its government is balanced. The tones of an age of turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty (Translated in Owen).</div>

Ji Tiantian